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id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Digestion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digestion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Digestion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digestion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proboscis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proboscis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Proboscis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proboscis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Skin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Nervous system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_cycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_cycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Life cycles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life_cycles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Life cycles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Life_cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Release" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Release"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Release</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Release-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Host_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Host_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Host control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Host_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_hosts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_hosts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Effects on hosts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_hosts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Economic impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Human infections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Acanthocephala</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A4%D9%88%D8%B3" title="شائكات الرؤوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شائكات الرؤوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikanba%C5%9Fl%C4%B1lar" title="Tikanbaşlılar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tikanbaşlılar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%81%D2%A1%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D3%99%D2%AF%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Сусҡа селәүсене – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сусҡа селәүсене" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%96_(%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B)" title="Скрэбні (паразіты) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Скрэбні (паразіты)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Бодлоглави червеи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бодлоглави червеи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acantoc%C3%A8fals" title="Acantocèfals – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Acantocèfals" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muragkigwa" title="Muragkigwa – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Muragkigwa" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrtej%C5%A1i" title="Vrtejši – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vrtejši" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kratzw%C3%BCrmer" title="Kratzwürmer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kratzwürmer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaa%CA%BC_d%C3%B3%C3%B3_ch%CA%BCosh_b%C3%ADch%C4%AF%CC%81%C4%AF%CC%81h_dadich%CA%BC%C3%ADzh%C3%AD" title="Yaaʼ dóó chʼosh bíchį́į́h dadichʼízhí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Yaaʼ dóó chʼosh bíchį́į́h dadichʼízhí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidak%C3%A4rssussid" title="Kidakärssussid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kidakärssussid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1" title="Ακανθοκέφαλα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ακανθοκέφαλα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akantocefaloj" title="Akantocefaloj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Akantocefaloj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="خارسرتباران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خارسرتباران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acantoc%C3%A9falos" title="Acantocéfalos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Acantocéfalos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%EB%91%90%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC" title="구두동물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="구두동물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="कंटशीर्ष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कंटशीर्ष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuka%C5%A1i" title="Kukaši – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kukaši" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephalo" title="Acanthocephalo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Acanthocephalo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9" title="תולעים קוצניות ראש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תולעים קוצניות ראש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF" title="ಅಂಕುಶಕಪಾಲಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಂಕುಶಕಪಾಲಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="აკანთოცეფალები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აკანთოცეფალები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Скребнилер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Скребнилер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnyoo_kichwa-miiba" title="Mnyoo kichwa-miiba – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mnyoo kichwa-miiba" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%82%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Тикен баштуулар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тикен баштуулар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%A1galvjt%C4%81rpi" title="Kāšgalvjtārpi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kāšgalvjtārpi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haokw%C3%B6rm" title="Haokwörm – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Haokwörm" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzog%C3%A1nyfej%C5%B1_f%C3%A9rgek" title="Buzogányfejű férgek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Buzogányfejű férgek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Боцкоглавци – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Боцкоглавци" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%B2" title="അക്കാന്തോക്കെഫല – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അക്കാന്തോക്കെഫല" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A4%D9%88%D8%B3" title="شائكات الرؤوس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شائكات الرؤوس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacing_kerawit" title="Cacing kerawit – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Cacing kerawit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haakwormen" title="Haakwormen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Haakwormen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%89%A4%E9%A0%AD%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="鉤頭動物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="鉤頭動物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haagwirmer" title="Haagwirmer – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Haagwirmer" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krassere" title="Krassere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Krassere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolcog%C5%82owy" title="Kolcogłowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kolcogłowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Скребни – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Скребни" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1%C4%8Dikohlavce" title="Háčikohlavce – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Háčikohlavce" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Je%C5%BEerilci" title="Ježerilci – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ježerilci" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Акантоцефале – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Акантоцефале" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4k%C3%A4k%C3%A4rs%C3%A4madot" title="Väkäkärsämadot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Väkäkärsämadot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakmaskar" title="Hakmaskar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hakmaskar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE" title="அக்காந்தொசெபலா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அக்காந்தொசெபலா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%98%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2" title="อะแคนโธเซฟาลา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อะแคนโธเซฟาลา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diken_ba%C5%9Fl%C4%B1_solucanlar" title="Diken başlı solucanlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Diken başlı solucanlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Акантоцефали – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Акантоцефали" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%A0nh_Giun_%C4%91%E1%BA%A7u_gai" title="Ngành Giun đầu gai – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngành Giun đầu gai" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Acanthocephala" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A3%98%E5%A4%B4%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E9%97%A8" title="棘头动物门 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="棘头动物门" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C4%B1k%C3%AA_seret%C3%AAliy%C4%B1ni" title="Malıkê seretêliyıni – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Malıkê seretêliyıni" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A3%98%E5%A4%B4%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E9%97%A8" title="棘头动物门 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="棘头动物门" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Group of parasitic thorny-headed worms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Acanthocephala (disambiguation)">Acanthocephala (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Acanthocephala<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">Late Cretaceous–Recent</span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:185.98461538462px; width:34.015384615385px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:185.98461538462px; width:34.015384615385px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:186.98461538462px; width:32.015384615385px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:C_wegeneri.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/C_wegeneri.JPG/220px-C_wegeneri.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/C_wegeneri.JPG/330px-C_wegeneri.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/C_wegeneri.JPG/440px-C_wegeneri.JPG 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="486" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corynosoma_wegeneri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Corynosoma wegeneri (page does not exist)">Corynosoma wegeneri</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Acanthocephala" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subkingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(unranked): </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">Protostomia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(unranked): </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gnathifera_(Spiralia)" title="Gnathifera (Spiralia)">Gnathifera</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Acanthocephala</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Koelreuter" class="mw-redirect" title="Koelreuter">Koelreuter</a>, 1771<sup id="cite_ref-crompton_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crompton-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-koelreuter_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koelreuter-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Classes </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archiacanthocephala" title="Archiacanthocephala">Archiacanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eoacanthocephala" title="Eoacanthocephala">Eoacanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeacanthocephala" title="Palaeacanthocephala">Palaeacanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyacanthocephala" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyacanthocephala">Polyacanthocephala</a></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><b>Acanthocephala</b> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%84%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἄκανθος">ἄκανθος</a></span></span>, <i><span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el">akanthos</i></span></i> 'thorn' + <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:κεφαλή">κεφαλή</a></span></span>, <i><span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el">kephale</i></span></i> 