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href="#Benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Benefits </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Benefits subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Biodiversity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil_and_plant_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil_and_plant_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Soil and plant growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil_and_plant_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Sustainability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_environmental_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_environmental_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Other environmental goals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_environmental_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptation_to_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptation_to_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Adaptation to climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptation_to_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tropical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Tropical </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tropical-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Tropical subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Tropical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hillside_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hillside_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Hillside systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hillside_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kuojtakiloyan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kuojtakiloyan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Kuojtakiloyan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kuojtakiloyan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shade_crops" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shade_crops"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Shade crops </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shade_crops-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crop-over-tree_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crop-over-tree_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Crop-over-tree systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crop-over-tree_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intercropping_and_alley_cropping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intercropping_and_alley_cropping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Intercropping and alley cropping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intercropping_and_alley_cropping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntropic_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntropic_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Syntropic systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntropic_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Burma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Burma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 In Burma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Burma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 In India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 In Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Hawai'i" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Hawai'i"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 In Hawai'i </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Hawai'i-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Temperate </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Temperate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Temperate subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Temperate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alley_cropping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alley_cropping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Alley cropping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alley_cropping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inga_alley_cropping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inga_alley_cropping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Inga alley cropping </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inga_alley_cropping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inga_tree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inga_tree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.1 Inga tree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inga_tree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.2 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1.3 Method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Forest farming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Riparian_forest_buffers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Riparian_forest_buffers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Riparian forest buffers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Riparian_forest_buffers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silvopasture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silvopasture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Silvopasture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silvopasture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Windbreaks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Windbreaks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Windbreaks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Windbreaks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 In Switzerland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_gardening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_gardening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Forest gardening </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forest_gardening-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Forest gardening subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Forest_gardening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_temperate_climates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_temperate_climates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 In temperate climates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_temperate_climates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seven-layer_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seven-layer_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Seven-layer system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seven-layer_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Further development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permaculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permaculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Permaculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permaculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographical_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographical_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Geographical distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographical_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Plants </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Plants subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Projects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Projects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_farming_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_farming_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Forest farming </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forest_farming_2-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Forest farming subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Forest_farming_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Principles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Level_of_management_that_is_required" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Level_of_management_that_is_required"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Level of management that is required </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Level_of_management_that_is_required-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Production considerations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_crops" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_crops"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Examples of crops </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_crops-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Farmer-managed natural regeneration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Farmer-managed natural regeneration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Key principles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 In practice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benefits_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Benefits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benefits_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_success_factors_and_constraints" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_success_factors_and_constraints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Key success factors and constraints </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_success_factors_and_constraints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_and_future_directions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_and_future_directions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Current and future directions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_and_future_directions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Agroforestry</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حراجة زراعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حراجة زراعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqrome%C5%9F%C9%99meliorasiya" title="Aqromeşəmeliorasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aqromeşəmeliorasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="কৃষিবনবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কৃষিবনবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforesteria" title="Agroforesteria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Agroforesteria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrolesnictv%C3%AD" title="Agrolesnictví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Agrolesnictví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skovlandbrug" title="Skovlandbrug – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skovlandbrug" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforstwirtschaft" title="Agroforstwirtschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Agroforstwirtschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforester%C3%ADa" title="Agroforestería – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Agroforestería" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforstumado" title="Agroforstumado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Agroforstumado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="دارکشت‌ورزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دارکشت‌ورزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforesterie" title="Agroforesterie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" 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ахуй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Agroforestry" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AD%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%AC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC" title="アグロフォレストリー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アグロフォレストリー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skogslandbruk" title="Skogslandbruk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_gardening&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Land use management system</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agroforesterie_(ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner)(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg/220px-Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg/330px-Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg/440px-Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Alley cropping of <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweet_chestnut" title="Sweet chestnut">sweet chestnut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dordogne" title="Dordogne">Dordogne</a>, France </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faidherbia_albida.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Faidherbia_albida.JPG/220px-Faidherbia_albida.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Faidherbia_albida.JPG/330px-Faidherbia_albida.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Faidherbia_albida.JPG/440px-Faidherbia_albida.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1136" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>Maize grown under <a href="/wiki/Faidherbia_albida" class="mw-redirect" title="Faidherbia albida">Faidherbia albida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borassus_akeassii" title="Borassus akeassii">Borassus akeassii</a> near <a href="/wiki/Banfora" title="Banfora">Banfora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> </figcaption></figure> Agroforestry (also known as agro-sylviculture or forest farming) is a <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> management system that integrates <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> with <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a>. It combines <a href="/wiki/Agricultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> technologies. As a <a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">polyculture</a> system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> products, <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nuts</a>, other <a href="/wiki/Edible_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Edible plant">edible plant</a> products, <a href="/wiki/Edible_mushroom" title="Edible mushroom">edible mushrooms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal plant">medicinal plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ornamental_plant" title="Ornamental plant">ornamental plants</a>, animals and <a href="/wiki/Animal_product" title="Animal product">animal products</a>, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Agroforestry can be practiced for economic, environmental, and social benefits, and can be part of <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-aftaweb-2">[2]</a> Apart from production, benefits from agroforestry include improved farm productivity,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> healthier environments, reduction of risk for farmers,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> beauty and aesthetics, increased farm profits, reduced soil erosion, creating wildlife habitat, less pollution, managing animal waste, increased biodiversity, improved soil structure, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>. Agroforestry practices are especially prevalent in the tropics, especially in subsistence <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholdings</a> areas, with particular importance in sub-Saharan Africa. Due to its multiple benefits, for instance in <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycle</a> benefits and potential for mitigating droughts, it has been adopted in the USA and Europe. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg/220px-Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg/330px-Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg/440px-Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Contour planting integrated with animal grazing on Taylor's Run farm, Australia</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> At its most basic, agroforestry is any of various <a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">polyculture</a> systems that intentionally integrate <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> with <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> on the same land.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-aftaweb-2">[2]</a> An agroforestry system is intensively managed to optimize helpful interactions between the plants and animals included, and “uses the forest as a model for design."<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Agroforestry shares principles with polyculture practices such as <a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">intercropping</a>, but can also involve much more complex multi-strata agroforests containing hundreds of species. Agroforestry can also utilise <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation#Biological" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen-fixing plants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">legumes</a> to restore soil nitrogen fertility. The nitrogen-fixing plants can be planted either sequentially or simultaneously.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_scientific_study">History and scientific study</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History and scientific study">edit</a>]</div> The term “agroforestry” was coined in 1973 by Canadian forester John Bene, but the concept includes agricultural practices that have existed for millennia.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Scientific agroforestry began in the 20th century with <a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">ethnobotanical</a> studies carried out by <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a>. However, indigenous communities that have lived in close relationships with <a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">forest ecosystems</a> have practiced agroforestry informally for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-bhasakar-8">[8]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">Indigenous peoples of California</a> periodically burned oak and other habitats to maintain a ‘pyrodiversity collecting model,’ which allowed for improved tree health and habitat conditions.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Likewise Native Americans in the eastern United States extensively altered their environment and managed land as a “mosaic” of woodland areas, <a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">orchards</a>, and forest gardens.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Agroforestry in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> is ancient and widespread throughout various tropical areas of the world, notably in the form of "tropical home gardens." Some “tropical home garden” plots have been continuously cultivated for centuries. A “home garden” in Central America could contain 25 different species of trees and food crops on just one-tenth of an acre.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> "Tropical home gardens" are traditional systems developed over time by growers without formalized research or institutional support, and are characterized by a high complexity and diversity of useful plants, with a canopy of tree and palm species that produce food, fuel, and shade, a mid-story of shrubs for fruit or spices, and an understory of root vegetables, medicinal herbs, beans, ornamental plants, and other non-woody crops.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In 1929, J. Russel Smith published Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture, in which he argued that American agriculture should be changed two ways: by using non-arable land for tree agriculture, and by using tree-produced crops to replace the grain inputs in the diets of livestock. Smith wrote that the <a href="/wiki/Gleditsia_triacanthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Gleditsia triacanthos">honey locust</a> tree, a legume that produced pods that could be used as nutritious livestock feed, had great potential as a crop. The book's subtitle later led to the coining of the term <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The most studied agroforestry practices involve a simple interaction between two components, such as simple configurations of hedges or trees integrated with a single crop.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> There is significant variation in agroforestry systems and the benefits they have.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Agroforestry as understood by modern science is derived from traditional indigenous and local practices, developed by living in close association with ecosystems for many generations.<a href="#cite_note-bhasakar-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benefits">Benefits</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Benefits">edit</a>]</div> Benefits include increasing farm productivity and profitability, reduced soil erosion, creating wildlife habitat, managing animal waste,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> increased biodiversity, improved soil structure, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USDA-17">[17]</a> Agroforestry systems can provide advantages over conventional agricultural and forest production methods. They can offer increased productivity; social, economic and environmental benefits, as well as greater diversity in the ecological goods and services provided.<a href="#cite_note-Benefits_of_agroforestry-18">[18]</a> These benefits are conditional on good farm management. This includes choosing the right trees, as well as pruning them regularly etc. <a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Biodiversity">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> in agroforestry systems is typically higher than in conventional agricultural systems. Two or more interacting plant species in a given area create a more complex habitat supporting a wider variety of <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a>. Agroforestry is important for biodiversity for different reasons. It provides a more diverse habitat than a conventional agricultural system in which the tree component creates ecological niches for a wide range of organisms both above and below ground. The life cycles and food chains associated with this diversification initiate an agroecological succession that creates functional <a href="/wiki/Agroecosystem" title="Agroecosystem">agroecosystems</a> that confer sustainability. Tropical bat and bird diversity, for instance, can be comparable to the diversity in natural forests.<a href="#cite_note-Harvey_et._al,_2007-20">[20]</a> Although agroforestry systems do not provide as many floristic species as forests and do not show the same canopy height, they do provide food and nesting possibilities. A further contribution to biodiversity is that the <a href="/wiki/Germplasm" title="Germplasm">germplasm</a> of sensitive species can be preserved.<a href="#cite_note-Jose,_2009-21">[21]</a> As agroforests have no natural clear areas, habitats are more uniform. Furthermore, agroforests can serve as corridors between habitats. Agroforestry can help conserve biodiversity, positively influencing other ecosystem services.<a href="#cite_note-Jose,_2009-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil_and_plant_growth">Soil and plant growth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Soil and plant growth">edit</a>]</div> Depleted soil can be protected from <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> by <a href="/wiki/Groundcover" title="Groundcover">groundcover</a> plants such as naturally growing grasses in agroforestry systems. These help to stabilise the soil as they increase cover compared to short-cycle cropping systems.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beliveau_et_al.,_2017-23">[23]</a> Soil cover is a crucial factor in preventing erosion.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Young,_1989-25">[25]</a> Cleaner water through reduced <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a> can be a further advantage of agroforestry. Trees can help reduce water runoff by decreasing water flow and evaporation and thereby allowing for increased soil infiltration.<a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a> Compared to row-cropped fields nutrient uptake can be higher and reduce nutrient loss into streams.<a href="#cite_note-Udawatta_et._al.,_2002-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Further advantages concerning plant growth: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought_tolerance" title="Drought tolerance">Drought tolerance</a></li> <li>Increased crop stability</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sustainability">Sustainability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sustainability">edit</a>]</div> Agroforestry systems can provide ecosystem services which can contribute to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable agriculture</a> in the following ways: <ul><li>Diversification of agricultural products, such as fuelwood, medicinal plants, and multiple crops, increases income security<a href="#cite_note-:2-29">[29]</a></li> <li>Increased <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a> by restored <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a>, crop diversity and resilience to weather shocks for food crops<a href="#cite_note-:2-29">[29]</a></li> <li>Land restoration through reducing soil erosion and regulating water availability <a href="#cite_note-:0-26">[26]</a></li> <li>Multifunctional site use, e.g., crop production and animal grazing</li> <li>Reduced <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and pressure on <a href="/wiki/Woodland" title="Woodland">woodlands</a> by providing farm-grown <a href="/wiki/Fuelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuelwood">fuelwood</a></li> <li>Possibility of reduced chemicals inputs, e.g. due to improved use of <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>, increased resilience against <a href="/wiki/Pest_(organism)" title="Pest (organism)">pests</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[19]</a> and increased ground cover which reduces weeds <a href="#cite_note-Nchanji_Nkonghu_2016-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Growing space for <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal plant">medicinal plants</a> e.g., in situations where people have limited access to mainstream medicines</li></ul> According to the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO)'s The State of the World’s Forests 2020, adopting agroforestry and sustainable production practices, restoring the productivity of degraded agricultural lands, embracing healthier diets and reducing food loss and waste are all actions that urgently need to be scaled up. Agribusinesses must meet their commitments to deforestation-free commodity chains and companies that have not made zero-deforestation commitments should do so.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_environmental_goals">Other environmental goals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other environmental goals">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a> is an important ecosystem service.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jose,_2009-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Agroforestry practices can increase carbon stocks in soil and woody biomass.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Trees in agroforestry systems, like in new forests, can recapture some of the carbon that was lost by cutting existing forests. They also provide additional food and products. The rotation age and the use of the resulting products are important factors controlling the amount of carbon sequestered. Agroforests can reduce pressure on primary forests by providing forest products.<a href="#cite_note-Montagnini_et._al.,_2004-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptation_to_climate_change">Adaptation to climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Adaptation to climate change">edit</a>]</div> Agroforestry can significantly contribute to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> along with adaptation benefits.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> A case study in Kenya found that the adoption of agroforestry drove carbon storage and increased livelihoods simultaneously among small-scale farmers. In this case, maintaining the diversity of tree species, especially land use and farm size are important factors.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Poor smallholder farmers have turned to agroforestry as a means to adapt to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. A study from the <a href="/wiki/CGIAR" title="CGIAR">CGIAR</a> research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security found from a survey of over 700 households in East Africa that at least 50% of those households had begun planting trees in a change from earlier practices. The trees were planted with fruit, tea, coffee, oil, fodder and medicinal products in addition to their usual harvest. Agroforestry was one of the most widespread adaptation strategies, along with the use of improved crop varieties and intercropping.<a href="#cite_note-Kristjanson_et_al-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tropical">Tropical</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tropical">edit</a>]</div> Trees in agroforestry systems can produce <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, fruits, nuts, and other useful products. Agroforestry practices are most prevalent in the tropics,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> especially in subsistence <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholdings</a> areas<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> such as sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[19]</a> Research with the leguminous tree <a href="/wiki/Faidherbia_albida" class="mw-redirect" title="Faidherbia albida">Faidherbia albida</a> in Zambia showed maximum maize yields of 4.0 tonnes per hectare using fertilizer and inter-cropped with the trees at densities of 25 to 100 trees per hectare,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> compared to average maize yields in Zimbabwe of 1.1 tonnes per hectare.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hillside_systems">Hillside systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hillside systems">edit</a>]</div> A well-studied example of an agroforestry hillside system is the Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System in <a href="/wiki/Lempira_Department" title="Lempira Department">Lempira Department</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>. This region was historically used for <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence agriculture</a>. Due to heavy seasonal floods, the exposed soil was washed away, leaving infertile barren soil exposed to the dry season.<a href="#cite_note-ayarza1-44">[44]</a> Farmed hillside sites had to be abandoned after a few years and new forest was burned. The UN's FAO helped introduce a system incorporating local knowledge consisting of the following steps:<a href="#cite_note-FAO_2001-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pauli_Barrios_2011-46">[46]</a> <ol><li>Thin and <a href="/wiki/Pruning" title="Pruning">prune</a> Hillside <a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary forest</a>, leaving individual beneficial trees, especially <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen-fixing</a> trees. They help reduce <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>, maintain <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> moisture, provide shade and provide an input of nitrogen-rich <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> in the form of litter.</li> <li>Plant maize in rows. This is a traditional local crop.</li> <li>Harvest from the dried plant and plant <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>. The maize stalks provide an ideal structure for the climbing <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">bean</a> plants. <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">Bean</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen-fixing</a> plant and therefore helps introduce more <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin" title="Pumpkin">Pumpkins</a> can be planted during this time. The plant's large leaves and horizontal growth provide additional shade and moisture retention. It does not compete with the <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a> for sunlight since the latter grow vertically on the stalks.</li> <li>Every few seasons, <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">rotate the crop</a> by grazing cattle, allowing grass to grow and adding <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a> and nutrients (manure). The cattle prevent total <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> by grazing around the trees.</li> <li>Repeat.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kuojtakiloyan">Kuojtakiloyan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Kuojtakiloyan">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Kuojtakiloyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuojtakiloyan">kuojtakiloyan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> is a jungle-landscaped polyculture that grows <a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocadoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet potatoes">sweet potatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prunus_salicifolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prunus salicifolia">black cherries</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Inga_spuria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inga spuria (page does not exist)">cuajiniquil</a> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inga_spuria" class="extiw" title="es:Inga spuria">es </a>], <a href="/wiki/Citrus_fruits" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrus fruits">citrus fruits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gourd" title="Gourd">gourds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macadamia" title="Macadamia">macadamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mango" title="Mango">mangoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sapote" title="Sapote">sapotes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Moreno-Calles_2013-47">[47]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra_-_49465736457.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra_-_49465736457.jpg/300px-Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra_-_49465736457.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra_-_49465736457.jpg/450px-Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra_-_49465736457.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra_-_49465736457.jpg/600px-Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra_-_49465736457.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2066" data-file-height="1375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shade-grown_coffee" title="Shade-grown coffee">Shade-grown coffee</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Coffea arabica</a>) in Sierra Norte of Puebla</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra.jpg/300px-Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra.jpg/450px-Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra.jpg/600px-Caf%C3%A9_bajo_sombra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2296" data-file-height="1528" /></a><figcaption>Kuojtakiloyan</figcaption></figure> Kuojtakiloyan is a <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Puebla_Nahuatl" title="Sierra Puebla Nahuatl">Masehual</a> term that means 'useful forest' or 'forest that produces', and it is an agroforestry system developed and maintained by indigenous peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Norte_de_Puebla" title="Sierra Norte de Puebla">Sierra Norte</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Puebla" title="Puebla">State of Puebla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. It has become a vital fountain of resources (food, medicinal herbs, fuels, <a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">floriculture</a>, etc.) for the local population, but it is also a respectful transformation of the environment, with its <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">nature conservation</a>. The kuojtakiloyan comes directly from the ancestral <a href="/wiki/Nahuas" title="Nahuas">Nahua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonaku</a> knowledge of their natural environment.<a href="#cite_note-:0a-48">[48]</a> Despite its unawareness among the mainstream Mexican population, many agronomic experts in the world point it out as a successful case of sustainable agroforestry practiced communally.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The kuojtakiloyan is a jungle-landscaped <a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">polyculture</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocados</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet potatoes">sweet potatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prunus_salicifolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prunus salicifolia">black cherries</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Inga_spuria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inga spuria (page does not exist)">chalahuits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citrus_fruits" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrus fruits">citrus fruits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gourd" title="Gourd">gourds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macadamia" title="Macadamia">macadamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mango" title="Mango">mangoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sapote" title="Sapote">sapotes</a> are grown.<a href="#cite_note-:0a-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In addition, a wide variety of harvested wild edible mushrooms and herbs (<a href="/wiki/Quelite_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Quelite (disambiguation)">quelites</a>). The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heliocarpus_appendiculatus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heliocarpus appendiculatus (page does not exist)">jonote</a> is planted because its fiber is useful in basketry, and also <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>, which is fast growing, to build cabins and other structures. Concurrently to kuojtakiloyan, <a href="/wiki/Shade-grown_coffee" title="Shade-grown coffee">shade coffee</a> is grown (café bajo sombra in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>; kafentaj in Masehual). Shade is essential to obtain high quality coffee.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The local population has favored the proliferation of the <a href="/wiki/Stingless_bee" title="Stingless bee">stingless bee</a> (pisilnekemej) by including the plants that it pollinates. From bees, they get honey, pollen, wax and propolis.<a href="#cite_note-:0a-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shade_crops">Shade crops</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Shade crops">edit</a>]</div> With shade applications, crops are purposely raised under tree canopies within the shady environment. The understory crops are shade tolerant or the overstory trees have fairly open canopies. A conspicuous example is <a href="/wiki/Shade-grown_coffee" title="Shade-grown coffee">shade-grown coffee</a>. This practice reduces weeding costs and improves coffee quality and taste.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crop-over-tree_systems">Crop-over-tree systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Crop-over-tree systems">edit</a>]</div> Crop-over-tree systems employ woody perennials in the role of a <a href="/wiki/Cover_crop" title="Cover crop">cover crop</a>. For this, small shrubs or trees pruned to near ground level are utilized. The purpose is to increase in-soil nutrients and/or to reduce soil erosion.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intercropping_and_alley_cropping">Intercropping and alley cropping</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Intercropping and alley cropping">edit</a>]</div> With alley cropping, crop strips alternate with rows of closely spaced tree or hedge species. Normally, the trees are pruned before planting the crop. The cut leafy material - for example, from <a href="/wiki/Alchornea_cordifolia" title="Alchornea cordifolia">Alchornea cordifolia</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acioa_barteri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acioa barteri (page does not exist)">Acioa barteri</a> - is spread over the crop area to provide nutrients. In addition to nutrients, the hedges serve as windbreaks and reduce erosion.<a href="#cite_note-Tripathi-Psychas-1992-53">[53]</a> In tropical areas of North and South America, various species of <a href="/wiki/Inga" title="Inga">Inga</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Inga_edulis" title="Inga edulis">I. edulis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inga_oerstediana" title="Inga oerstediana">I. oerstediana</a> have been used for alley cropping.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">Intercropping</a> is advantageous in Africa, particularly in relation to improving maize yields in the <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan</a> region. Use relies upon the nitrogen-fixing tree species <a href="/wiki/Sesbania_sesban" title="Sesbania sesban">Sesbania sesban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tephrosia_vogelii" title="Tephrosia vogelii">Tephrosia vogelii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gliricidia_sepium" title="Gliricidia sepium">Gliricidia sepium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faidherbia_albida" class="mw-redirect" title="Faidherbia albida">Faidherbia albida</a>. In one example, a ten-year experiment in <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> showed that, by using the <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer_tree" title="Fertilizer tree">fertilizer tree</a> <a href="/wiki/Gliricidia" title="Gliricidia">Gliricidia</a> (G. sepium) on land on which no mineral fertilizer was applied, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize/corn</a> yields averaged 3.3 metric tons per hectare (1.5 short ton/acre) as compared to 1 metric ton per hectare (0.45 short ton/acre) in plots without fertilizer trees or mineral fertilizers.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Weed_control" title="Weed control">Weed control</a> is inherent to alley cropping, by providing mulch and shade.<a href="#cite_note-Tripathi-Psychas-1992-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntropic_systems">Syntropic systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Syntropic systems">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Un_luxuriant_jardin_syntropique_en_Dordogne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Un_luxuriant_jardin_syntropique_en_Dordogne.jpg/220px-Un_luxuriant_jardin_syntropique_en_Dordogne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Un_luxuriant_jardin_syntropique_en_Dordogne.jpg/330px-Un_luxuriant_jardin_syntropique_en_Dordogne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Un_luxuriant_jardin_syntropique_en_Dordogne.jpg/440px-Un_luxuriant_jardin_syntropique_en_Dordogne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2856" /></a><figcaption>A temperate Syntropic system in <a href="/wiki/Dordogne" title="Dordogne">Dordogne</a> France, including heavily mulched <a href="/wiki/Common_sunflower" title="Common sunflower">Sunflower</a> plants.</figcaption></figure> Syntropic farming, syntropic agriculture or syntropic agroforestry is an <a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">organic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a> agroforestry system developed by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_G%C3%B6tsch" title="Ernst Götsch">Ernst Götsch</a> in Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Sometimes this system is referred to as a successional agroforestry systems or SAFS, which sometimes refer to a broader concept originating in Latin America.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The system focuses on replicating natural systems of accumulation of nutrients in ecosystems, replicating <a href="/wiki/Secondary_succession" title="Secondary succession">secondary succession</a>, in order to create productive forest ecosystems that produce <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">forest products</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The system relies heavily on several processes: <ul><li>Dense planting mixing perennial and annual crops</li> <li>Rapid cutting and composting of fast growing pioneer species, to accumulate nutrients and biomass<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></li> <li>Creating greater water retention on the land through improving penetration of water into soil and plant water cycling</li></ul> The systems were first developed in tropical Brazil, but many similar systems have been tested in temperate environments as soil and ecosystem restoration tactics.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The framework for the syntropic agroforestry is advocated for by Agenda Gotsch an organization built to promote the systems.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Syntropic systems have a number of documented benefits, including increased soil water penetration,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> increases to productivity on marginal land that has since become <a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> and soil temperature moderation.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Burma">In Burma</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In Burma">edit</a>]</div> Taungya is a system from <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>. In the initial stages of an orchard or tree <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantation</a>, trees are small and widely spaced. The free space between the newly planted trees accommodates a seasonal crop.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Instead of costly weeding, the underutilized area provides an additional output and income. More complex taungyas use between-tree space for multiple crops. The crops become more shade tolerant as the tree canopies grow and the amount of sunlight reaching the ground declines. Thinning can maintain sunlight levels. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_India">In India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In India">edit</a>]</div> Itteri agroforestry systems have been used in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> since time immemorial. They involve the deliberate management of multipurpose trees and shrubs grown in intimate association with herbaceous species. They are often found along village and farm roads, small gullies, and field boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">Bamboo</a>-based agroforestry systems (Dendrocalamus strictus + sesame–chickpea) have been studied for enhancing productivity in semi-arid tropics of <a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">central India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Africa">In Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In Africa">edit</a>]</div> A project to mitigate climate change with agriculture was launched in 2019 by the "Global EverGreening Alliance". The target is to sequester carbon from the atmosphere. By 2050 the restored land should sequestrate 20 billion tons of carbon annually<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamba_(agroforestry_system)" title="Shamba (agroforestry system)">Shamba</a> (<a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> for 'plantation') is an agroforestry system practiced in East Africa, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>. Under this system, various crops are combined: bananas, beans, yams and corn, to which are added <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> resources, <a href="/wiki/Beekeeping" title="Beekeeping">beekeeping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_herbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal herbs">medicinal herbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mushrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushrooms">mushrooms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">forest fruits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">fodder</a> for livestock, etc.<a href="#cite_note-:02-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Hawai'i">In Hawai'i</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In Hawai'i">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a> formerly practiced agroforestry adapted to the islands' tropical landscape. Their ability to do this influenced the region's carrying capacity, social conflict, cooperation, and political complexity.<a href="#cite_note-Lincoln_Lee_Quintus_2023-71">[71]</a> More recently, after scientific study of lo’I systems, attempts have been made to reintroduce dryland agroforestry in Hawai’i Island and Maui, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration between political leaders, landowners, and scientists.<a href="#cite_note-Lincoln_Rossen_Vitousek_2018-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Temperate">Temperate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Temperate">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alley_cropping_corn_walnuts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Alley_cropping_corn_walnuts.jpg/220px-Alley_cropping_corn_walnuts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Alley_cropping_corn_walnuts.jpg/330px-Alley_cropping_corn_walnuts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Alley_cropping_corn_walnuts.jpg/440px-Alley_cropping_corn_walnuts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="268" /></a><figcaption>Alley cropping corn fields between rows of walnut trees</figcaption></figure> Although originally a concept in tropical agronomy,<a href="#cite_note-USDA-17">[17]</a> agroforestry's multiple benefits, for instance in nutrient cycles and potential for mitigating droughts, have led to its adoption in the USA and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> distinguishes five applications of agroforestry for <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climates" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate climates">temperate climates</a>, namely alley cropping, forest farming, riparian forest buffers, silvopasture, and windbreaks.<a href="#cite_note-USDA-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alley_cropping">Alley cropping</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Alley cropping">edit</a>]</div> Alley cropping can also be used in temperate climates. Strip cropping is similar to alley cropping in that trees alternate with crops. The difference is that, with alley cropping, the trees are in single rows. With strip cropping, the trees or shrubs are planted in wide strips. The purpose can be, as with alley cropping, to provide nutrients, in leaf form, to the crop. With strip cropping, the trees can have a purely productive role, providing fruits, nuts, etc. while, at the same time, protecting nearby crops from soil erosion and harmful winds. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inga_alley_cropping">Inga alley cropping</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Inga alley cropping">edit</a>]</div> Inga alley cropping is the planting agricultural crops between rows of <a href="/wiki/Inga_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Inga trees">Inga trees</a>. It has been promoted by Mike Hands.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Using the <a href="/wiki/Inga_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Inga tree">Inga tree</a> for <a href="/wiki/Alley_cropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Alley cropping">alley cropping</a> has been proposed as an alternative to the much more ecologically destructive <a href="/wiki/Slash_and_burn_cultivation" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn cultivation">slash and burn cultivation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Elkan-77">[77]</a> The technique has been found to increase yields. It is <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable agriculture</a> as it allows the same plot to be cultivated over and over again thus eliminating the need for <a href="/wiki/Slash_and_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn">burning of the rainforests</a> to get fertile plots.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Inga_tree">Inga tree</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Inga tree">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inga_Flowers.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Inga_Flowers.JPG/300px-Inga_Flowers.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Inga_Flowers.JPG/450px-Inga_Flowers.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Inga_Flowers.JPG/600px-Inga_Flowers.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The flower of an <a href="/wiki/Inga" title="Inga">Inga</a> tree.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inga" title="Inga">Inga</a></div> Inga trees are native to many parts of <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>. Inga grows well on the <a href="/wiki/Acid_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid soils">acid soils</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforest</a> and former rainforest. They are <a href="/wiki/Leguminous" class="mw-redirect" title="Leguminous">leguminous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fix nitrogen</a> into a form usable by plants.<a href="#cite_note-RFS-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">Mycorrhiza</a> growing within the roots (<a href="/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhiza" title="Arbuscular mycorrhiza">arbuscular mycorrhiza</a>) was found to take up spare phosphorus, allowing it to be recycled into the soil.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Other benefits of Inga include the fact that it is fast growing with thick leaves which, when left on the ground after pruning, form a thick cover that protects both soil and roots from the sun and heavy rain. It branches out to form a thick canopy so as to cut off light from the weeds below and withstands careful pruning year after year.<a href="#cite_note-RFS-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="History">History</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The technique was first developed and trialled by tropical ecologist Mike Hands in <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> in the late 1980s and early '90s. <a href="/wiki/Research_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Research funding">Research funding</a> from the <a href="/wiki/EEC" class="mw-redirect" title="EEC">EEC</a> allowed him to experiment with species of Inga. Although alley cropping had been widely researched, it was thought that the tough <a href="/wiki/Pinnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnate">pinnate</a> leaves of the Inga tree would not decompose quickly enough.<a href="#cite_note-Elkan-77">[77]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jhum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jhum.jpg/200px-Jhum.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jhum.jpg/300px-Jhum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jhum.jpg/400px-Jhum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The effects of slash-and-burn agriculture on primary forest, such as seen in this picture, can be devastating. Inga alley cropping may be a solution.</figcaption></figure> The Inga is used as hedges and pruned when large enough to provide a <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a> in which bean and corn seeds are planted. This results in both improving <a href="/wiki/Crop_yields" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop yields">crop yields</a> and the retention of <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a> on the plot that is being farmed. Hands had seen the devastating consequences that are caused by slash and burn agriculture while working in Honduras; this new technique seemed to offer the solution to the environmental and economic problems faced by so many slash and burn farmers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Although this technique has the potential to save rainforest and lift many out of poverty, Inga alley cropping has not yet reached its full potential, although the charity Inga Foundation, headed by Mike Hands, has been consulted about potential projects in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> ( which is almost completely deforested) and the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo</a>. Discussions have also been mooted about projects in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>. Another charity, Rainforest Saver formed to promote Inga Alley Cropping, started a project in 2016 in <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>, in the area of the Amazon where Inga edulis originates from, and by the end of 2018 more than 60 farms in the area had Inga plots. Rainforest Saver also started a project in <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> in 2009, where in late 2018 there were around 100 farms with Inga plots, mainly in Western Cameroon.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Method">Method</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Method">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Agroforestry" title="Special:EditPage/Agroforestry">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (May 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> For Inga alley cropping the trees are planted in rows (hedges) close together, with a gap, the alley, of about 4m between the rows. An initial application of <a href="/wiki/Rock_phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock phosphate">rock phosphate</a> has kept the system going for many years. When the trees have grown, usually in about two years, the canopies close over the alley and cut off the light and so smother the <a href="/wiki/Weed" title="Weed">weeds</a>. The trees are then carefully pruned. The larger branches are used for <a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">firewood</a>. The smaller branches and leaves are left on the ground in the alleys. These rot down into a good <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a> (<a href="/wiki/Compost" title="Compost">compost</a>). If any weeds haven't been killed off by lack of light the mulch smothers them. The farmer then pokes holes into the mulch and plants their crops into the holes. The crops grow, fed by the mulch. The crops feed on the lower layers while the latest prunings form a protective layer over the soil and roots, shielding them from both the hot sun and heavy rain. This makes it possible for the roots of both the crops and the trees to stay to a considerable extent in the top layer of soil and the mulch, thus benefiting from the food in the mulch, and escaping <a href="/wiki/Pest_(organism)" title="Pest (organism)">soil pests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leaching_model_(soil)" title="Leaching model (soil)">toxic minerals</a> lower down. <a href="/wiki/Pruning" title="Pruning">Pruning</a> the Inga also makes its <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a> die back, thus reducing competition with the crops. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_farming">Forest farming</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Forest farming">edit</a>]</div> In forest farming, high-value crops are grown under a suitably-managed tree canopy. This is sometimes called multi-story cropping, or in tropical villages as home gardening. It can be practised at varying levels of intensity but always involves some degree of management; this distinguishes it from simple harvesting of wild plants from the forest.