'head') is a group of <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">parasitic worms</a> known as <b>acanthocephalans</b>, <b>thorny-headed worms</b>, or <b>spiny-headed worms</b>, characterized by the presence of an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/evert" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:evert">eversible</a> <a href="/wiki/Proboscis" title="Proboscis">proboscis</a>, armed with spines, which it uses to pierce and hold the <a href="/wiki/Gut_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut (zoology)">gut</a> wall of its host. Acanthocephalans have <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_life_cycles" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic life cycles">complex life cycles</a>, involving at least two hosts, which may include <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, fish, <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, birds, and <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perrot-Minnot2023-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-de_BuronGolvan2016_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_BuronGolvan2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GolvanDe_Buron2016_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GolvanDe_Buron2016-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-robertslifecycle_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robertslifecycle-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 1420 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> have been described.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Acanthocephala were thought to be a discrete <a href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phylum</a>. Recent <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> analysis has shown that they are descended from, and should be considered as, highly modified <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shimek_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shimek-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This unified taxon is sometimes known as <a href="/wiki/Syndermata" title="Syndermata">Syndermata</a>, or simply as Rotifera, with the acanthocephalans described as a subclass of a rotifer class Hemirotatoria.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest recognisable description of Acanthocephala – a worm with a proboscis armed with hooks – was made by Italian author <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a> (1684).<sup id="cite_ref-crompton_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crompton-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1771, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Koelreuter" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Koelreuter">Joseph Koelreuter</a> proposed the name Acanthocephala.<sup id="cite_ref-crompton_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crompton-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Ludwig_Statius_M%C3%BCller" title="Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller">Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller</a> independently called them <i>Echinorhynchus</i> in 1776.<sup id="cite_ref-crompton_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crompton-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Rudolphi" title="Karl Rudolphi">Karl Rudolphi</a> in 1809 formally named them Acanthocephala. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_history">Evolutionary history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolutionary history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The oldest known remains of acanthocephalans are eggs found in a <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolite</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> <a href="/wiki/Bauru_Group" title="Bauru Group">Bauru Group</a> of Brazil, around 70-80 million years old, likely from a <a href="/wiki/Crocodyliformes" title="Crocodyliformes">crocodyliform</a>. The group may have originated substantially earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_bilaterian_orders" title="List of bilaterian orders">List of bilaterian orders</a></div> <p>Acanthocephalans are highly adapted to a parasitic mode of life, and have lost many organs and structures through evolutionary processes. This makes determining relationships with other higher taxa through morphological comparison problematic. <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">Phylogenetic</a> analysis of the 18S <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomal</a> gene has revealed that the Acanthocephala are most closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a>. They are possibly closer to the two rotifer classes <a href="/wiki/Bdelloidea" title="Bdelloidea">Bdelloidea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monogononta" title="Monogononta">Monogononta</a> than to the other class, <a href="/wiki/Seisonidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Seisonidea">Seisonidea</a>, producing the names and relationships shown in the <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</a> below. </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade" style="line-height:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Syndermata" title="Syndermata">Syndermata</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Seisonida" class="mw-redirect" title="Seisonida">Seisonida</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Eurotatoria" title="Eurotatoria">Eurotatoria</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bdelloidea" title="Bdelloidea">Bdelloidea</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Monogononta" title="Monogononta">Monogononta</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Acanthocephala </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The three rotifer classes and the Acanthocephala make up a <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> called Syndermata.<sup id="cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perrot-Minnot2023-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This clade is placed in the <a href="/wiki/Gnathifera_(clade)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathifera (clade)">Gnathifera</a>. </p><p>A study of the gene order in the mitochondria suggests that Seisonidea and Acanthocephala are sister clades and that the Bdelloidea are the sister clade to this group.<sup id="cite_ref-Sielaff2015_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sielaff2015-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently the phylum is divided into four classes – <a href="/wiki/Palaeacanthocephala" title="Palaeacanthocephala">Palaeacanthocephala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archiacanthocephala" title="Archiacanthocephala">Archiacanthocephala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyacanthocephala" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyacanthocephala">Polyacanthocephala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eoacanthocephala" title="Eoacanthocephala">Eoacanthocephala</a>. The monophyletic Archiacanthocephala are the sister taxon of a clade comprising Eoacanthocephala and the monophyletic Palaeacanthocephala.<sup id="cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perrot-Minnot2023-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weber2012_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber2012-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Acanthocephala" title="Special:EditPage/Acanthocephala">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corynosoma_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of Acanthocephalan morphology" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Corynosoma_drawing.jpg/220px-Corynosoma_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Corynosoma_drawing.jpg/330px-Corynosoma_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Corynosoma_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="344" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>Some key features of acanthocephalan morphology</figcaption></figure> <p>Several morphological characteristics distinguish acanthocephalans from other phyla of parasitic worms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digestion">Digestion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Digestion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Acanthocephalans lack a mouth or <a href="/wiki/Alimentary_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alimentary canal">alimentary canal</a>. This is a feature they share with the <a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">cestoda</a> (tapeworms), although the two groups are not closely related. Adult stages live in the <a href="/wiki/Intestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestine">intestines</a> of their host and uptake nutrients which have been <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digested</a> by the host, directly, through their body surface. The acanthocephalans lack an excretory system, although some species have been shown to possess <a href="/wiki/Flame_cell" title="Flame cell">flame cells</a> (protonephridia). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proboscis">Proboscis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Proboscis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasite140083-fig5_Figs_31-36_Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Parasite140083-fig5_Figs_31-36_Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Parasite140083-fig5_Figs_31-36_Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Parasite140083-fig5_Figs_31-36_Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Parasite140083-fig5_Figs_31-36_Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Parasite140083-fig5_Figs_31-36_Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Parasite140083-fig5_Figs_31-36_Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="2499" /></a><figcaption>Scanning electron microscopy of proboscis of <i><a href="/wiki/Cathayacanthus_spinitruncatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathayacanthus spinitruncatus">Cathayacanthus spinitruncatus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The most notable feature of the acanthocephala is the presence of an <a href="/wiki/Anterior" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior">anterior</a>, protrudable <a href="/wiki/Proboscis" title="Proboscis">proboscis</a> that is usually covered with spiny hooks (hence the common name: thorny or spiny headed worm). The proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal rows, and it is by means of these hooks that the animal attaches itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or three shapes, usually: longer, more slender hooks are arranged along the length of the proboscis, with several rows of more sturdy, shorter nasal hooks around the base of the proboscis. The proboscis is used to pierce the gut wall of the final host, and hold the parasite fast while it completes its life cycle. </p><p>Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its cavity is separated from the body cavity by a <i>septum</i> or <i>proboscis sheath</i>. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a>-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end and into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity. The whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially, withdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two retractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the septum to the body wall. </p><p>Some of the acanthocephalans (perforating acanthocephalans) can insert their proboscis in the intestine of the host and open the way to the abdominal cavity.<sup id="cite_ref-Parasites_World_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parasites_World-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size">Size</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The size of these animals varies greatly, ranging from a few millimetres in length to <i><a href="/wiki/Macracanthorhynchus_hirudinaceus" class="mw-redirect" title="Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus">Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus</a></i>, which measures from 10 to 65 centimetres (3.9 to 25.6 in). A curious feature shared by both larva and adult is the large size of many of the cells, e.g. the nerve cells and cells forming the uterine bell. <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">Polyploidy</a> is common, with up to 343n having been recorded in some species. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin">Skin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Skin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The body surface of the acanthocephala is peculiar. Externally, the skin has a thin <a href="/wiki/Tegument_(helminth)" title="Tegument (helminth)">tegument</a> covering the <a href="/wiki/Squamous_epithelium" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamous epithelium">epidermis</a>, which consists of a <a href="/wiki/Syncytium" title="Syncytium">syncytium</a> with no <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a>. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching <a href="/wiki/Tubule" title="Tubule">tubules</a> containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering, <a href="/wiki/Amoeboid" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoeboid">amoeboid</a> <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a>. Inside the syncytium is an irregular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a>. In their micro-structure the muscular fibres resemble those of <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>. </p><p>Except for the absence of the longitudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the proboscis are shut off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open into a circular vessel which runs round its base. From the circular canal two sac-like projections called the <i>lemnisci</i> run into the cavity of the body, alongside the proboscis cavity. Each consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the fluid which is used to keep the proboscis "erect" can withdraw when it is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when it is wished to expand the proboscis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nervous_system">Nervous system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nervous system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The central ganglion of the nervous system lies behind the proboscis sheath or septum. It innervates the proboscis and projects two stout trunks posteriorly which supply the body. Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and this nerve-muscle complex is called a <i>retinaculum</i>. In the male at least there is also a <a href="/wiki/Genital" class="mw-redirect" title="Genital">genital</a> <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a>. Some scattered <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Papilla" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Papilla">papillae</a> may possibly be sense-organs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_cycles">Life cycles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Life cycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Acanthocephala" title="Special:EditPage/Acanthocephala">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acanthocephalan_life_cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Acanthocephalan_life_cycle.jpg/220px-Acanthocephalan_life_cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Acanthocephalan_life_cycle.jpg/330px-Acanthocephalan_life_cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Acanthocephalan_life_cycle.jpg/440px-Acanthocephalan_life_cycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of the life cycle of <i>Polymorphus</i> spp.</figcaption></figure> <p>Acanthocephalans have complex life cycles, involving a number of hosts, for both <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">developmental</a> and resting stages. Complete life cycles have been worked out for only 25 species.<sup id="cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perrot-Minnot2023-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Acanthocephala are <a href="/wiki/Dioecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioecious">dioecious</a> (an individual organism is either male or female). There is a structure called the <i>genital ligament</i> which runs from the posterior end of the proboscis sheath to the posterior end of the body. In the male, two <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a> lie on either side of this. Each opens in a <a href="/wiki/Vas_deferens" title="Vas deferens">vas deferens</a> which bears three <a href="/wiki/Diverticula" class="mw-redirect" title="Diverticula">diverticula</a> or <i>vesiculae seminales</i>. The male also possesses three pairs of cement glands, found behind the testes, which pour their secretions through a duct into the vasa deferentia. These unite and end in a <a href="/wiki/Penis" title="Penis">penis</a> which opens posteriorly. </p><p>In the female, the <a href="/wiki/Ovaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovaries">ovaries</a> are found, like the testes, as rounded bodies along the ligament. From the ovaries, masses of <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a> dehisce into the body cavity, floating in its fluids for <a href="/wiki/Fertilize" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilize">fertilization</a> by male's sperm. After fertilization, each egg contains a developing <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>. (These embryos hatch into first stage <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larva</a>.) The fertilized eggs are brought into the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> by actions of the <i>uterine bell</i>, a funnel like opening continuous with the uterus. At the junction of the bell and the uterus there is a second, smaller opening situated <a href="/wiki/Dorsum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsum (biology)">dorsally</a>. The bell "swallows" the matured eggs and passes them on into the uterus. (Immature embryos are passed back into the body cavity through the dorsal opening.) From the uterus, mature eggs leave the female's body via her <a href="/wiki/Oviduct" title="Oviduct">oviduct</a>, pass into the host's alimentary canal and are expelled from the host's body within <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Release">Release</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Release"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acanthocephala_Pomphorhynchus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Acanthocephala_Pomphorhynchus.jpg/220px-Acanthocephala_Pomphorhynchus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Acanthocephala_Pomphorhynchus.jpg/330px-Acanthocephala_Pomphorhynchus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Acanthocephala_Pomphorhynchus.jpg/440px-Acanthocephala_Pomphorhynchus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Adult <i><a href="/wiki/Pomphorhynchus" title="Pomphorhynchus">Pomphorhynchus</a></i> in a <a href="/wiki/Bluefish" title="Bluefish">bluefish</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Having been expelled by the female, the acanthocephalan egg is released along with the feces of the host. For development to occur, the egg, containing the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acanthor (page does not exist)">acanthor</a>, needs to be ingested by an <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a>, usually a <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustacean</a> (there is one known life cycle which uses a <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">mollusc</a> as