<a href="#cite_note-USDA-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Riparian_forest_buffers">Riparian forest buffers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Riparian forest buffers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG/170px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG/255px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG/340px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Riparian_buffer" title="Riparian buffer">riparian buffer</a> bordering a river in Iowa</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Riparian_buffer" title="Riparian buffer">Riparian buffers</a> are strips of permanent vegetation located along or near active watercourses or in ditches where <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">water runoff</a> concentrates. The purpose is to keep nutrients and soil from contaminating the water.<a href="#cite_note-USDA-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silvopasture">Silvopasture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Silvopasture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agrosylviculture_australie_Clive_Wawn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Agrosylviculture_australie_Clive_Wawn.jpg/220px-Agrosylviculture_australie_Clive_Wawn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Agrosylviculture_australie_Clive_Wawn.jpg/330px-Agrosylviculture_australie_Clive_Wawn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Agrosylviculture_australie_Clive_Wawn.jpg/440px-Agrosylviculture_australie_Clive_Wawn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1477" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption>Silvopasture over the years (Australia)</figcaption></figure> Trees can benefit fauna in a <a href="/wiki/Silvopasture" title="Silvopasture">silvopasture</a> system, where cattle, goats, or sheep browse on grasses grown under trees.<a href="#cite_note-USDA-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In hot climates, the animals are less stressed and put on weight faster when grazing in a cooler, shaded environment. The leaves of trees or shrubs can also serve as <a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">fodder</a>. Similar systems support other fauna. <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">Deer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a> gain when living and feeding in a forest ecosystem, especially when the tree forage nourishes them. In aquaforestry, trees shade fish ponds. In many cases, the fish eat the leaves or fruit from the trees. The <a href="/wiki/Dehesa" title="Dehesa">dehesa</a> or montado system of <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">silviculture</a> are an example of pigs and bulls being held <a href="/wiki/Extensive_farming" title="Extensive farming">extensively</a> in Spain and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Windbreaks">Windbreaks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Windbreaks">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Windbreaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Windbreaks">Windbreaks</a> reduce wind velocity over and around crops. This increases yields through reduced drying of the crop and/or by preventing the crop from toppling in strong wind gusts.<a href="#cite_note-USDA-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Switzerland">In Switzerland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: In Switzerland">edit</a>]</div> Since the 1950s, four-fifths of Swiss <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuchtform_(Obstgeh%C3%B6lze)#Hochstamm" class="extiw" title="de:Zuchtform (Obstgehölze)">Hochstammobstgärten</a> (traditional orchards with tall trees) have disappeared. An agroforestry scheme was tested here with hochstamm trees together with annual crops. Trees tested were walnut (<a href="/wiki/Juglans_regia" title="Juglans regia">Juglans regia</a>) and cherry (<a href="/wiki/Prunus_avium" title="Prunus avium">Prunus avium</a>). Forty to seventy trees per hectare were recommended, yields were somewhat decreasing with increasing tree height and foliage.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> However, the total yield per area is shown to be up to 30 percent higher than for monocultural systems.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Another set of tests involve growing <a href="/wiki/Populus_tremula" title="Populus tremula">Populus tremula</a> for <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> at 52 trees a hectare and with grazing pasture alternated every two to three years with maize or <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, wheat, strawberries and fallowing between rows of modern short-pruned & grafted apple <a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Belle_de_Boskoop" title="Belle de Boskoop">'Boskoop'</a> & <a href="/wiki/Spartan_(apple)" title="Spartan (apple)">'Spartan'</a>) and growing modern <a href="/wiki/Sour_cherry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sour cherry">sour cherry</a> cultivars ('Morina', 'Coraline' and 'Achat') and apples, with bushes in the rows with tree (<a href="/wiki/Dogrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogrose">dogrose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornus_mas" title="Cornus mas">Cornus mas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippophae_rhamnoides" title="Hippophae rhamnoides">Hippophae rhamnoides</a>) intercropped with various vegetables.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forest_gardening">Forest gardening</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Forest gardening">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forestgarden2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Forestgarden2.jpg/220px-Forestgarden2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Forestgarden2.jpg/330px-Forestgarden2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Forestgarden2.jpg/440px-Forestgarden2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hart_(horticulturist)" title="Robert Hart (horticulturist)">Robert Hart</a>'s forest garden in <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a></figcaption></figure> Forest gardening is a low-maintenance, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_gardening" title="Sustainable gardening">sustainable</a>,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> plant-based food production and agroforestry system based on <a href="/wiki/Woodland" title="Woodland">woodland</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>, incorporating <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nut</a> <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrubs" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrubs">shrubs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">vines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perennial_vegetable" title="Perennial vegetable">perennial vegetables</a> which have <a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">yields</a> directly useful to humans. Making use of <a href="/wiki/Companion_planting" title="Companion planting">companion planting</a>, these can be <a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">intermixed</a> to grow in a succession of layers to build a woodland habitat. Forest <a href="/wiki/Gardening" title="Gardening">gardening</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> method of securing food in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical areas</a>. In the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hart_(horticulturist)" title="Robert Hart (horticulturist)">Robert Hart</a> coined the term "forest gardening" after adapting the principles and applying them to <a href="/wiki/Temperateness" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperateness">temperate climates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Crawford_2010_18-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Since <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> times, <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> might have influenced forests, for instance in Europe by <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> people bringing favored plants like hazel with them.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Forest <a href="/wiki/Garden" title="Garden">gardens</a> are probably the world's oldest form of land use and most resilient <a href="/wiki/Agroecosystem" title="Agroecosystem">agroecosystem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hart-1996a-88">[88]</a>: 124 <a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> First Nation villages in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> with forest gardens filled with nuts, stone fruit, berries, and herbs, were noted by an archeologist from <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">the Smithsonian</a> in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Forest gardens are still common in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> and known as Kandyan forest gardens in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>;<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> huertos familiares, family orchards in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>;<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> agroforests; or shrub gardens. They have been shown to be a significant source of income and food security for local populations.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s temperate climate during the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Crawford_2010_18-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_temperate_climates">In temperate climates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: In temperate climates">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Hart_(horticulturist).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Robert_Hart_%28horticulturist%29.jpg/220px-Robert_Hart_%28horticulturist%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Robert_Hart_%28horticulturist%29.jpg/330px-Robert_Hart_%28horticulturist%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Robert_Hart_%28horticulturist%29.jpg/440px-Robert_Hart_%28horticulturist%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>Robert Hart, forest gardening pioneer</figcaption></figure> Hart began farming at <a href="/wiki/Wenlock_Edge" title="Wenlock Edge">Wenlock Edge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a> to provide a healthy and therapeutic environment for himself and his brother Lacon. Starting as relatively conventional <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholders</a>, Hart soon discovered that maintaining large annual vegetable beds, rearing livestock and taking care of an <a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">orchard</a> were tasks beyond their strength. However, a small bed of perennial vegetables and herbs he planted was looking after itself with little intervention.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Following Hart's adoption of a <a href="/wiki/Raw_veganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw veganism">raw vegan diet</a> for health and personal reasons, he replaced his farm animals with plants. The three main products from a forest garden are fruit, nuts and <a href="/wiki/Leaf_vegetable" title="Leaf vegetable">green leafy vegetables</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> He created a model forest garden from a 0.12 acre (500 m2) orchard on his farm and intended naming his gardening method ecological horticulture or ecocultivation.<a href="#cite_note-Hart-1996a-88">[88]</a>: 45  Hart later dropped these terms once he became aware that agroforestry and forest gardens were already being used to describe similar systems in other parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Hart-1996a-88">[88]</a>: 28, 43  He was inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">forest farming</a> methods of <a href="/wiki/Toyohiko_Kagawa" title="Toyohiko Kagawa">Toyohiko Kagawa</a> and James Sholto Douglas, and the productivity of the Keralan home gardens; as Hart explained, "From the agroforestry point of view, perhaps the world's most advanced country is the Indian state of Kerala, which boasts no fewer than three and a half million forest gardens ... As an example of the extraordinary intensity of cultivation of some forest gardens, one plot of only 0.12 hectares (0.30 acres) was found by a study group to have twenty-three young coconut palms, twelve cloves, fifty-six bananas, and forty-nine pineapples, with thirty pepper vines trained up its trees. In addition, the smallholder grew fodder for his <a href="/wiki/House-cow" class="mw-redirect" title="House-cow">house-cow</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Hart-1996a-88">[88]</a>: 4–5  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seven-layer_system">Seven-layer system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Seven-layer system">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forest_garden_7_layers.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Forest_garden_7_layers.gif/330px-Forest_garden_7_layers.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Forest_garden_7_layers.gif/495px-Forest_garden_7_layers.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Forest_garden_7_layers.gif/660px-Forest_garden_7_layers.gif 2x" data-file-width="1491" data-file-height="936" /></a><figcaption>The seven layers of the forest garden[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Further_development">Further development</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further development">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry_Research_Trust" title="Agroforestry Research Trust">Agroforestry Research Trust</a>, managed by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Crawford" title="Martin Crawford">Martin Crawford</a>, runs experimental forest gardening projects on a number of plots in <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Crawford describes a forest garden as a low-maintenance way of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainably producing food</a> and other household products.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Ken Fern had the idea that for a successful temperate forest garden a wider range of edible shade tolerant plants would need to be used. To this end, Fern created the organisation <a href="/wiki/Plants_for_a_Future" title="Plants for a Future">Plants for a Future</a> which compiled a plant database suitable for such a system. Fern used the term woodland gardening, rather than forest gardening, in his book Plants for a Future.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Kathleen Jannaway, the cofounder of Movement for Compassionate Living (MCL) with her husband Jack,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> wrote a book outlining a sustainable vegan future called Abundant Living in the Coming Age of the Tree in 1991. The MCL promotes forest gardening and other types of <a href="/wiki/Vegan_organic_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegan organic gardening">vegan organic gardening</a>. In 2009 it provided a grant of £1,000 to the Bangor Forest Garden project in <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, North West Wales.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Permaculture">Permaculture</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Permaculture">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Bill_Mollison" title="Bill Mollison">Bill Mollison</a>, who coined the term <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a>, visited Hart at his forest garden in October 1990.<a href="#cite_note-Hart-1996a-88">[88]</a>: 149  Hart's seven-layer system has since been adopted as a common permaculture design element.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Numerous <a href="/wiki/Category:Permaculturalists" title="Category:Permaculturalists">permaculturalists</a> are proponents of forest gardens, or food forests, such as Graham Bell, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Whitefield" title="Patrick Whitefield">Patrick Whitefield</a>, Dave Jacke, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Toensmeier" title="Eric Toensmeier">Eric Toensmeier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Lawton" title="Geoff Lawton">Geoff Lawton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Bell started building his forest garden in 1991 and wrote the book The Permaculture Garden in 1995, Whitefield wrote the book How to Make a Forest Garden in 2002, Jacke and Toensmeier co-authored the two volume book set Edible Forest Gardens in 2005, and Lawton presented the film Establishing a Food Forest in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geographical_distribution">Geographical distribution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Geographical distribution">edit</a>]</div> Forest gardens, or home gardens, are common in the tropics, using <a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">intercropping</a> to cultivate <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">crops</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> on the same land. In <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">south India</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeastern India">northeastern India</a>, the home garden is the most common form of land use and is also found in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. One example combines <a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">coconut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">black pepper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a>. These gardens exemplify <a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">polyculture</a>, and conserve much crop <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heirloom_plant" title="Heirloom plant">heirloom plants</a> that are not found in <a href="/wiki/Monocultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocultures">monocultures</a>. Forest gardens have been loosely compared to the religious concept of the <a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Americas">Americas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a>, rather than being a pristine <a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">wilderness</a>, has been shaped by humans for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">terra preta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Since the 1970s, numerous <a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">geoglyphs</a> have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, furthering the evidence of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-Columbian</a> civilizations.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> On the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>, much of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a> food supply was grown in "orchard gardens", known as pet kot.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The system takes its name from the low wall of stones (pet meaning 'circular' and kot, 'wall of loose stones') that characteristically surrounds the gardens.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The environmental historian William Cronon argued in his 1983 book Changes in the Land that indigenous North Americans used controlled burning to form ideal habitat for wild game. The natural environment of New England was sculpted into a mosaic of habitats. When indigenous Americans hunted, they were "harvesting a foodstuff which they had consciously been instrumental in creating".<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Most English settlers, however, assumed that the wealth of food provided by the forest was a result of natural forces, and that indigenous people lived off "the unplanted bounties of nature."<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Animal populations declined after settlement, while fields of strawberries and raspberries found by the earliest settlers became overgrown and disappeared for want of maintenance.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plants">Plants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a>]</div> Some plants, such as wild yam, work as both a root plant and as a vine. Ground covers are low-growing edible forest garden plants that help keep weeds in control and provide a way to utilize areas that would otherwise be unused. <ul><li>Cardamom</li> <li>Ginger</li> <li>Chervil</li> <li>Bergamot</li> <li>Sweet woodruff</li> <li>Sweet cicely</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projects">Projects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Projects">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/El_Pilar" title="El Pilar">El Pilar</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>–<a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> border features a forest garden to demonstrate <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">traditional Maya agricultural</a> practices.<a href="#cite_note-Ford-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> A further one acre model forest garden, called Känan K'aax (meaning 'well-tended garden' in Mayan), is funded by the <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a> and developed at Santa Familia Primary School in <a href="/wiki/Cayo_District" title="Cayo District">Cayo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In the United States, the largest known food forest on public land is believed to be the seven acre <a href="/wiki/Beacon_Food_Forest" title="Beacon Food Forest">Beacon Food Forest</a> in Seattle, Washington.<a href="#cite_note-Crosscut-118">[118]</a> Other forest garden projects include those at the central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute in <a href="/wiki/Basalt,_Colorado" title="Basalt, Colorado">Basalt, Colorado</a>, and Montview Neighborhood farm in <a href="/wiki/Northampton,_Massachusetts" title="Northampton, Massachusetts">Northampton, Massachusetts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> The Boston Food Forest Coalition promotes local forest gardens.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In Canada Richard Walker has been developing and maintaining food forests in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> for over 30 years. He developed a three-acre food forest that at maturity provided raw materials for a plant nursery and herbal business as well as food for his family.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The Living Centre has developed various forest garden projects in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In the United Kingdom, other than those run by the Agroforestry Research Trust (ART), projects include the Bangor Forest Garden in <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, northwest Wales.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Martin Crawford from ART administers the Forest Garden Network, an informal network of people and organisations who are cultivating forest gardens.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Since 2014, Gisela Mir and Mark Biffen have been developing a small-scale edible forest garden in <a href="/wiki/Cardedeu" title="Cardedeu">Cardedeu</a> near <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, Spain, for experimentation and demonstration.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forest_farming_2">Forest farming</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Forest farming">edit</a>]</div> Forest farming is the cultivation of high-value specialty <a href="/wiki/Crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Crops">crops</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Forest_canopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest canopy">forest canopy</a> that is intentionally modified or maintained to provide shade levels and habitat that favor growth and enhance production levels. Forest farming encompasses a range of cultivated systems from introducing plants into the <a href="/wiki/Understory" title="Understory">understory</a> of a timber stand to modifying forest stands to enhance the <a href="/wiki/Marketability" class="mw-redirect" title="Marketability">marketability</a> and sustainable production of existing plants.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Forest farming is a type of agroforestry practice characterized by the "four I's": intentional, integrated, intensive and interactive.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Agroforestry is a <a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">land management</a> system that combines trees with crops or livestock, or both, on the same piece of land. It focuses on increasing benefits to the landowner as well as maintaining forest integrity and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental health</a>. The practice involves cultivating non-timber forest products or niche crops, some of which, such as <a href="/wiki/Ginseng" title="Ginseng">ginseng</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shiitake" title="Shiitake">shiitake</a> mushrooms, can have high market value. <a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">Non-timber forest products</a> (NTFPs) are plants, parts of plants, fungi, and other biological materials harvested from within and on the edges of natural, manipulated, or disturbed forests.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Examples of crops are ginseng, shiitake mushrooms, decorative ferns, and pine straw.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Products typically fit into the following categories: edible, <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal plant">medicinal</a> and dietary supplements, floral or decorative, or specialty wood-based products. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_3">History</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KAGAWA_Toyohiko_young.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/KAGAWA_Toyohiko_young.JPG/220px-KAGAWA_Toyohiko_young.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/KAGAWA_Toyohiko_young.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Toyohiko_Kagawa" title="Toyohiko Kagawa">Toyohiko Kagawa</a>, forest farming pioneer</figcaption></figure> Forest farming, though not always by that name, is practiced around the world. For centuries, humans have relied on fruits, nuts, seeds, parts of foliage and pods from trees and shrubs in the forests to feed themselves and their livestock.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Over time, certain species have been selected for cultivation near homes or livestock to provide food or medicine. For example, in the southern United States, mulberry trees are used as a feedstock for pigs and often cultivated near pig quarters. In 1929, J. Russell Smith, Emeritus Professor of Economic Geography at Columbia University, published "Tree Crops – A Permanent Agriculture" which stated that crop-yielding trees could provide useful substitutes for cereals in animal feeding programs, as well as conserve environmental health.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Toyohiko_Kagawa" title="Toyohiko Kagawa">Toyohiko Kagawa</a> read and was heavily influenced by Smith’s publication and began experimental cultivation under trees in Japan during the 1930s. Through forest farming, or three-dimensional forestry, Kagawa addressed problems of soil erosion by persuading many of Japan's upland farmers to plant fodder trees to conserve soil, supply food and feed animals. He combined extensive plantings of walnut trees, harvested the nuts and fed them to the pigs, then sold the pigs as a source of income. When the walnut trees matured, they were sold for timber and more trees were planted so that there was a continuous cycle of economic cropping that provided both short-term and long-term income to the small landowner.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The success of these trials prompted similar research in other countries. World War II disrupted communication and slowed advances in forest farming.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> In the mid-1950s research resumed in places such as southern Africa. Kagawa was also an inspiration to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hart_(horticulturist)" title="Robert Hart (horticulturist)">Robert Hart</a> pioneered forest gardening in temperate climates in the sixties in Shropshire, England.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> In earlier years, livestock were often considered part of the forest farming system. Now they are typically excluded and agroforestry systems that integrate trees, forages and livestock are referred to as silvopastures.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Because forest farming combines <a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">ecological stability</a> of natural forests and productive agriculture systems, it is considered to have great potential for regenerating soils, restoring ground water supplies, controlling floods and droughts and cultivating marginal lands.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principles">Principles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Principles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Agroforestry" title="Special:EditPage/Agroforestry">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (May 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Forest farming principles constitute an ecological approach to <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a>. Forest resources are judiciously used while <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a> habitat are conserved. Forest farms have the potential to restore <a href="/wiki/Ecological_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological balance">ecological balance</a> to fragmented second growth forests through intentional manipulation to create the desired forest ecosystem. In some instances, the intentional introduction of species for botanicals, medicinals, food or decorative products is accomplished using existing forests. The tree cover, soil type, water supply, land form and other site characteristics determine what species will thrive. Developing an understanding of species/site relationships as well as understanding the site limitations is necessary to utilize these resources for production needs, while conserving adequate resources for the long-term health of the forest. Apart from the environmental benefits, forest farming can increase the economic value of forest property and provide short- and long-term benefits to the landowner. Forest farming provides economic return from <a href="/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape" title="Intact forest landscape">intact forest</a> ecosystems, but timber sales can remain part of the long-term management strategy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods">Methods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> Forest farming methods may include: Intensive, yet careful thinning of overstocked, suppressed tree stands; multiple integrated entries to accomplish thinning so that systemic shock is minimized; and interactive management to maintain a cross-section of healthy trees and shrubs of all ages and species. Physical <a href="/wiki/Ecological_disturbance" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological disturbance">disturbance</a> to the surrounding area should be minimized. The following are forest farming techniques described in the Training Manual produced by the Center for Agroforestry at the University of Missouri.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Level_of_management_that_is_required">Level of management that is required</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Level of management that is required">edit</a>]</div> (from most intense to least intense) 1. <a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a> is the most intensive of forest farming methods. In addition to thinning the overstory, this method involves clearing the understory of undesirable vegetation and other practices that are closely related to agronomy (tillage, fertilization, weeding, and control of disease and insects and wildlife management). Due to input levels, this method often produces lower valued products compared to other methods. Forest gardens take advantage of the vertical levels of light availability and space under the forest canopy so that more than one crop can be grown at once if desired. 2. Wild-simulated seeks to maintain a natural growing environment, yet enriches local NTFP populations to create an abundant renewable supply of the products. Minimal disturbance and natural growing conditions ensure products will be similar in appearance and quality of those harvested from the wild. Rather than till, practitioners often rake leaves to expose soil, sow seed directly onto the ground, and then cover with leaves again. Since this method produces NTFPs that closely resemble wild plants; they often command a higher price than NTFPs produced using the forest gardening method. 3. Forest tending involves adjusting <a href="/wiki/Tree_crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree crown">tree crown</a> density to manipulate light levels that favor natural reproduction of desirable NTFPs. This low intensity management approach does not involve supplemental planting to increase populations of desired NTFPs. 4. <a href="/wiki/Wildcrafting" title="Wildcrafting">Wildcrafting</a> is the harvesting of naturally growing NTFPs. It is not considered a forest farming practice since there is no human involvement in the plant’s establishment and maintenance. However, wildcrafters often take steps to protect NTFPs with future harvests in mind.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> It becomes agroforestry once forest thinnings, or other inputs, are applied to sustain or maintain plant populations that might otherwise succumb to successional changes in the forest. The most important difference between forest farming and wildcrafting is that forest farming intentionally produces NTFPS, whereas wildcrafting seeks and gathers from naturally growing NTFPs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_considerations">Production considerations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Production considerations">edit</a>]</div> Forest farming can be a small business opportunity for landowners and requires careful planning, including a business and marketing plan. Learning how to market the NTFPs on the Internet is an option, but may entail higher shipping costs. Landowners should consider all options for selling their products including, farmer’s markets or restaurants that focus on locally grown ingredients. The development phase should include a forest management plan that states the landowner’s objectives and a resource inventory. Start-up costs should be analyzed as specific equipment may be necessary to harvest or process the product, whereas other crops require minimal initial investment. Local incentives for sustainable forest management, as well as regulations and policies should be explored. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (<a href="/wiki/CITES" title="CITES">CITES</a>) regulates international trade of certain plant (American ginseng and <a href="/wiki/Goldenseal" title="Goldenseal">goldenseal</a>) and animal species. To be legally exported, regulated plants must be harvested and records kept according to CITES rules and restrictions. Many states also have harvesting regulations for certain native plants that are searchable online. Another good source to start with on information is the Medicinal Plants at Risk 2008 report, by the Center for Biological Diversity] in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_crops">Examples of crops</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Examples of crops">edit</a>]</div> (from the National Agroforestry Center)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> Medicinal herbs: <ul><li>Ginseng (<a href="/wiki/Panax_quinquefolius" class="mw-redirect" title="Panax quinquefolius">Panax quinquefolius</a>)</li> <li>Black Cohosh (<a href="/wiki/Actaea_racemosa" title="Actaea racemosa">Actaea racemosa</a>)</li> <li>Goldenseal (<a href="/wiki/Hydrastis_canadensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrastis canadensis">Hydrastis canadensis</a>)</li> <li>Bloodroot (<a href="/wiki/Sanguinaria_canadensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanguinaria canadensis">Sanguinaria canadensis</a>)</li> <li>Pacific yew (<a href="/wiki/Taxus_brevifolia" title="Taxus brevifolia">Taxus brevifolia</a>)</li> <li>Mayapple (<a href="/wiki/Podophyllum_peltatum" title="Podophyllum peltatum">Podophyllum peltatum</a>)</li> <li>Saw palmetto (<a href="/wiki/Serenoa_repens" class="mw-redirect" title="Serenoa repens">Serenoa repens</a>)</li> <li>American Pokeweed (<a href="/wiki/Phytolacca_americana" title="Phytolacca americana">Phytolacca americana</a>)</li></ul> Nuts: <ul><li>Black walnut (<a href="/wiki/Juglans_nigra" title="Juglans nigra">Juglans nigra</a>)</li> <li>Hazelnut (<a href="/wiki/Corylus_avellana" title="Corylus avellana">Corylus avellana</a>)</li> <li>Shagbark hickory (<a href="/wiki/Carya_ovata" title="Carya ovata">Carya ovata</a>)</li> <li>Beechnut (<a href="/wiki/Fagus_sylvatica" title="Fagus sylvatica">Fagus sylvatica</a>)</li></ul> Fruit: <ul><li>Pawpaw (<a href="/wiki/Asimina_triloba" title="Asimina triloba">Asimina triloba</a>)</li> <li>Currants (<a href="/wiki/Ribes" title="Ribes">Ribes</a> spp)</li> <li>Elderberry (<a href="/wiki/Sambucus" title="Sambucus">Sambucus</a> spp)</li> <li>Serviceberry (<a href="/wiki/Amelanchier" title="Amelanchier">Amelanchier</a> spp)</li> <li>Blackberry (<a href="/wiki/Rubus" title="Rubus">Rubus</a> spp)</li> <li>Huckleberry (<a href="/wiki/Gaylussacia_brachycera" title="Gaylussacia brachycera">Gaylussacia brachycera</a>)</li></ul> Other food crops: <ul><li>Ramps (wild leeks) (<a href="/wiki/Allium_tricoccum" title="Allium tricoccum">Allium tricoccum</a>)</li> <li>Syrups (maple)</li> <li>Honey</li> <li>Mushrooms</li> <li>Other edible roots</li></ul> Other products: (<a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a>, decoratives, crafts, dyes) <ul><li>Pine straw</li> <li>Willow twigs</li> <li>Vines</li> <li>Beargrass (<a href="/wiki/Xerophyllum_tenax" title="Xerophyllum tenax">Xerophyllum tenax</a>)</li> <li>Ferns</li> <li>Pine cones</li> <li>Moss</li></ul> Native ornamentals: <ul><li>Rhododendron (<a href="/wiki/Rhododendron_catawbiense" title="Rhododendron catawbiense">Rhododendron catawbiense</a>)</li> <li>Highbush cranberry (<a href="/wiki/Viburnum_trilobum" title="Viburnum trilobum">Viburnum trilobum</a>)</li> <li>Flowering dogwood (<a href="/wiki/Cornus_florida" title="Cornus florida">Cornus florida</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration">Farmer-managed natural regeneration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Farmer-managed natural regeneration">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_planting_in_Mali.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tree_planting_in_Mali.jpg/220px-Tree_planting_in_Mali.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tree_planting_in_Mali.jpg/330px-Tree_planting_in_Mali.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tree_planting_in_Mali.jpg/440px-Tree_planting_in_Mali.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3515" data-file-height="5366" /></a><figcaption>Young man waters a newly planted tree in Mali (2010)</figcaption></figure> Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is a low-cost, sustainable <a href="/wiki/Land_restoration" title="Land restoration">land restoration</a> technique used to combat poverty and hunger amongst poor <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_farmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence farmer">subsistence farmers</a> in developing countries by increasing <a href="/wiki/Food_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Food production">food</a> and timber production, and <a href="/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (ecology)">resilience</a> to <a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth" title="Extremes on Earth">climate extremes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> It involves the systematic regeneration and management of <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> and shrubs from tree stumps, roots and seeds.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian-20181213-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-WVA-147">[147]</a> FMNR was developed by the Australian agricultural economist <a href="/wiki/Tony_Rinaudo" title="Tony Rinaudo">Tony Rinaudo</a> in the 1980s in West Africa. The background and development are described in Rinaudo's book The Forest Underground.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> FMNR is especially applicable, but not restricted to, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dryland_tropics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dryland tropics (page does not exist)">dryland tropics</a>. As well as returning degraded <a href="/wiki/Cropland" class="mw-redirect" title="Cropland">croplands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing lands</a> to productivity, it can be used to restore degraded forests, thereby reversing <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and reducing <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">vulnerability to climate change</a>. FMNR can also play an important role in maintaining not-yet-degraded landscapes in a productive state, especially when combined with other <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_land_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable land management">sustainable land management</a> practices such as <a href="/wiki/Conservation_agriculture" title="Conservation agriculture">conservation agriculture</a> on cropland and holistic management on range lands.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] FMNR adapts centuries-old methods of woodland management, called <a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">coppicing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollarding" title="Pollarding">pollarding</a>, to produce continuous tree-growth for fuel, building materials, food and fodder without the need for frequent and costly replanting. On farmland, selected trees are trimmed and pruned to maximise growth while promoting optimal growing conditions for annual crops (such as access to water and sunlight).<a href="#cite_note-WRI-2008-149">[149]</a> When FMNR trees are integrated into crops and grazing pastures there is an increase in <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">crop yields</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a> and organic matter, <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">soil moisture</a> and leaf fodder. There is also a decrease in wind and heat damage, and <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>. FMNR complements the evergreen agriculture,<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> conservation agriculture and agroforestry movements. It is considered a good entry point for resource-poor and risk-averse farmers to adopt a low-cost and low-risk technique. This in turn has acted as a stepping stone to greater agricultural intensification as farmers become more receptive to new ideas. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> Throughout the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>, immense tracts of farmland, grazing lands and <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> have become degraded to the point they are no longer productive. <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> continues at a rapid pace. In Africa's drier regions, 74 percent of rangelands and 61 percent of rain-fed croplands are damaged by moderate to very severe <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>. In some African countries deforestation rates exceed planting rates by 300:1.<a href="#cite_note-Grainger-1990-151">[151]</a>: 3, 141, 142, 215, 298  Degraded land has an extremely detrimental effect on the lives of subsistence farmers who depend on it for their food and livelihoods. Subsistence farmers often make up to 70–80 percent of the population in these regions and they regularly suffer from hunger, malnutrition and even famine as a consequence.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-20101204-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Garrity-20100828-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leisa-2007-154">[154]</a> In the Sahel region of Africa, a band of <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> which runs across the continent immediately south of the Sahara Desert, large tracts of once-productive farmland are turning to desert.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In tropical regions across the world, where rich soils and good rainfall would normally assure bountiful harvests and fat livestock, some environments have become so degraded they are no longer productive. Severe famines across the African Sahel in the 1970s and 1980s led to a global response, and stopping desertification became a top priority. Conventional methods of raising exotic and indigenous tree species in nurseries were used. Despite investing millions of dollars and thousands of hours of labour, there was little overall impact.<a href="#cite_note-Grainger-1990-151">[151]</a>: 301  Conventional approaches to reforestation in such harsh environments faced insurmountable problems and were costly and labour-intensive. Once planted out, drought, sand storms, pests, competition from weeds and destruction by people and animals negated efforts. Low levels of community ownership were another inhibiting factor.<a href="#cite_note-Leisa-2007-154">[154]</a> Existing indigenous vegetation was generally dismissed as 'useless bush', and it was often cleared to make way for exotic species. Exotics were planted in fields containing living and sprouting stumps of indigenous vegetation, the presence of which was barely acknowledged, let alone seen as important.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This was an enormous oversight. In fact, these living tree stumps are so numerous they constitute a vast 'underground forest' just waiting for some care to grow and provide multiple benefits at little or no cost. Each stump can produce between 10 and 30 stems each. During the process of traditional land preparation, farmers saw the stems as weeds and slashed and burnt them before sowing their food crops. The net result was a barren landscape for much of the year with few mature trees remaining. To the casual observer, the land was turning to desert. Most concluded that there were no trees present and that the only way to reverse the problem was through tree planting.<a href="#cite_note-Leisa-2007-154">[154]</a> Meanwhile, established indigenous trees continued to disappear at an alarming rate. In <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, from the 1930s until 1993, forestry laws took tree ownership and responsibility for the care of trees out of the hands of the people. Reforestation through conventional tree planting seemed to be the only way to address desertification at the time.<a href="#cite_note-WRI-2008-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leisa-2007-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_4">History</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> In the early-1980s, in the <a href="/wiki/Maradi_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Maradi region">Maradi region</a> of the Republic of Niger, the missionary organisation, <a href="/wiki/SIM_(Christian_organization)" title="SIM (Christian organization)"> Serving in Mission (SIM)</a>, was unsuccessfully attempting to reforest the surrounding districts using conventional means. In 1983, SIM began experimenting and promoting FMNR amongst about 10 farmers. During the famine of 1984, a food-for-work program was introduced that saw some 70,000 people exposed to FMNR and its practice on around 12,500 <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectares</a> of farmland. From 1985 to 1999, FMNR continued to be promoted locally and nationally as exchange visits and training days were organised for various <a href="/wiki/NGO" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO">NGOs</a>, government foresters, Peace Corps volunteers, and farmer and civil society groups. Additionally, SIM project staff and farmers visited numerous locations across Niger to provide training.<a href="#cite_note-Leisa-2007-154">[154]</a> By 2004 it was ascertained that FMNR was being practised on over five million hectares or 50 percent of Niger's farmland – an average reforestation rate of 250,000 hectares per year over a 20-year period. This transformation prompted a Senior Fellow of the World Resources Institute, Chris Reij, to comment that "this is probably the largest positive environmental transformation in the Sahel and perhaps all of Africa".<a href="#cite_note-WRI-2008-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nation-20091207-157">[157]</a> In 2004, <a href="/wiki/World_Vision_Australia" title="World Vision Australia">World Vision Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Vision_International" title="World Vision International">World Vision Ethiopia</a> initiated a forestry-based carbon sequestration project as a potential means to stimulate community development while engaging in environmental restoration. A partnership with the World Bank, the Humbo Community-based Natural Regeneration Project involved the regeneration of 2,728 hectares of degraded native forests. This brought social, economic and ecological benefits to the participating communities. Within two years, communities were collecting wild fruits, firewood, and fodder, and reported that wildlife had begun to return and erosion and flooding had been reduced. In addition, the communities are now receiving payments for the sale of carbon credits through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown-20101204-152">[152]</a> Following the success of the Humbo project, FMNR spread to the <a href="/wiki/Tigray_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigray region">Tigray region</a> of northern <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> where 20,000 hectares have been set aside for regeneration, including 10 hectare FMNR model sites for research and demonstration in each of 34 sub-districts. The Government of Ethiopia has committed to reforest 15 million hectares of degraded land using FMNR as part of a climate change and renewable energy plan to become carbon neutral by 2025.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> In Talensi, northern <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, FMNR is being practiced on 2,000–3,000 hectares and new projects are introducing FMNR into three new districts. In the Kaffrine and Diourbel regions of Senegal, FMNR has spread across 50,000 hectares in four years. World Vision is also promoting FMNR in Indonesia, Myanmar and East Timor. There are also examples of both independently promoted and spontaneous FMNR movements occurring. In Burkina Faso, for example, an increasing part of the country is being transformed into agro-forestry parkland. And in Mali, an ageing agro-forestry parkland of about six million hectares is showing signs of regeneration.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_principles">Key principles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Key principles">edit</a>]</div> FMNR depends on the existence of living tree stumps or roots in crop fields, grazing pastures, woodlands or forests. Each season bushy growth will sprout from the stumps/roots often appearing like small shrubs. Continuous grazing by livestock, regular burning and/or regular harvesting for fuel wood results in these 'shrubs' never attaining tree stature. On farmland, standard practice has been for farmers to slash this regrowth in preparation for planting crops, but with a little attention this growth can be turned into a valuable resource without jeopardising crop yields.<a href="#cite_note-Ndour-2010-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-Garrity-20100828-153">[153]</a> For each stump, a decision is made as to how many stems will be chosen to grow. The tallest and straightest stems are selected and the remaining stems culled. Best results are obtained when the farmer returns regularly to prune any unwanted new stems and side branches as they appear. Farmers can then grow other crops between and around the trees. When farmers want wood they can cut the stem(s) they want and leave the rest to continue growing. The remaining stems will increase in size and value each year, and will continue to protect the environment. Each time a stem is harvested, a younger stem is selected to replace it.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Various naturally occurring tree species can be used which may also provide berries, fruits and nuts or have medicinal qualities. In Niger, commonly used species include: <a href="/wiki/Strychnos_spinosa" title="Strychnos spinosa">Strychnos spinosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balanites_aegyptiaca" title="Balanites aegyptiaca">Balanites aegyptiaca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boscia_senegalensis" title="Boscia senegalensis">Boscia senegalensis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ziziphus" title="Ziziphus">Ziziphus</a> spp., <a href="/wiki/Annona_senegalensis" title="Annona senegalensis">Annona senegalensis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poupartia_birrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Poupartia birrea">Poupartia birrea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faidherbia_albida" class="mw-redirect" title="Faidherbia albida">Faidherbia albida</a>. However, the most important determinants are whatever species are locally available, their ability to re-sprout after cutting, and the value local people place on those species.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Faidherbia albida, also known as the 'fertiliser tree', is popular for intercropping across the Sahel as it fixes nitrogen into the soil, provides fodder for livestock, and shade for crops and livestock. By shedding its leaves in the wet season, Faidherbia provides beneficial light shade to crops when high temperatures would otherwise damage crops or retard growth. Leaf fall contributes useful nutrients and organic matter to the soil.<a href="#cite_note-Garrity-20100828-153">[153]</a> The practice of FMNR is not confined to croplands. It is being practised on grazing land and in degraded communal forests as well. When there are no living stumps, seeds of naturally occurring species are used. In reality, there is no fixed way of practising FMNR and farmers are free to choose which species they will leave, the density of trees they prefer, and the timing and method of pruning.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_practice">In practice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: In practice">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FMNR_example_1.png" class="mw-file-description" title="FMNR depends on the existence of living tree stumps, tree roots and seeds to be re-vegetated. These can be in crop fields, grazing lands or degraded forests. New stems, which sprout from these stumps and tree roots, can be selected and pruned for improved growth. Sprouting tree stumps and roots may look like shrubs and are often ignored or even slashed by farmers or foresters. However, with culling of excess stems and by selecting and pruning of the best stems, the re-growth has enormous potential to rapidly grow into trees."><img alt="FMNR depends on the existence of living tree stumps, tree roots and seeds to be re-vegetated. These can be in crop fields, grazing lands or degraded forests. New stems, which sprout from these stumps and tree roots, can be selected and pruned for improved growth. Sprouting tree stumps and roots may look like shrubs and are often ignored or even slashed by farmers or foresters. However, with culling of excess stems and by selecting and pruning of the best stems, the re-growth has enormous potential to rapidly grow into trees." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/FMNR_example_1.png/180px-FMNR_example_1.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/FMNR_example_1.png 1.5x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="151" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">FMNR depends on the existence of living tree stumps, tree roots and seeds to be re-vegetated. These can be in crop fields, grazing lands or degraded forests. New stems, which sprout from these stumps and tree roots, can be selected and pruned for improved growth. Sprouting tree stumps and roots may look like shrubs and are often ignored or even slashed by farmers or foresters. However, with culling of excess stems and by selecting and pruning of the best stems, the re-growth has enormous potential to rapidly grow into trees.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FMNR_example_2.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seemingly treeless fields may contain seeds and living tree stumps and roots which have the ability to sprout new stems and regenerate trees. Even this 'bare' millet field in West Africa contains hundreds of living stumps per hectare which are buried beneath the surface like an underground forest."><img alt="Seemingly treeless fields may contain seeds and living tree stumps and roots which have the ability to sprout new stems and regenerate trees. Even this 'bare' millet field in West Africa contains hundreds of living stumps per hectare which are buried beneath the surface like an underground forest." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FMNR_example_2.jpeg/180px-FMNR_example_2.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/FMNR_example_2.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="167" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seemingly treeless fields may contain seeds and living tree stumps and roots which have the ability to sprout new stems and regenerate trees. Even this 'bare' millet field in West Africa contains hundreds of living stumps per hectare which are buried beneath the surface like an underground forest.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FMNR_3_example.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Step 1. Do not automatically slash all tree growth, but survey your farm noting how many and what species of trees are present."><img alt="Step 1. Do not automatically slash all tree growth, but survey your farm noting how many and what species of trees are present." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/FMNR_3_example.png/180px-FMNR_3_example.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/FMNR_3_example.png/270px-FMNR_3_example.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/FMNR_3_example.png/360px-FMNR_3_example.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="307" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Step 1. Do not automatically slash all tree growth, but survey your farm noting how many and what species of trees are present.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FMNR_example_4.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Step 2. Select the stumps which will be used for regeneration."><img alt="Step 2. Select the stumps which will be used for regeneration." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/FMNR_example_4.png/180px-FMNR_example_4.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/FMNR_example_4.png/270px-FMNR_example_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/FMNR_example_4.png/360px-FMNR_example_4.png 2x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="348" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Step 2. Select the stumps which will be used for regeneration.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FMNR_example_5.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Step 3. Select the best five or so stems and cull unwanted ones. This way, when you want wood you can cut the stem(s) that are needed and leave the rest to continue growing. These remaining stems will increase in size and value each year, and will continue to protect the environment and provide other useful materials and services such as fodder, humus, habitat for useful pest predators and protection from the wind and sun. Each time one stem is harvested, a younger stem is selected to replace it."><img alt="Step 3. Select the best five or so stems and cull unwanted ones. This way, when you want wood you can cut the stem(s) that are needed and leave the rest to continue growing. These remaining stems will increase in size and value each year, and will continue to protect the environment and provide other useful materials and services such as fodder, humus, habitat for useful pest predators and protection from the wind and sun. Each time one stem is harvested, a younger stem is selected to replace it." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/FMNR_example_5.png/180px-FMNR_example_5.