a first intermediate host). Inside the intermediate host, the acanthor is released from the egg and develops into an acanthella. It then penetrates the gut wall, moves into the body cavity, encysts, and begins transformation into the infective <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cystacanth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cystacanth (page does not exist)">cystacanth</a> stage. This form has all the organs of the adult save the reproductive ones. </p><p>The parasite is released when the first intermediate host is ingested. This can be by a suitable final host, in which case the cystacanth develops into a mature adult, or by a <a href="/wiki/Paratenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratenic">paratenic</a> host, in which the parasite again forms a cyst. When consumed by a suitable final host, the cycstacant <i>excysts</i>, everts its proboscis and pierces the gut wall. It then feeds, grows and develops its sexual organs. Adult worms then mate. The male uses the excretions of its <i>cement glands</i> to plug the <a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">vagina</a> of the female, preventing subsequent matings from occurring. Embryos develop inside the female, and the life cycle repeats. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Host_control">Host control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Host control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thorny-headed worms begin their life cycle inside invertebrates that reside in marine or freshwater systems. One example is <i>Polymorphus paradoxus.</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Gammarus_lacustris" title="Gammarus lacustris">Gammarus lacustris</a></i>, a small crustacean that inhabits ponds and rivers, is one invertebrate that <i>P. paradoxus</i> may occupy; ducks are one of the <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">definitive hosts</a>. </p><p>This crustacean is preyed on by ducks and hides by avoiding light and staying away from the surface. However, infection by <i>P. paradoxus</i> changes its behavior and appearance in a number of ways that increase its chance of being eaten. First, infection significantly reduces <i>G. lacustris'</i>s photophobia; as a result, it becomes attracted toward light and swims to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, an infected organism will even go so far as to find a rock or a plant on the surface, clamp its mouth down, and latch on, making it easy prey for the duck.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, infection reduces the pigment distribution and amount in <i>G. lacustris,</i> causing the host to turn blue; unlike their normal brown colour, this makes the crustacean stand out and increases the chance the duck will see it.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experiments have shown that altered serotonin levels are likely responsible for at least some of these changes in behaviour. One experiment found that serotonin induces clinging behavior in <i>G. lacustris</i> similar to that seen in infected organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another showed that infected <i>G. lacustris</i> had approximately 3 times as many <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>-producing sites in its ventral nerve cord.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, experiments in closely-related species of <i>Polymorphus</i> and <i>Pomphorhynchus</i> infecting other <i>Gammarus</i> species confirmed this relation: infected organisms were considerably more attracted to light and had higher serotonin levels, while the phototropism could be duplicated by injections of serotonin.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_hosts">Effects on hosts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Effects on hosts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Polymorphus" title="Polymorphus">Polymorphus</a></i> spp. are parasites of <a href="/wiki/Seabirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Seabirds">seabirds</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Eider_duck" class="mw-redirect" title="Eider duck">eider duck</a> (<i>Somateria mollissima</i>). Heavy infections of up to 750 parasites per bird are common, causing <a href="/wiki/Peptic_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptic ulcer">ulceration</a> to the gut, disease and seasonal mortality. Recent research has suggested that there is no evidence of <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenicity</a> of <i>Polymorphus</i> spp. to intermediate crab hosts. The cystacanth stage is long lived and probably remains infectious throughout the life of the crab.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_impact">Economic impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economic impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Acanthocephalosis, a disease caused by <i>Acanthacephalus</i> infection, is prevalent in aquaculture, occurring in <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_salmon" title="Atlantic salmon">Atlantic salmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_trout" title="Rainbow trout">rainbow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brown_trout" title="Brown trout">brown trout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tilapia" title="Tilapia">tilapia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tambaqui" title="Tambaqui">tambaqui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasing occurrence in Brazilian farming of tambaqui has been reported,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2003 <i>Acanthacephalus</i> was first reported in cultured <a href="/wiki/Lutjanus_erythropterus" title="Lutjanus erythropterus">red snapper</a> in Taiwan.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The life cycle of <i>Polymorphus</i> spp. normally occurs between sea ducks (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Eider" title="Eider">eiders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scoter" title="Scoter">scoters</a>) and small crabs. Infections found in commercial-sized <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobsters</a> in Canada were probably acquired from crabs that form an important dietary item of lobsters. Cystacanths occurring in lobsters can cause economic loss to fishermen. There are no known methods of prevention or control.