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/FMNR_example_5.png/270px-FMNR_example_5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/FMNR_example_5.png/360px-FMNR_example_5.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="340" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Step 3. Select the best five or so stems and cull unwanted ones. This way, when you want wood you can cut the stem(s) that are needed and leave the rest to continue growing. These remaining stems will increase in size and value each year, and will continue to protect the environment and provide other useful materials and services such as fodder, humus, habitat for useful pest predators and protection from the wind and sun. Each time one stem is harvested, a younger stem is selected to replace it.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FMNR_example_6.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Tag selected stems with a coloured rag or paint. Work with the whole community to draw up and agree on laws which will protect the trees being pruned and respect each person's rights. Where possible, include government forestry staff and local authorities in planning and decision making."><img alt="Tag selected stems with a coloured rag or paint. Work with the whole community to draw up and agree on laws which will protect the trees being pruned and respect each person's rights. Where possible, include government forestry staff and local authorities in planning and decision making." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/FMNR_example_6.png/180px-FMNR_example_6.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/FMNR_example_6.png/270px-FMNR_example_6.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/FMNR_example_6.png/360px-FMNR_example_6.png 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="354" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tag selected stems with a coloured rag or paint. Work with the whole community to draw up and agree on laws which will protect the trees being pruned and respect each person's rights. Where possible, include government forestry staff and local authorities in planning and decision making.</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benefits_2">Benefits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Benefits">edit</a>]</div> FMNR can restore degraded farmlands, pastures and forests by increasing the quantity and value of woody vegetation, by increasing biodiversity and by improving soil structure and fertility through leaf litter and nutrient cycling. The reforestation also retards wind and water erosion; it creates <a href="/wiki/Windbreak" title="Windbreak">windbreaks</a> which decrease soil moisture evaporation, and protects crops and livestock against searing winds and temperatures. Often, dried up springs reappear and the water table rises towards historic levels; insect eating predators including insects, spiders and birds return, helping to keep crop pests in check; the trees can be a source of edible berries and nuts; and over time the biodiversity of plant and animal life is increased.<a href="#cite_note-Leisa-2007-154">[154]</a> FMNR can be used to combat deforestation and desertification and can also be an important tool in maintaining the integrity and productivity of land that is not yet degraded. Trials, long-running programs and anecdotal data indicate that FMNR can at least double crop yields on low fertility soils.<a href="#cite_note-Ndour-2010-162">[162]</a> In the Sahel, high numbers of livestock and an eight month dry season can mean that pastures are completely depleted before the rains commence. However, with the presence of trees, grazing animals can make it through the dry season by feeding on tree leaves and seed pods of some species, at a time when no other fodder is available.<a href="#cite_note-Reij-Sahel-2009-163">[163]</a> In northeast Ghana, more grass became available with the introduction of FMNR because communities worked together to prevent bush fires from destroying their trees. Well designed and executed FMNR projects can act as catalysts to empower communities as they negotiate land ownership or user rights for the trees in their care. This assists with self-organisation, and with the development of new agriculture-based micro-enterprises (e.g., selling firewood, timber and handcrafts made from timber or woven grasses).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Conventional approaches to reversing desertification, such as funding tree planting, rarely spread beyond the project boundary once external funding is withdrawn. By comparison, FMNR is cheap, rapid, locally led and implemented. It uses local skills and resources – the poorest farmers can learn by observation and teach their neighbours. Given an enabling environment, or at least the absence of a 'disabling' environment, FMNR can be done at scale and spread well beyond the original target area without ongoing government or NGO intervention.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] World Vision evaluations of FMNR conducted in Senegal and Ghana in 2011 and 2012 found that households practising FMNR were less vulnerable to extreme weather shocks such as drought and damaging rain and wind storms.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The following table summarises FMNR's benefits which fit the sustainable development model of economic, social and environmental benefits:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Economic benefits</th> <th>Social benefits</th> <th>Environmental benefits </th></tr> <tr> <td>Increased crop yields (often double or triple)</td> <td>Increased food security and nutrition (including native fruits, nuts and seeds)<a href="#cite_note-Garrity-20100828-153">[153]</a></td> <td>Reduced erosion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Increased fodder from edible leaves and seed pods, and in some cases increased pasture growth</td> <td>Less distance for women and children to travel to collect firewood</td> <td>Reduced soil-moisture evaporation due to wind breaks shading and mulching </td></tr> <tr> <td>Higher livestock productivity and survival</td> <td>Community capacity building to deal with local, regional and national governments and regulators</td> <td>Increased soil fertility </td></tr> <tr> <td>Reduced impact from floods and drought – trees provide alternative income and livelihood sources making impacts less severe and recovery faster</td> <td>Improved governance through clarification of tree ownership laws and regulations</td> <td>Improved soil structure through greater quantities of organic matter </td></tr> <tr> <td>Increased income generation through diversification (e.g. timber and fuel wood) and intensification of activities<a href="#cite_note-Brown-20101204-152">[152]</a></td> <td>Education and training in farming and marketing</td> <td>Increased water infiltration and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">groundwater recharge</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Economic flow-on effects such as employment and greater purchasing capacity</td> <td>Reduced need for migration by young people and men to cities</td> <td>Increased biodiversity, environmental restoration and tree cover </td></tr> <tr> <td>Increased economic activity creates opportunities, e.g., development of new business models such as cooperatives</td> <td>Higher incomes result in better opportunities for medical treatment, children's education, nutrition and clothing, etc.</td> <td>Enhanced resilience to climate change </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>Empowerment for community members to live independently with hope for the future</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Sources:<a href="#cite_note-Reij-Sahel-2009-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-WRI-2008-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_success_factors_and_constraints">Key success factors and constraints</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Key success factors and constraints">edit</a>]</div> While there are numerous accounts of the uptake and spread of FMNR independent of aid and development agencies, the following factors have been found to be beneficial for its introduction and spread:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>Awareness creation of FMNR's potential.</li> <li>Capacity building through workshops and exchange visits.</li> <li>Awareness of the devastating effects of deforestation. The adoption of FMNR is more likely when communities acknowledge their situation and the need to take action. This perception of need can be supported by education.</li> <li>An FMNR champion/facilitator from within the community who encourages, challenges and trains peers. This is critical during the first three to five years, and continues to be important for up to 10 years. Regular site visits also ensure early detection and remedial action on resistance and threats to FMNR through deliberate damage to trees and theft.</li> <li>The buy-in of all stakeholders including their agreement on any by-laws created for FMNR and the consequences for infringements. Stakeholders include FMNR practitioners, local, regional and national government departments of agriculture and forestry, men, women, youth, marginalised groups (including nomadic herders), cultivators and commercial interests.</li> <li>Stakeholder buy-in is also important to create a critical mass of FMNR adopters in order to change social attitudes from a position of apathy or active participation in deforestation to one of proactive sustainable tree management through FMNR.</li> <li>Government support through the creation of favourable policies, <a href="/wiki/Positive_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive reinforcement">positive reinforcement</a> of actions facilitating the spread of FMNR, and disincentives for actions working against the spread of FMNR. FMNR practitioners need to be confident that they will benefit from their labours (either private or community ownership of trees, or legally binding user rights).</li> <li>Reinforcement of existing organisational structures (farmers clubs, development groups, traditional leadership structures) or establishment of new structures which will provide a framework for communities to practise FMNR on a local, district or region-wide basis.</li> <li>A communications strategy which includes education in schools, radio programs and engagement with religious and traditional leaders to become advocates.</li> <li>Establishment of a legal, transparent and accessible market for FMNR wood and non-timber forest products, enabling practitioners to benefit financially from their activities.</li></ul> Brown et al. suggest that the two main reasons why FMNR has spread so widely in Niger are attitudinal change by the community of what constitutes good land management practices, and farmers' ownership of trees.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-20101204-152">[152]</a> Farmers need the assurance that they will benefit from their labour. Giving farmers either outright ownership of the trees they protect, or tree-user rights, has made it possible for large-scale farmer-led reforestation to take place. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_and_future_directions">Current and future directions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Current and future directions">edit</a>]</div> Over nearly 30 years, FMNR has changed the farming landscape in some of the poorest countries in the world, including parts of Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Senegal, providing subsistence farmers with the methods necessary to become more food secure and resilient against severe weather events.<a href="#cite_note-Reij-Sahel-2009-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The 2011–2012 food crisis in East Africa gave a stark reminder of the importance of addressing root causes of hunger. In the 2011 State of the World Report, Bunch concludes that four major factors – lack of sustainable fertile land, loss of traditional fallowing, cost of fertiliser and climate change – are coming together all at once in a sort of "perfect storm" that will almost surely result in an African famine of unprecedented proportions, probably within the next four to five years. It will most heavily affect the lowland, semi-arid to sub-humid areas of Africa (including the Sahel, parts of eastern Africa, plus a band from Malawi across to Angola and Namibia); and unless the world does something dramatic, 10 to 30 million people could die from famine between 2015 and 2020.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Restoration of degraded land through FMNR is one way of addressing these major contributors to hunger. In recent years FMNR has come to the attention of global development agencies and grassroots movements alike. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="The World Bank">The World Bank</a>, World Resources Institute, World Agroforestry Center, <a href="/wiki/USAID" class="mw-redirect" title="USAID">USAID</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a> movement are amongst those either actively promoting or advocating for the uptake of FMNR and FMNR has received recognition from a number of quarters including: <ul><li>In 2010, FMNR won the Interaction 4 Best Practice and Innovation Initiative award in recognition of high technical standards and effectiveness in addressing the food security and livelihood needs of small producers in the areas of natural resource management and agro forestry.</li> <li>In 2011, FMNR won the World Vision International Global Resilience Award for the most innovative initiative in the area of resilient development practice and natural environment and climate issues.</li> <li>In 2012 WVA was awarded the Arbor Day Award for Education Innovation.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a></li></ul> In April 2012, World Vision Australia – in partnership with the World Agroforestry Center and World Vision East Africa – held an international conference in Nairobi called "Beating Famine" to analyse and plan how to improve food security for the world's poor through the use of FMNR and Evergreen Agriculture. The conference was attended by more than 200 participants, including world leaders in sustainable agriculture, five East African ministers of agriculture and the environment, ambassadors, and other government representatives from Africa, Europe, and Australia, and leaders from non-government and international organisations. Two major outcomes of the conference were: <ol><li>The establishment of a global FMNR network of key stakeholders to promote, encourage and initiate the scale-up of FMNR globally.</li> <li>Country, regional and global level plans as a basis for inter-organisation collaboration for FMNR scale-up.</li></ol> The conference acted as a catalyst for media coverage of FMNR in some of the world's leading outlets and a noticeable increase in momentum for an FMNR global movement. This heightened awareness of FMNR has created an opportunity for it to spread exponentially worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHeath2022" class="citation news cs1">Heath, Nicola (24 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-24/tony-rinaudo-forest-maker-fmnr-land-regeneration-africa/101189330">"He was called 'the crazy white farmer', but this Australian transformed an African landscape"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(Australia)" title="ABC News (Australia)">ABC News (Australia)</a>. Retrieved 24 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News+%28Australia%29&rft.atitle=He+was+called+%27the+crazy+white+farmer%27%2C+but+this+Australian+transformed+an+African+landscape&rft.date=2022-07-24&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2022-07-24%2Ftony-rinaudo-forest-maker-fmnr-land-regeneration-africa%2F101189330&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmer-managed natural regeneration">Farmer-managed natural regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer_tree" title="Fertilizer tree">Fertilizer tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable forest management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvopasture" title="Silvopasture">Silvopasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agri-environmental_measures" title="Agri-environmental measures">Agri-environmental measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-friendly_gardening" title="Climate-friendly gardening">Climate-friendly gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest islands">Forest islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_farming" title="Natural farming">Natural farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">Orchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pekarangan" title="Pekarangan">Pekarangan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">Polyculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroecological_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Agroecological restoration">Agroecological restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_of_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Landscape of agriculture">Landscape of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regenerative_agriculture" title="Regenerative agriculture">Regenerative agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable forest management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Za%C3%AF" title="Zaï">Zaï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_cultivation" title="Christmas tree cultivation">Christmas tree cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Forestry_Toolbox" title="Farm Forestry Toolbox">Farm Forestry Toolbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantation forestry">Plantation forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvopasture" title="Silvopasture">Silvopasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMudgeGabriel2014" class="citation book cs1">Mudge, Ken; Gabriel, Steve (2014). Farming the Woods: an integrated permaculture approach to growing food and medicinals in temperate forests. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60358-507-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60358-507-1"><bdi>978-1-60358-507-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Farming+the+Woods%3A+an+integrated+permaculture+approach+to+growing+food+and+medicinals+in+temperate+forests&rft.place=White+River+Junction%2C+VT&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Chelsea+Green+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-60358-507-1&rft.aulast=Mudge&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft.au=Gabriel%2C+Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aftaweb-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aftaweb_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-aftaweb_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aftaweb.org/about/what-is-agroforestry.html">"What is agroforestry?"</a>. www.aftaweb.org. 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Columbia University Press. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231111577" title="Special:BookSources/9780231111577"><bdi>9780231111577</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperfect+Balance%3A+Landscape+Transformations+in+the+Precolumbian+Americas&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780231111577&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJsuiJEwOIJUC%26pg%3DPA212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronon1983" class="citation book cs1">Cronon, William (1983). Changes in the Land. 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New York: Hill and Wang. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-0158-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-0158-6"><bdi>0-8090-0158-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changes+in+the+Land&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-8090-0158-6&rft.aulast=Cronon&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronon1983" class="citation book cs1">Cronon, William (1983). Changes in the Land. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-0158-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-0158-6"><bdi>0-8090-0158-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changes+in+the+Land&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-8090-0158-6&rft.aulast=Cronon&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ford-115"><a href="#cite_ref-Ford_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ford, Anabel (2 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guatemala-times.com/archeology/others/1081-el-pilar-archaeological-reserve-for-maya-flora-and-fauna-.html">"El Pilar Archaeological Reserve for Maya Flora and Fauna"</a>. The Guatemala Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090505115733/http://www.guatemala-times.com/archeology/others/1081-el-pilar-archaeological-reserve-for-maya-flora-and-fauna-.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guatemala+Times&rft.atitle=El+Pilar+Archaeological+Reserve+for+Maya+Flora+and+Fauna&rft.date=2009-05-02&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Anabel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guatemala-times.com%2Farcheology%2Fothers%2F1081-el-pilar-archaeological-reserve-for-maya-flora-and-fauna-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2010" class="citation web cs1">Ford, Anabel (15 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/january-2011/article/the-legacy-of-el-pilar-the-maya-forest-garden">"Legacy of the Ancient Maya: The Maya Forest Garden"</a>. Popular Archaeology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120115154220/http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/january-2011/article/the-legacy-of-el-pilar-the-maya-forest-garden">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Legacy+of+the+Ancient+Maya%3A+The+Maya+Forest+Garden&rft.pub=Popular+Archaeology&rft.date=2010-12-15&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Anabel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpopular-archaeology.com%2Fissue%2Fjanuary-2011%2Farticle%2Fthe-legacy-of-el-pilar-the-maya-forest-garden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ambergristoday.com/content/stories/2011/may/27/national-geographic-society-funds-mayan-garden">"National Geographic Society Funds Mayan Garden"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111223101847/http://www.ambergristoday.com/content/stories/2011/may/27/national-geographic-society-funds-mayan-garden">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=National+Geographic+Society+Funds+Mayan+Garden&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ambergristoday.com%2Fcontent%2Fstories%2F2011%2Fmay%2F27%2Fnational-geographic-society-funds-mayan-garden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crosscut-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Crosscut_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMellinger2012" class="citation news cs1">Mellinger, Robert (16 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330165843/http://crosscut.com/2012/02/16/agriculture/21892/Nation-s-largest-public-Food-Forest-takes-root-on-Beacon-Hill/">"Nation's Largest Food Forest takes root on Beacon Hill"</a>. Crosscut. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crosscut.com/2012/02/16/agriculture/21892/Nation-s-largest-public-Food-Forest-takes-root-on-Beacon-Hill">the original</a> on 30 March 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crosscut&rft.atitle=Nation%27s+Largest+Food+Forest+takes+root+on+Beacon+Hill&rft.date=2012-02-16&rft.aulast=Mellinger&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrosscut.com%2F2012%2F02%2F16%2Fagriculture%2F21892%2FNation-s-largest-public-Food-Forest-takes-root-on-Beacon-Hill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmpi.org/CRMPI/Home.html">"The Central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130524141839/http://www.crmpi.org/CRMPI/Home.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Central+Rocky+Mountain+Permaculture+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmpi.org%2FCRMPI%2FHome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.montviewfarm.org/">"Montview Neighborhood farm"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081024110544/http://www.montviewfarm.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Montview+Neighborhood+farm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.montviewfarm.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBukowskiMunsell2018" class="citation book cs1">Bukowski, Catherine; Munsell, John (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44ViDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83">The Community Food Forest Handbook: How to Plan, Organize, & Nurture Edible Gathering Places</a>. Chelsea Green. pp. 83–86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781603586443" title="Special:BookSources/9781603586443"><bdi>9781603586443</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081024110544/http://www.montviewfarm.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Community+Food+Forest+Handbook%3A+How+to+Plan%2C+Organize%2C+%26+Nurture+Edible+Gathering+Places&rft.pages=83-86&rft.pub=Chelsea+Green&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781603586443&rft.aulast=Bukowski&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Munsell%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D44ViDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrostrom" class="citation web cs1">Brostrom, Cara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tellnewengland.com/foodforest">"An Urban Food Forest: The Gift of Harvest"</a>. tell New England.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tell+New+England&rft.atitle=An+Urban+Food+Forest%3A+The+Gift+of+Harvest&rft.aulast=Brostrom&rft.aufirst=Cara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftellnewengland.com%2Ffoodforest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dotnews.com/2018/he-s-mission-turn-boston-collection-food-forests">"He's on a mission to turn Boston into a collection of food forests"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/fgnetwork.html">the original</a> on 18 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Agroforestry+and+Forest+Garden+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.agroforestry.co.uk%2Ffgnetwork.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2014" class="citation web cs1">Crawford, Martin (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BxX6k4pU4Gt1MHpEeHh2NzNJYXc/edit">"List of visitable forest garden and agroforestry projects in the UK, Europe and North America"</a>. Agroforestry Research Trust.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=List+of+visitable+forest+garden+and+agroforestry+projects+in+the+UK%2C+Europe+and+North+America&rft.pub=Agroforestry+Research+Trust&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.google.com%2Ffile%2Fd%2F0BxX6k4pU4Gt1MHpEeHh2NzNJYXc%2Fedit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phoenicurus-permacultura.org/2016/01/22/el-verger-de-phoenicurus-un-bosc-comestible-mediterrani/">"El verger de Phoenicurus, un bosc comestible mediterrani"</a>. phoenicurus (in Catalan). 22 January 2016. 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Research Proposal to the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, World Agroforestry Center, Nairobi. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReij" class="citation web cs1">Reij, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://africa-regreening.blogspot.com/">"African Re-greening Initiatives"</a> (Blog). Africa Regreening. 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Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA), Centre National de Recherches Agronomiques, Replublique du Senegal Ministere de l'Agriculture / World Vision Senegal. </li> <li id="cite_note-Reij-Sahel-2009-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reij-Sahel-2009_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reij-Sahel-2009_163-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reij-Sahel-2009_163-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReijTappanSmale2009" class="citation book cs1">Reij, Chris; Tappan, Gray; Smale, Melinda (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/130817/filename/131028.pdf">"Chapter 7, Regreening the Sahel"</a> (PDF). In Spielman, David; Pandya-Lorch, Rajul (eds.). Millions Fed – Proven Successes in Agricultural Development. Washington: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). pp. 53–58. Retrieved 16 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%2C+Regreening+the+Sahel&rft.btitle=Millions+Fed+%E2%80%93+Proven+Successes+in+Agricultural+Development&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=53-58&rft.pub=International+Food+Policy+Research+Institute+%28IFPRI%29&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Reij&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.au=Tappan%2C+Gray&rft.au=Smale%2C+Melinda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febrary.ifpri.org%2Futils%2Fgetfile%2Fcollection%2Fp15738coll2%2Fid%2F130817%2Ffilename%2F131028.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Diagne, M., 2012, "Evaluation Finale du Projet Beysatol", World Vision Senegal. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Weston, P. and Hong, R., 2012, "End-of-Phase Evaluation Report: Talensi FMNR Project", World Vision Australia / World Vision Ghana. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHertsgaard2011" class="citation news cs1">Hertsgaard, Mark (28 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/farmers-in-sahel-beat-back-drought-and-climate-change-with-trees/">"The Great Green Wall: African Farmers Beat Back Drought and Climate Change with Trees"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved 16 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Great+Green+Wall%3A+African+Farmers+Beat+Back+Drought+and+Climate+Change+with+Trees&rft.date=2011-01-28&rft.aulast=Hertsgaard&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Ffarmers-in-sahel-beat-back-drought-and-climate-change-with-trees%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunch2011" class="citation book cs1">Bunch, Roland (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110418193135/http://www.worldwatch.org/sow11">"Chapter 6: Africa's Soil Fertility Crisis and the Coming Famine"</a>. State of the World 2011: Innovations that Nourish the Planet. The Worldwatch Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwatch.org/sow11">the original</a> on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 16 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Africa%E2%80%99s+Soil+Fertility+Crisis+and+the+Coming+Famine&rft.btitle=State+of+the+World+2011%3A+Innovations+that+Nourish+the+Planet&rft.pub=The+Worldwatch+Institute&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bunch&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwatch.org%2Fsow11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arborday.org/programs/awards/2012/?award=Education%20Innovation">"2012 National Arbor Day Awards Award for Education Innovation"</a>. Arbor Day Foundation. Retrieved 16 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arbor+Day+Foundation&rft.atitle=2012+National+Arbor+Day+Awards+Award+for+Education+Innovation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arborday.org%2Fprograms%2Fawards%2F2012%2F%3Faward%3DEducation%2520Innovation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnaup2012" class="citation news cs1">Knaup, Horand (18 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/natur/sahelzone-fmnr-soll-ausbreitung-der-wueste-stoppen-a-838840.html">"Mister Rinaudo will die Wüste"</a>. Spiegel Online. Retrieved 16 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spiegel+Online&rft.atitle=Mister+Rinaudo+will+die+W%C3%BCste&rft.date=2012-06-18&rft.aulast=Knaup&rft.aufirst=Horand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fwissenschaft%2Fnatur%2Fsahelzone-fmnr-soll-ausbreitung-der-wueste-stoppen-a-838840.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlberici2012" class="citation news cs1">Alberici, Emma (9 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/lateline/reforestation-project-adds-hope-to-food-crisis/4119876">"Reforestation project adds hope to food crisis"</a> (Transcript). Lateline. ABC. Retrieved 16 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lateline&rft.atitle=Reforestation+project+adds+hope+to+food+crisis&rft.date=2012-07-09&rft.aulast=Alberici&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Flateline%2Freforestation-project-adds-hope-to-food-crisis%2F4119876&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>d'Arms, Deborha 2011. Jardin d'Or (Garden of Gold): A Treatise on Forest Gardening, Recreating Sustainable Gardens of Eden. Los Gatos, CA: Robertson Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1611700299" title="Special:BookSources/978-1611700299">978-1611700299</a>.</li> <li>Douglas, J. Sholto and Hart, Robert A. de J. 1985. Forest Farming. Intermediate Technology. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-946688-30-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-946688-30-3">0-946688-30-3</a>.</li> <li>Fern, Ken 1997. Plants for a Future: Edible and Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Hampshire: Permanent Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85623-011-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-85623-011-2">1-85623-011-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hart_(horticulturist)" title="Robert Hart (horticulturist)">Hart, Robert A. de J.</a> (1996). Beyond the Forest Garden. Gaia Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/185675037X" title="Special:BookSources/185675037X"><bdi>185675037X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Forest+Garden&rft.pub=Gaia+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=185675037X&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.+de+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAgroforestry" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Jacke, Dave, and Toensmeier, Eric 2005. Edible Forest Gardens. Two volume set. Volume One: Ecological Vision and Theory for Temperate Climate Permaculture, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931498-79-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-931498-79-2">1-931498-79-2</a>. Volume Two: Ecological Design and Practice for Temperate Climate Permaculture, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931498-80-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-931498-80-6">1-931498-80-6</a>. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green.</li> <li>Jannaway, Kathleen 1991. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/AbundantLiving">Abundant Living in the Coming Age of the Tree</a>. Movement for Compassionate Living. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9517328-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-9517328-0-3">0-9517328-0-3</a>.</li> <li>Smith, Joseph Russell 1988 (first published in 1929). Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture. Island Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-933280-44-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-933280-44-0">0-933280-44-0</a></li> <li>Mir, Gisela Biffen, Mark 2021. Bosques y jardines de alimentos. La Fertilidad de la Tierra Ediciones. (in Spanish) ISBN 978-84-121830-1-6</li> <li>T.D.Pennignton and E.C.M. Fernandes (editors) "The Genus Inga, Utilization" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbd.int/doc/case-studies/tttc/tttc-00161-en.pdf">Inga species and alley-cropping</a> by Mike Hands, Kew Publications.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>. 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decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Agroforestry" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.permaculturenews.org/2011/10/21/why-food-forests/">Why Food Forests?</a>, Permaculture Research Institute</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.motherearthnews.com/organic-gardening/plant-an-edible-forest-garden-zmaz07aszgoe/">Plant an Edible Forest Garden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mother_Earth_News" title="Mother Earth News">Mother Earth News</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/dec/06/ethicalliving.conservation">The garden of the future?</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.permaculture.org.uk/our-work/forest-gardens">Forest gardens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permaculture_Association" title="Permaculture Association">Permaculture Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mayaforestgardeners.org/">El Pilar Forest Garden Network</a>, information on traditional Maya forest gardening</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/practices/forestfarming.shtml">National Agroforestry Center (USDA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/practices/ff.php">Agroforestry Practices</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130309022937/http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/practices/ff.php">Archived</a> 2013-03-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by The Center for Agroforestry, University of Missouri.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hwwff.cce.cornell.edu/">Hwwff.cce.cornell.edu</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/fletcher/programs/herbs/crops/medicinal/forest-farming-2007.html">Ces.ncsu.edu</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://perennialagriculture.institute/2023/01/10/trees-with-edible-leaves-pais-latest-publication/">Trees with Edible Leaves</a> The Perennial Agriculture Institute.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ntfpinfo.us/">Ntfpinfo.us</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222230/http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/Forestry/wildplant/forest_farming_proceedings.pdf">Dcnr.state.pa.us</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ingafoundation.org">Inga Foundation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rainforestsaver.org">Rainforest Saver Foundation (Inga alley cropping projects in Honduras and Cameroon)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agrometeorology.org/topics/accounts-of-operational-agrometeorology/inga-alley-cropping-as-an-agrometeorological-service-to-slash-and-burn-farmers/?searchterm=inga">Inga alley cropping as an agrometeorogical service to slash and burn cultivation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120526062637/http://www.agrometeorology.org/topics/accounts-of-operational-agrometeorology/inga-alley-cropping-as-an-agrometeorological-service-to-slash-and-burn-farmers/?searchterm=inga">Archived</a> 26 May 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.funavid.com/home/what-is-inga-alley-cropping/">What is inga alley cropping?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fmnrhub.com.au/">Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration Website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ifpri.org/book-5826/millionsfed/cases/innovation">Re-Greening the Sahel</a> at <a href="/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institute" title="International Food Policy Research Institute">IFPRI</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://permaculture.org.au/2008/09/24/the-development-of-farmer-managed-natural-regeneration/">The Development of Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://permaculture.org.au/2010/09/21/farmer-managed-natural-regeneration-video/">Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration – Video</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/practices/alleycropping.shtml">National Agroforesty Center (USDA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldagroforestry.org">World Agroforestry Centre</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreststreesagroforestry.org/">The CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agroforestry.net.au">Australian agroforestry</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenbeltmovement.org">Green Belt Movement</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pfaf.org">Plants For A Future</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agroof.net">Agroforestry in France and Europe</a></li></ul> Media <ul><li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/org.centerforagroforestry.practices.1">Agroforestry Practices – Alley Cropping (2004)</a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>..</li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/org.centerforagroforestry.practices.5">Agroforestry Practices – Forest Farming (2004)</a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>..</li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/org.centerforagroforestry.practices.2">Agroforestry Practices – Riparian Forest Buffers (2004)</a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>..</li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/org.centerforagroforestry.practices.3">Agroforestry Practices – Silvopasture (2004)</a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>..</li> <li>The short film <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/org.centerforagroforestry.practices.4">Agroforestry Practices – Windbreaks (2004)</a> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>..</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vfCPs-Uyvt8">Agroforestry, stakes and perspectives.</a> Agroof Production, Liagre F. and Girardin N.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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aria-labelledby="Agriculture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Agriculture footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Agriculture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_agriculture" title="Outline of agriculture">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_agriculture_articles" title="Index of agriculture articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturist" title="Agriculturist">Agriculturist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural Engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmworker" title="Farmworker">Farm worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herder" title="Herder">Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_system" title="Food system">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agribusiness" title="Agribusiness">Agribusiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_cooperative" title="Agricultural cooperative">Agricultural cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_supply_store" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural supply store">Agricultural supplies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_technology" title="Agricultural technology">Agricultural technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Agriculture">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_biotechnology" title="Agricultural biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li></ul></li> <li>Agroforestry</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">Animal husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">Animal-free agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">Cash crop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_agriculture" title="Cellular agriculture">Cellular agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_methods" title="Cultural methods">Cultural methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_farming" title="Contract farming">Contract farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensive_farming" title="Extensive farming">Extensive farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmhouse" title="Farmhouse">Farmhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_ratio" title="Feed ratio">Feed ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_range" title="Free range">Free range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">Intensive farming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">pigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_crop_farming" title="Intensive crop farming">crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanised_agriculture" title="Mechanised agriculture">Mechanised agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paludiculture" title="Paludiculture">Paludiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">Plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">Polyculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rice-duck_farming" title="Rice-duck farming">Rice-duck farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice-fish_system" title="Rice-fish system">Rice-fish system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">Sustainable food system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_universities_and_colleges" title="List of agricultural universities and colleges">Universities and colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_agriculture" title="Urban agriculture">Urban agriculture</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domesticated_plants_and_animals_of_Austronesia" title="Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_History_Review" title="Agricultural History Review">Agricultural History Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Argentina" title="History of agriculture in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Canada" title="History of agriculture in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_China" title="History of agriculture in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Chile" title="History of agriculture in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_organic_farming" title="History of organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Palestine" title="History of agriculture in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_history_of_Peru" title="Agricultural history of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Cheshire" title="History of agriculture in Cheshire">Cheshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Scotland" title="History of agriculture in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_agriculture" title="History of African-American agriculture">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_California" title="History of agriculture in California">California</a></li></ul></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">Farming Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaics" title="Agrivoltaics">Agrivoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">Cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming" title="Dairy farming">Dairy farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goat_farming" title="Goat farming">Goat farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convertible_husbandry" title="Convertible husbandry">Convertible husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_grazing" title="Rotational grazing">Rotational grazing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponics" title="Hydroponics">Hydroponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_farming" title="Insect farming">Insect farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_farming" title="Mixed farming">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">Monoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddy_field" title="Paddy field">Paddy field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral farming">Pastoral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bocage" title="Bocage">Bocage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig_farming" title="Pig farming">Pig farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">Orchards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">Subsistence agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheep_farming" title="Sheep farming">Sheep farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Environmental impact</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_expansion" title="Agricultural expansion">Agricultural expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural wastewater">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" title="Environmental impact of irrigation">Environmental impact of irrigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Climate change and agriculture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agricultural_machinery" title="Category:Agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_by_country" title="Category:Agriculture by country">Agriculture by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_companies" title="Category:Agriculture companies">Agriculture companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" title="Category:Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_agriculture" title="Category:History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Livestock" title="Category:Livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Meat_industry" title="Category:Meat industry">Meat industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Poultry_farming" title="Category:Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_and_the_environment" title="Category:Agriculture and the environment">Agriculture and the environment</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturist" title="Agriculturist">Agriculturist profession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_machinery" title="List of agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_origins" title="List of food origins">Food origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agriculture_ministries" title="List of agriculture ministries">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_universities_and_colleges" title="List of agricultural universities and colleges">Universities and colleges</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture" title="Category:Agriculture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Agriculture" title="Portal:Agriculture">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" class="extiw" title="commons:Agriculture">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Agriculture" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Agriculture">Wikiproject</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Forestry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forestry" title="Template:Forestry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forestry" title="Template talk:Forestry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forestry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forestry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Forestry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_forestry_articles" title="Index of forestry articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_forest_area" title="List of countries by forest area">Forest areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_ministries" title="List of forestry ministries">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forest_research_institutes" title="List of forest research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_universities_and_colleges" title="List of forestry universities and colleges">Colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_journals" title="List of forestry journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbor_Day" title="Arbor Day">Arbor Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Agroforestry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dehesa" title="Dehesa">dehesa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog forestry">Analog forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_to_nature_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Close to nature forestry">Close to nature forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_forestry" title="Community forestry">Community forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_forestry" title="Energy forestry">Energy forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaforestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Permaforestry">Permaforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">Plantation forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_forestry_in_India" title="Social forestry in India">Social forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forestry">Sustainable forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest" title="Urban forest">Urban forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arboriculture" title="Arboriculture">Arboriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">Controlled burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">coarse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driftwood" title="Driftwood">driftwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_woody_debris" title="Large woody debris">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_jam" title="Log jam">log jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash_(logging)" title="Slash (logging)">slash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_thinning" title="Ecological thinning">Ecological thinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_aged_timber_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Even aged timber management">Even-aged management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dynamics" title="Forest dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_informatics" title="Forest informatics">informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_integrated_pest_management" title="Forest integrated pest management">IPM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest governance">governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Information_Service" title="Global Forest Information Service">Global Forest Information Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">old-growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_pathology" title="Forest pathology">pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_stand" title="Forest stand">stand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_transition" title="Forest transition">transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trillion_Tree_Campaign" title="Trillion Tree Campaign">Trillion Tree Campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">Forest certification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm#American_Tree_Farm_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">ATFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CarbonFix_Standard" title="CarbonFix Standard">CFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council#Standards,_certification_and_accreditation" title="Forest Stewardship Council">FSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_Endorsement_of_Forest_Certification" title="Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification">PEFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative" title="Sustainable Forestry Initiative">SFI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainforest_Alliance#Sustainable_forestry_certification" title="Rainforest Alliance">SmartWood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_Carbon_Code" title="Woodland Carbon Code">Woodland Carbon Code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestation">Forestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Formally designated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_and_yield_modelling" title="Growth and yield modelling">Growth and yield modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" title="Genetically modified tree">GM trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-Tree" title="I-Tree">i-Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_allometry" title="Tree allometry">allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">breeding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_measurement" title="Tree measurement">Tree measurement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_crown_measurement" title="Tree crown measurement">crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_girth_measurement" title="Tree girth measurement">girth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_height_measurement" title="Tree height measurement">height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_volume_measurement" title="Tree volume measurement">volume</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environmental topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain#Forests_and_other_vegetation" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_forest" title="Ghost forest">Ghost forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_grading" title="High grading">High grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timber_mafia" title="Timber mafia">timber mafia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species#Forestry" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilding_conifer" title="Wilding conifer">wilding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Tree_Initiative" title="Million Tree Initiative">Million Tree Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">REDD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chitemene" title="Chitemene">chitemene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">slash-and-char</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svedjebruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Svedjebruk">svedjebruk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_recycling" title="Timber recycling">Timber recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipko_movement" title="Chipko movement">Tree hugging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">Coppicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">Forest farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmilling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanbark" title="Tanbark">tanbark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_railway" title="Forest railway">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">Tree farm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_cultivation" title="Christmas tree cultivation">Christmas trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_fuel" title="Wood fuel">fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spruce-pine-fir" title="Spruce-pine-fir">spruce-pine-fir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_woodworking" title="Green woodworking">green woodworking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">Forester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arborist" title="Arborist">Arborist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_bucking" title="Log bucking">Bucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choker_setter" title="Choker setter">Choker setter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felling" title="Felling">Feller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_firefighter" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildland firefighter">Firefighter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handcrew" title="Handcrew">handcrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interagency_hotshot_crew" class="mw-redirect" title="Interagency hotshot crew">hotshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout" title="Fire lookout">lookout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">smokejumper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_driving" title="Log driving">River driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging_truck" title="Logging truck">Truck driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_scaler" title="Log scaler">Log scaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumberjack" title="Lumberjack">Lumberjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_ranger" title="Park ranger">Ranger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resin_extraction" title="Resin extraction">Resin tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">Rubber tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_weaver" title="Shingle weaver">Shingle weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Timber cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Tree planter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_processing" title="Wood processing">Wood process engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Forestry" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Forestry">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/16px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/24px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Plants" title="Portal:Plants">Plants portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_template.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/16px-Tree_template.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/24px-Tree_template.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/32px-Tree_template.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Trees" title="Portal:Trees">Trees portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry" title="Category:Forestry">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_forestry" title="Outline of forestry">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Deforestation_and_desertification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Template:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Template talk:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Deforestation_and_desertification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assarting" title="Assarting">Assarting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation by region">Deforestation by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountaintop_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountaintop removal">Mountaintop removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">Slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">Slash-and-char</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Illegal slash and burn in Madagascar"><img alt="Illegal slash and burn in Madagascar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/140px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/210px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/280px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2166" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridification" title="Aridification">Aridification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_desertification" title="Historic desertification">Historic desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moisture_recycling" title="Moisture recycling">Moisture recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_the_Gobi_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in the Gobi Desert">Gobi Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Lebanon" title="Desertification in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_the_Sahel" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in the Sahel">Sahel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a></li> <li>Arid Lands Information Network</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_grazing" title="Conservation grazing">Conservation grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_greening" title="Desert greening">Desert greening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmer-managed natural regeneration">Farmer-managed regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_Mechanisms" title="Flexible Mechanisms">Flexible Mechanisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazing" class="mw-redirect" title="Managed intensive rotational grazing">Managed intensive rotational grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oasification" title="Oasification">Oasification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index" title="Forest Landscape Integrity Index">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape" title="Intact forest landscape">Intact forest landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use, land-use change and forestry">Land use, land-use change and forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_landscape" title="Natural landscape">Natural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Permaculture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Permaculture" title="Template:Permaculture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Permaculture" title="Template talk:Permaculture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Permaculture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Permaculture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Permaculture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosynthesis" title="Ecosynthesis">Ecosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaforestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Permaforestry">Permaforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">Polyculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistic_gardening" title="Synergistic gardening">Synergistic gardening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Companion_planting" title="Companion planting">Companion planting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassed_waterway" title="Grassed waterway">Grassed waterway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holzer_Permaculture" title="Holzer Permaculture">Holzer Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">Intercropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyline_design" title="Keyline design">Keyline design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised-bed_gardening" title="Raised-bed gardening">Raised-bed gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheet_mulching" title="Sheet mulching">Sheet mulching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waru_Waru" title="Waru Waru">Waru Waru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Composting_toilet" title="Composting toilet">Composting toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folkewall" title="Folkewall">Folkewall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf_mold" title="Leaf mold">Leaf mold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">Mulch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_mushroom_compost" title="Spent mushroom compost">Spent mushroom compost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters (agriculture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree bog">Tree bog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Permaculture_organizations" title="Category:Permaculture organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon_Food_Forest" title="Beacon Food Forest">Beacon Food Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Alternative_Technology" title="Centre for Alternative Technology">Centre for Alternative Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture_Association" title="Permaculture Association">Permaculture Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture_Action_Network" title="Permaculture Action Network">Permaculture Action Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture_College_Australia" title="Permaculture College Australia">Permaculture College Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plants_for_a_Future" title="Plants for a Future">Plants for a Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomona_College_Organic_Farm" title="Pomona College Organic Farm">Pomona College Organic Farm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Permaculturalists" title="Category:Permaculturalists">Permaculturalists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People_in_permaculture" class="mw-redirect" title="People in permaculture">People in permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Mollison" title="Bill Mollison">Bill Mollison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brad_Lancaster" title="Brad Lancaster">Brad Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Blume" title="David Blume">David Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Holmgren" title="David Holmgren">David Holmgren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoff_Lawton" title="Geoff Lawton">Geoff Lawton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ianto_Evans" title="Ianto Evans">Ianto Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Whitefield" title="Patrick Whitefield">Patrick Whitefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Stamets" title="Paul Stamets">Paul Stamets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wheaton" title="Paul Wheaton">Paul Wheaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robyn_Francis" title="Robyn Francis">Robyn Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Stout" title="Ruth Stout">Ruth Stout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepp_Holzer" title="Sepp Holzer">Sepp Holzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Permaculture" title="Category:Permaculture">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Permaculture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Permaculture">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Permaculture" class="extiw" title="wikt:Permaculture">Wiktionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Horticulture_and_gardening" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Horticulture_and_gardening" title="Template:Horticulture and gardening"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Horticulture_and_gardening" title="Template talk:Horticulture and gardening"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Horticulture_and_gardening" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Horticulture and gardening"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Horticulture_and_gardening" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gardening" title="Gardening">gardening</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gardening" title="Gardening">Gardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allotment_(gardening)" title="Allotment (gardening)">Allotment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arboretum" title="Arboretum">Arboretum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_gardening" title="Butterfly gardening">Butterfly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-friendly_gardening" title="Climate-friendly gardening">Climate-friendly gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_gardening" title="Community gardening">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodscaping" title="Foodscaping">Foodscaping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_intensive_gardening" title="French intensive gardening">French intensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden" title="Garden">Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_design" title="Garden design">Garden design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_garden_design" title="Computer-aided garden design">computer-aided</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundskeeping" title="Groundskeeping">Groundskeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_tool" title="Garden tool">Garden tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_wall" title="Green wall">Green wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_gardening" title="Guerrilla gardening">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_historic_gardens" title="Conservation and restoration of historic gardens">Historic conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gardening" title="History of gardening">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_landscaping" title="Natural landscaping">Native</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parterre" title="Parterre">Parterre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proplifting" title="Proplifting">Proplifting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised-bed_gardening" title="Raised-bed gardening">Raised bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_foot_gardening" title="Square foot gardening">Square foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_gardening" title="Sustainable gardening">Sustainable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeriscaping" title="Xeriscaping">Xeriscaping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_garden_types" title="List of garden types">Types of gardens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_garden" title="Alpine garden">Alpine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Gardens of ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardening_in_Australia" title="Gardening in Australia">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_garden" class="mw-redirect" title="Back garden">Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_garden" title="Baroque garden">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_garden" title="Biblical garden">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bog_garden" title="Bog garden">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_garden" title="Botanical garden">Botanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottle_garden" title="Bottle garden">Bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_house" title="Butterfly house">Butterfly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_gardens" title="Byzantine gardens">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cactus_garden" title="Cactus garden">Cactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Revival_garden" title="Colonial Revival garden">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_garden" class="mw-redirect" title="Color garden">Color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_garden" title="Communal garden">Communal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garden_square" title="Garden square">Garden square</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_gardening" title="Community gardening">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_garden" title="Container garden">Container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottage_garden" title="Cottage garden">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_garden" title="Dutch garden">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_garden" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian garden">East Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_garden" title="Chinese garden">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lingnan_garden" title="Lingnan garden">Cantonese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_garden" title="Japanese garden">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roji" title="Roji">Roji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_rock_garden" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese rock garden">Zen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_garden" title="Korean garden">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2n_non_b%E1%BB%99" title="Hòn non bộ">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_landscape_garden" title="English landscape garden">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharawadgi" title="Sharawadgi">Sharawadgi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernery" title="Fernery">Fernery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinampa" title="Chinampa">Floating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower_garden" title="Flower garden">Flower</a></li> <li>French <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_formal_garden" title="French formal garden">formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_landscape_garden" title="French landscape garden">landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_the_French_Renaissance" title="Gardens of the French Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_yard" title="Front yard">Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_garden" title="German garden">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek gardens">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">Greenhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanging_garden_(cultivation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanging garden (cultivation)">Hanging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_garden" title="Italian Renaissance garden">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyhole_garden" title="Keyhole garden">Keyhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_garden" title="Kitchen garden">Kitchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knot_garden" title="Knot garden">Knot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_garden" title="Market garden">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_garden" title="Mary garden">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_garden" title="Medieval garden">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastic_garden" title="Monastic garden">Monastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_garden" title="Mughal garden">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">Orchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pekarangan" title="Pekarangan">Indonesian home garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C4%81gh_(garden)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bāgh (garden)">Bāgh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charbagh" title="Charbagh">Charbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradise_garden" title="Paradise garden">Paradise</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physic_garden" title="Physic garden">Physic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleasure_garden" title="Pleasure garden">Pleasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie#Prairie_garden" title="Prairie">Prairie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_garden" title="Pollinator garden">Pollinator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain_garden" title="Rain garden">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_garden" title="Rock garden">Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_gardens" title="Roman gardens">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roof_garden" title="Roof garden">Roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_garden" title="Rose garden">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_garden" title="Sacred garden">Sacred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_garden" title="School garden">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardening_in_Scotland" title="Gardening in Scotland">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_garden" title="Sculpture garden">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_garden" title="Sensory garden">Sensory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_garden" title="Shade garden">Shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakespeare_garden" title="Shakespeare garden">Shakespeare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrubbery" title="Shrubbery">Shrubbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_garden" title="Spanish garden">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_garden" title="Tea garden">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_garden" title="Therapeutic garden">Therapeutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_garden" title="Trial garden">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_garden" title="Tropical garden">Tropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_garden" title="Victory garden">Victory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walled_garden" title="Walled garden">Walled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_garden" title="Wildlife garden">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_garden" title="Winter garden">Winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoo" title="Zoo">Zoological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">stock-free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_agriculture" title="Urban agriculture">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arboriculture" title="Arboriculture">Arboriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonsai" title="Bonsai">Bonsai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saikei" title="Saikei">Saikei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_planting" title="Companion planting">Companion planting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">Crop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_valuable_crops_and_livestock_products" title="List of most valuable crops and livestock products">most valuable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutting_(plant)" title="Cutting (plant)">Cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticultural_flora" title="Horticultural flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture_in_Canada" title="Floriculture in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Floriculture in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%BCgelkultur" title="Hügelkultur">Hügelkultur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Fruticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" title="Genetically modified tree">Genetically modified tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroculture">Hydroculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_horticulture" title="Indigenous horticulture">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">Intercropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olericulture" title="Olericulture">Olericulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_breeding" title="Plant breeding">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuttings_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuttings (plant)">cuttings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-flowering" title="Free-flowering">free-flowering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_propagation" title="Plant propagation">propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought_tolerance" title="Drought tolerance">drought tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardiness_(plants)" title="Hardiness (plants)">hardiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postharvest_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Postharvest physiology">Postharvest physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roguing" title="Roguing">Roguing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_horticulture" title="Tropical horticulture">Tropical</a></li> <li>Urban <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_agriculture" title="Urban agriculture">agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_horticulture" title="Urban horticulture">horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">Viticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">Monoculture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_horticulture" title="Organic horticulture">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grafting" title="Grafting">Grafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_organic_gardening_and_farming" title="Outline of organic gardening and farming">List of organic gardening and farming topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_organic_agriculture" title="Vegan organic agriculture">Vegan organic agriculture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant protection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fungicide" title="Fungicide">Fungicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles" title="Index of pesticide articles">Index of pesticide articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fungicides" title="List of fungicides">List of fungicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_insecticides" title="List of insecticides">List of insecticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_disease_forecasting" title="Plant disease forecasting">Plant disease forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruning" title="Pruning">Pruning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weed_control" title="Weed control">Weed control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquamog" title="Aquamog">Aquamog weed remover</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_orchard" title="Community orchard">Community orchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_garden_features" title="List of garden features">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_design" title="Floral design">Floral design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floristry" title="Floristry">Floristry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikebana" title="Ikebana">Ikebana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundskeeping" title="Groundskeeping">Groundskeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_centre" title="Garden centre">Garden centre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_tourism" title="Garden tourism">Garden tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens" title="List of gardens">List of gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Lists of plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial" title="Perennial">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_collecting" title="Plant collecting">Plant collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turf_management" title="Turf management">Turf management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg/32px-France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg/48px-France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg/64px-France_Loiret_La_Bussiere_Potager_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3294" data-file-height="2227" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Gardening" title="Portal:Gardening">Gardening portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Horticulture" title="Category:Horticulture">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Horticulture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Horticulture">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Horticulture_and_Gardening" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Horticulture and Gardening">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Non-timber_forest_products" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Non-timber_forest_products" title="Template:Non-timber forest products"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Non-timber_forest_products" title="Template talk:Non-timber forest products"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Non-timber_forest_products" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Non-timber forest products"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Non-timber_forest_products" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">Non-timber forest products</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_product" title="Animal product">Animal products</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">Furs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">Honey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pine_honey" title="Pine honey">pine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(hunting)" title="Game (hunting)">Wild game</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berry" title="Berry">Berries</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fruit_tree" title="Fruit tree">tree fruit</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">Banana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilberry" title="Bilberry">Bilberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcinia_binucao" title="Garcinia binucao">Binukaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackberry" title="Blackberry">Blackberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blueberry" title="Blueberry">Blueberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breadfruit" title="Breadfruit">Breadfruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">Cocoa bean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">Coconut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durian" title="Durian">Durian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcinia_gummi-gutta" title="Garcinia gummi-gutta">Gambooge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huckleberry" title="Huckleberry">Huckleberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackfruit" title="Jackfruit">Jackfruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juniper_berry" title="Juniper berry">Juniper berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccinium_vitis-idaea" title="Vaccinium vitis-idaea">Lingonberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raspberry" title="Raspberry">Raspberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawberry" title="Strawberry">Strawberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamarind" title="Tamarind">Tamarind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragaria_vesca" title="Fragaria vesca">Woodland strawberry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaf_vegetables" title="List of leaf vegetables">Edible plants</a> / <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betel" title="Betel">Betel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiddlehead" title="Fiddlehead">Fiddlehead ferns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_palm" title="Heart of palm">Heart of palm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhuca_longifolia#Mahuwa_flowers" title="Madhuca longifolia">Mahuwa flowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metroxylon_sagu" title="Metroxylon sagu">Sago palm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycas_circinalis" title="Cycas circinalis">queen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sassafras" title="Sassafras">Sassafras</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fil%C3%A9_powder" title="Filé powder">filé powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_beer" title="Root beer">root beer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serenoa" title="Serenoa">Saw palmetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginseng#Wild_ginseng" title="Ginseng">Wild ginseng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_onion" title="Wild onion">Wild onions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allium_ursinum" title="Allium ursinum">Bear garlic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allium_canadense" title="Allium canadense">Canada onion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allium_vineale" title="Allium vineale">Crow garlic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allium_bisceptrum" title="Allium bisceptrum">Twincrest onion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allium_validum" title="Allium validum">Pacific mountain onion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allium_tricoccum" title="Allium tricoccum">Ramps</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Edible_mushroom" title="Edible mushroom">Mushrooms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russula_vesca" title="Russula vesca">Bare-toothed russula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imleria_badia" title="Imleria badia">Bay bolete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leccinum_scabrum" title="Leccinum scabrum">Birch