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_infections">Human infections</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Human infections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In humans, it causes the disease <a href="/wiki/Acanthocephaliasis" title="Acanthocephaliasis">acanthocephaliasis</a>. The earliest known infection was found in a prehistoric man in <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore1969_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore1969-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This infection was dated to 1869 ± 160 BC. The species involved was thought to be <i><a href="/wiki/Moniliformis_clarki" class="mw-redirect" title="Moniliformis clarki">Moniliformis clarki</a></i> which is still common in the area. </p><p>The first report of an isolate in historic times was by <a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Du%C5%A1an_Lambl" title="Vilém Dušan Lambl">Lambl</a> in 1859 when he isolated <i><a href="/wiki/Macracanthorhynchus_hirudinaceus" class="mw-redirect" title="Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus">Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus</a></i> from a child in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>. Lindemann in 1865 reported that this organism was commonly isolated in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. The reason for this was discovered by Schneider in 1871 when he found that an intermediate host, the scarabaeid beetle grub, was commonly eaten raw.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first report of clinical symptoms was by Calandruccio who in 1888 while in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> infected himself by ingesting larvae. He reported gastrointestinal disturbances and shed eggs in two weeks. Subsequent natural infections have since been reported.<sup id="cite_ref-Tada1983_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tada1983-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eight species have been isolated from humans to date.<sup id="cite_ref-Haustein2009_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haustein2009-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Moniliformis_moniliformis" title="Moniliformis moniliformis">Moniliformis moniliformis</a></i> is the most common isolate. Other isolates include <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephalus_bufonis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acanthocephalus bufonis (page does not exist)">Acanthocephalus bufonis</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corynosoma_strumosum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Corynosoma strumosum (page does not exist)">Corynosoma strumosum</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">Cestoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digenea" title="Digenea">Digenea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">Monogenea</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-crompton-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crompton_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crompton_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crompton_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-crompton_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCromptonThomassonNickol1985" class="citation book cs1">Crompton, David; Thomasson, William; Nickol, Brent B. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GPY8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27"><i>Biology of the Acanthocephala</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521246743" title="Special:BookSources/9780521246743"><bdi>9780521246743</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+the+Acanthocephala&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780521246743&rft.aulast=Crompton&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Thomasson%2C+William&rft.au=Nickol%2C+Brent+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGPY8AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-koelreuter-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-koelreuter_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoelreuter1770" class="citation journal cs1">Koelreuter, I. T. (1770). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/38626#page/560/mode/1up">"Descriptio cyprini rutili, quem halawel russi vocant, historico-anatomica"</a>. <i>Novi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae</i>. <b>15</b>: 494–503.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Novi+Commentarii+Academiae+Scientiarum+Imperialis+Petropolitanae&rft.atitle=Descriptio+cyprini+rutili%2C+quem+halawel+russi+vocant%2C+historico-anatomica.&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=494-503&rft.date=1770&rft.aulast=Koelreuter&rft.aufirst=I.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F38626%23page%2F560%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-acanthocephalan" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=acanthocephalan">"acanthocephalan"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=acanthocephalan&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dacanthocephalan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perrot-Minnot2023-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perrot-Minnot2023_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrot-MinnotCozzaroloAminBarčák2023" class="citation journal cs1">Perrot-Minnot, Marie-Jeanne; Cozzarolo, Camille-Sophie; Amin, Omar; Barčák, Daniel; Bauer, Alexandre; Filipović Marijić, Vlatka; García-Varela, Martín; Servando Hernández-Orts, Jesús; Yen Le, T.T.; Nachev, Milen; Orosová, Martina; Rigaud, Thierry; Šariri, Sara; Wattier, Rémi; Reyda, Florian; Sures, Bernd (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10288976">"Hooking the scientific community on thorny-headed worms: interesting and exciting facts, knowledge gaps and perspectives for research directions on Acanthocephala"</a>. <i>Parasite</i>. <b>30</b>: 23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fparasite%2F2023026">10.1051/parasite/2023026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10288976">10288976</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37350678">37350678</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parasite&rft.atitle=Hooking+the+scientific+community+on+thorny-headed+worms%3A+interesting+and+exciting+facts%2C+knowledge+gaps+and+perspectives+for+research+directions+on+Acanthocephala&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=23&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10288976%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37350678&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fparasite%2F2023026&rft.aulast=Perrot-Minnot&rft.aufirst=Marie-Jeanne&rft.au=Cozzarolo%2C+Camille-Sophie&rft.au=Amin%2C+Omar&rft.au=Bar%C4%8D%C3%A1k%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Bauer%2C+Alexandre&rft.au=Filipovi%C4%87+Mariji%C4%87%2C+Vlatka&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa-Varela%2C+Mart%C3%ADn&rft.au=Servando+Hern%C3%A1ndez-Orts%2C+Jes%C3%BAs&rft.au=Yen+Le%2C+T.T.