bolete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boletus_edulis" title="Boletus edulis">Cep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantharellus" title="Cantharellus">Chanterelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillaria_mellea" title="Armillaria mellea">Honey mushroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingzhi_(mushroom)" title="Lingzhi (mushroom)">Lingzhi</a> (reishi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsutake" title="Matsutake">Matsutake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agaricus_campestris" title="Agaricus campestris">Meadow mushroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morchella" title="Morchella">Morel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleurotus_ostreatus" title="Pleurotus ostreatus">Oyster mushroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrolepiota_procera" title="Macrolepiota procera">Parasol mushroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leccinum_aurantiacum" title="Leccinum aurantiacum">Red cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactarius_deliciosus" title="Lactarius deliciosus">Saffron milk cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suillus_luteus" title="Suillus luteus">Slippery jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">Truffle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricholoma_equestre" title="Tricholoma equestre">Yellow knight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nuts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allspice" title="Allspice">Allspice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areca_nut" title="Areca nut">Areca nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_leaf" title="Bay leaf">Bay leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">Black pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_nut" title="Brazil nut">Brazil nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">Cinnamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">Clove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazelnut" title="Hazelnut">Hazelnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scaphium_affine" title="Scaphium affine">Malva nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">Nutmeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pine_nut" title="Pine nut">Pine nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">Vanilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Oil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">waxes</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allanblackia_oil" title="Allanblackia oil">Allanblackia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babassu_oil" title="Babassu oil">Babassu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonia" title="Platonia">Bacuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candlenut_oil" title="Candlenut oil">Candlenut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theobroma_grandiflorum" title="Theobroma grandiflorum">Capuacu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnauba_wax" title="Carnauba wax">Carnauba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydnocarpus_wightiana_seed_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydnocarpus wightiana seed oil">Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus wightiana)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_butter" title="Cocoa butter">Cocoa butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucalyptol" title="Eucalyptol">Eucalyptol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus_oil" title="Eucalyptus oil">Eucalyptus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illipe" title="Illipe">Illipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_wax" title="Japan wax">Japan wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokum_butter" title="Kokum butter">Kokum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pycnanthus_angolensis" title="Pycnanthus angolensis">Kombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentadesma_butyracea" title="Pentadesma butyracea">Kpangnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusum_oil" title="Kusum oil">Kusum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichilia_emetica" title="Trichilia emetica">Mafura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhuca_longifolia#Oil" title="Madhuca longifolia">Mahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_oil" title="Mango oil">Mango butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrocaryum_murumuru" title="Astrocaryum murumuru">Murumuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagkesar_seed_oil" title="Nagkesar seed oil">Nagkesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">Palm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Palm_kernel_oil" title="Palm kernel oil">kernel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phulwara_oil" title="Phulwara oil">Phulwara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilu_oil" title="Pilu oil">Pilu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongamia_oil" title="Pongamia oil">Pongamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorea_robusta_seed_oil" title="Shorea robusta seed oil">Sal-seed (Shorea robusta)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandalwood_oil" title="Sandalwood oil">Sandalwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shea_butter" title="Shea butter">Shea butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamanu_oil" title="Tamanu oil">Tamanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_seed_oil" title="Tea seed oil">Tea-seed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_tree_oil" title="Tea tree oil">Tea-tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrocaryum_aculeatum" title="Astrocaryum aculeatum">Tucuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ucuhuba_seed_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ucuhuba seed oil">Ucuuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vateria_indica_oil" title="Vateria indica oil">Vateria indica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">Resins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzoin_(resin)" title="Benzoin (resin)">Benzoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birch_tar" class="mw-redirect" title="Birch tar">Birch tar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camphor" title="Camphor">Camphor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creosote#Wood-tar_creosote" title="Creosote">Creosote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">Frankincense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamboge" title="Gamboge">Gamboge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauri_gum" title="Kauri gum">Kauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacquer" title="Lacquer">Lacquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastic_(plant_resin)" title="Mastic (plant resin)">Mastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">Myrrh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pine_tar" title="Pine tar">Pine tar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">Pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosin" title="Rosin">Rosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">Turpentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varnish" title="Varnish">Varnish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a> / <a href="/wiki/Natural_gum" title="Natural gum">gum</a> / etc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birch_syrup" title="Birch syrup">Birch syrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicle" title="Chicle">Chicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chewing_gum" title="Chewing gum">chewing gum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_sugar" title="Coconut sugar">Coconut sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Date_sugar" title="Date sugar">Date sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_syrup" title="Fruit syrup">Fruit syrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_arabic" title="Gum arabic">Gum arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutta-percha" title="Gutta-percha">Gutta-percha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kino_(botany)" title="Kino (botany)">Kino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latex" title="Latex">Latex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maple_sugar" title="Maple sugar">Maple sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maple_syrup" title="Maple syrup">Maple syrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_sugar" title="Palm sugar">Palm sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">Palm wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akpeteshie" title="Akpeteshie">akpeteshie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogogoro" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogogoro">ogogoro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">Rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spruce_gum" title="Spruce gum">Spruce gum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amadou" title="Amadou">Amadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">Bamboo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_shoot" title="Bamboo shoot">edible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_musical_instruments" title="Bamboo musical instruments">musical instruments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_textile" title="Bamboo textile">textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark">Birch bark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birch_beer" title="Birch beer">Birch beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cork_(material)" title="Cork (material)">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Ferns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">Forage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncaria" title="Uncaria">Gambier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss#Commercial" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_dye" title="Natural dye">Natural dyes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henna" title="Henna">henna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">Quinine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rattan" title="Rattan">Rattan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">Shellac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanbark" title="Tanbark">Tanbark</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">tannin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diospyros_melanoxylon" title="Diospyros melanoxylon">Tendu leaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thatching" title="Thatching">Thatching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_ivory" title="Vegetable ivory">Vegetable ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow#Medicinal" title="Willow">Willow bark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dehesa" title="Dehesa">Dehesa (Iberian agroforestry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">Forest farming</a> / <a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey_hunting" title="Honey hunting">Honey hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_produce_(India)" title="Forest produce (India)">Indian forest produce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_hunting" title="Mushroom hunting">Mushroom hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_stores" title="Naval stores">Naval stores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resin_extraction" title="Resin extraction">Resin extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">Rubber tapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildcrafting" title="Wildcrafting">Wildcrafting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Non-timber_forest_products" title="Category:Non-timber forest products">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Non-timber_forest_products" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Non-timber forest products">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Simple_living" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Simple_living" title="Template:Simple living"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Simple_living" title="Template talk:Simple living"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_currency" title="Local currency">Local currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-impact_development_(UK)" title="Low-impact development (UK)">Low-impact development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_frills" title="No frills">No frills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-the-grid" title="Off-the-grid">Off-the-grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regift" class="mw-redirect" title="Regift">Regift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattvic_diet" title="Sattvic diet">Sattvic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-sufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-sufficiency">Self-sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_living" title="Slow living">Slow living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow movement (culture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">Subsistence agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Sustainable living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_sanitation" title="Sustainable sanitation">Sustainable sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">War tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WWOOF" title="WWOOF">WWOOF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Religious and spiritual</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">Asceticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detachment_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detachment (philosophy)">Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendicant" title="Mendicant">Mendicant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Monasticism" title="New Monasticism">New Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_dress" title="Plain dress">Plain dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_people" title="Plain people">Plain people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimony_of_Simplicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Testimony of Simplicity">Testimony of simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_communities" title="Twelve Tribes communities">Twelve Tribes communities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Secular movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-the-land_movement" title="Back-to-the-land movement">Back-to-the-land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Ecology" title="Open Source Ecology">Open Source Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_house_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Small house movement">Small house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiny_house_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiny house movement">Tiny house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_town" title="Transition town">Transition town</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Notable writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Berry" title="Wendell Berry">Wendell Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Callenbach" title="Ernest Callenbach">Ernest Callenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_Elgin" title="Duane Elgin">Duane Elgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gregg_(social_philosopher)" title="Richard Gregg (social philosopher)">Richard Gregg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Hodgkinson" title="Tom Hodgkinson">Tom Hodgkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_Hubbard" title="Harlan Hubbard">Harlan Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satish_Kumar" title="Satish Kumar">Satish Kumar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Nearing" title="Helen Nearing">Helen Nearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Nearing" title="Scott Nearing">Scott Nearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Pilgrim" title="Peace Pilgrim">Peace Pilgrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Rosen_(British_filmmaker)" title="Nick Rosen (British filmmaker)">Nick Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Semple" title="Dugald Semple">Dugald Semple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">E. F. Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Skene_Keith_(physician)" title="George Skene Keith (physician)">George Skene Keith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Modern-day adherents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Boyle_(Moneyless_Man)" title="Mark Boyle (Moneyless Man)">Mark Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Greenfield" title="Robin Greenfield">Robin Greenfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Kaczynski" title="Ted Kaczynski">Ted Kaczynski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentti_Linkola" title="Pentti Linkola">Pentti Linkola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Merkel" title="Jim Merkel">Jim Merkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Pilgrim" title="Peace Pilgrim">Peace Pilgrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suelo" title="Suelo">Suelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_(activist)" title="Thomas (activist)">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Anekdote_zur_Senkung_der_Arbeitsmoral" title="Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral">Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_from_Affluenza" title="Escape from Affluenza">Escape from Affluenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Life_(1975_TV_series)" title="The Good Life (1975 TV series)">The Good Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Moon_and_the_Sledgehammer" title="The Moon and the Sledgehammer">The Moon and the Sledgehammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Earth_News" title="Mother Earth News">Mother Earth News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Power_of_Half" title="The Power of Half">The Power of Half</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Is_Beautiful" title="Small Is Beautiful">Small Is Beautiful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluenza" title="Affluenza">Affluenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amateurism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amateurism">Amateurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">Degrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_miles" title="Food miles">Food miles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_Porch_Republic" title="Front Porch Republic">Front Porch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">The good life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonophobia" title="Hedonophobia">Hedonophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_living" title="Intentional living">Intentional living</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Gathering" title="Rainbow Gathering">Rainbow Gathering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_groups_in_Europe" title="Itinerant groups in Europe">Itinerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-technology">Low-technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Work–life interface">Work–life interface</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sustainability" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sustainability" title="Template:Sustainability"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sustainability" title="Template talk:Sustainability"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainability" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainability"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sustainability" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sustainability" title="Outline of sustainability">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sustainability_articles" title="Index of sustainability articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sustainability#Principles_and_concepts" title="Sustainability">Principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Consumption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropization" title="Anthropization">Anthropization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durable_good" title="Durable good">Durable good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_consumption" title="Green consumption">Green consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro-sustainability" title="Micro-sustainability">Micro-sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Over-consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-consumption">Over-consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_stewardship" title="Product stewardship">Product stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_return_on_investment" title="Social return on investment">Social return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steady-state_economy" title="Steady-state economy">Steady-state economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_advertising" title="Sustainability advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_brand" title="Sustainability brand">Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_marketing_myopia" title="Sustainability marketing myopia">Marketing myopia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumer_behaviour" title="Sustainable consumer behaviour">Consumer behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable market">Market</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_and_systemic_change_resistance" title="Sustainability and systemic change resistance">Systemic change resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population control">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_building" title="Natural building">Natural building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_industries" title="Sustainable industries">Sustainable industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_packaging" title="Sustainable packaging">Sustainable packaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">Endangered species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">Food</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civic_agriculture" title="Civic agriculture">Civic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community-supported_agriculture" title="Community-supported agriculture">Community-supported agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_diet" title="Sustainable diet">Sustainable diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fishery" title="Sustainable fishery">Sustainable fishery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_well_(condenser)" title="Air well (condenser)">Air well (condenser)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioretention" title="Bioretention">Bioretention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioswale" title="Bioswale">Bioswale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_roof" title="Blue roof">Blue roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catchwater" title="Catchwater">Catchwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_pond" title="Dew pond">Dew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_tank" title="Irrigation tank">Irrigation tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">Pico hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain_garden" title="Rain garden">Rain garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">Rainwater harvesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_tank" title="Rainwater tank">Rainwater tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">Reclaimed water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hydro" title="Small hydro">Small hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_drainage_system" title="Sustainable drainage system">Sustainable drainage system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_box_filter" title="Tree box filter">Tree box filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Water conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_recycling_shower" title="Water recycling shower">Water recycling shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-sensitive_urban_design" title="Water-sensitive urban design">Water-sensitive urban design</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accountability</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">Corporate environmental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">Environmental accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_measurement" title="Sustainability measurement">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_metrics_and_indices" title="Sustainability metrics and indices">Metrics and indices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_standards_and_certification" title="Sustainability standards and certification">Standards and certification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_yield" title="Sustainable yield">Sustainable yield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_advertising" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_art" title="Sustainable art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_business" title="Sustainable business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_community" title="Sustainable community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-cities" title="Eco-cities">Eco-cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-investing" title="Eco-investing">Eco-investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecovillage" title="Ecovillage">Ecovillage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_finance" title="Environmental finance">Environmental finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_in_construction" title="Sustainability in construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fashion" title="Sustainable fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_finance" title="Sustainable finance">Finance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_gardening" title="Sustainable gardening">Gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopark" title="Geopark">Geopark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally friendly">Green</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_development" title="Green development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_marketing" title="Green marketing">Marketing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_roof" title="Green roof">Green roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greening" title="Greening">Greening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_landscape_architecture" title="Sustainable landscape architecture">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_livelihood" title="Sustainable livelihood">Livelihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_movement" title="Organic movement">Organic movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainability organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_procurement" title="Sustainable procurement">Procurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_refurbishment" title="Sustainable refurbishment">Refurbishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_business" title="Socially responsible business">Socially responsible business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_marketing" title="Socially responsible marketing">Socially responsible marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_sanitation" title="Sustainable sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_sourcing" title="Sustainable sourcing">Sourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_sustainability" title="Space sustainability">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organization" title="Sustainability organization">Sustainability organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_drainage_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable urban drainage systems">Urban drainage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_infrastructure" title="Sustainable urban infrastructure">Urban infrastructure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_management" title="Sustainable management">Sustainable management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_and_environmental_management" title="Sustainability and environmental management">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_landscape_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated landscape management">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_materials_management" title="Sustainable materials management">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_management" title="Planetary management">Planetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agreements and conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environment" title="United Nations Conference on the Human Environment">UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brundtland_Commission" title="Brundtland Commission">Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Common_Future" title="Our Common Future">Our Common Future (1987)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit" title="Earth Summit">Earth Summit (1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development" title="Rio Declaration on Environment and Development">Rio Declaration on Environment and Development</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_21" title="Agenda 21">Agenda 21 (1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisbon_Principles" title="Lisbon Principles">Lisbon Principles</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Charter" title="Earth Charter">Earth Charter</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration" title="United Nations Millennium Declaration">UN Millennium Declaration (2000)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit_2002" title="Earth Summit 2002">Earth Summit 2002</a> (Rio+10, Johannesburg)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_Sustainable_Development" title="United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development">UN Conference on Sustainable Development</a> (Rio+20, 2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" 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