&rft.au=Nachev%2C+Milen&rft.au=Orosov%C3%A1%2C+Martina&rft.au=Rigaud%2C+Thierry&rft.au=%C5%A0ariri%2C+Sara&rft.au=Wattier%2C+R%C3%A9mi&rft.au=Reyda%2C+Florian&rft.au=Sures%2C+Bernd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10288976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_BuronGolvan2016-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-de_BuronGolvan2016_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_BuronGolvan1986" class="citation journal cs1">de Buron, I.; Golvan, Y. J. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fparasite%2F1986615581">"Les hôtes des Acanthocéphales. I — Les Hôtes intermédiaires"</a>. <i>Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée</i>. <b>61</b> (5): 581–592. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fparasite%2F1986615581">10.1051/parasite/1986615581</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-4150">0003-4150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+Parasitologie+Humaine+et+Compar%C3%A9e&rft.atitle=Les+h%C3%B4tes+des+Acanthoc%C3%A9phales.+I+%E2%80%94+Les+H%C3%B4tes+interm%C3%A9diaires&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=581-592&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fparasite%2F1986615581&rft.issn=0003-4150&rft.aulast=de+Buron&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Golvan%2C+Y.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1051%252Fparasite%252F1986615581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GolvanDe_Buron2016-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GolvanDe_Buron2016_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolvanDe_Buron1988" class="citation journal cs1">Golvan, Y. J.; De Buron, I. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fparasite%2F1988635349">"Les hôtes des Acanthocéphales. II — Les hôtes définitifs. 1. Poissons"</a>. <i>Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée</i>. <b>63</b> (5): 349–375. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fparasite%2F1988635349">10.1051/parasite/1988635349</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-4150">0003-4150</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3059956">3059956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+Parasitologie+Humaine+et+Compar%C3%A9e&rft.atitle=Les+h%C3%B4tes+des+Acanthoc%C3%A9phales.+II+%E2%80%94+Les+h%C3%B4tes+d%C3%A9finitifs.+1.+Poissons&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=349-375&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0003-4150&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3059956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fparasite%2F1988635349&rft.aulast=Golvan&rft.aufirst=Y.+J.&rft.au=De+Buron%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1051%252Fparasite%252F1988635349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-robertslifecycle-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-robertslifecycle_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsJanovy2009" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Larry S.; Janovy, John Jr. (2009). <i>Foundations of Parasitology</i> (Eighth ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 502. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780073028279" title="Special:BookSources/9780073028279"><bdi>9780073028279</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Parasitology&rft.pages=502&rft.edition=Eighth&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780073028279&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Larry+S.&rft.au=Janovy%2C+John+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Freeman, Scott, Lizabeth Allison, Michael Black, Greg Podgorski, and Kim Quillin. Biological Sciences. 5th ed. Glenview, Il: Pearson, 2014. 638. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eol.org/pages/2/details"><i>Encyclopedia of Life</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 24,</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Life&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feol.org%2Fpages%2F2%2Fdetails&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shimek-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shimek_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShimek,_Ronald2006" class="citation web cs1">Shimek, Ronald (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reefkeeping.com/issues/2006-01/rs/index.php">"Nano-Animals, Part I: Rotifers"</a>. Reefkeeping.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 27,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nano-Animals%2C+Part+I%3A+Rotifers&rft.pub=Reefkeeping.com&rft.date=2006-01&rft.au=Shimek%2C+Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freefkeeping.com%2Fissues%2F2006-01%2Frs%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiribetEdgecombe2020" class="citation book cs1">Giribet, Gonzalo; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (2020). <i>The invertebrate tree of life</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17025-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17025-1"><bdi>978-0-691-17025-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+invertebrate+tree+of+life&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17025-1&rft.aulast=Giribet&rft.aufirst=Gonzalo&rft.au=Edgecombe%2C+Gregory+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardiaBertiniCamossiLetizio2019" class="citation journal cs1">Cardia, Daniel F. F.; Bertini, Reinaldo J.; Camossi, Lucilene G.; Letizio, Luiz A. (May 6, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F0001-3765201920170848">"First record of Acanthocephala parasites eggs in coprolites preliminary assigned to Crocodyliformes from the Adamantina Formation (Bauru Group, Upper Cretaceous), São Paulo, Brazil"</a>. <i>Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências</i>. <b>91</b> (Supplement 2): e20170848. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F0001-3765201920170848">10.1590/0001-3765201920170848</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11449%2F189712">11449/189712</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-3765">0001-3765</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31090797">31090797</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155091017">155091017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anais+da+Academia+Brasileira+de+Ci%C3%AAncias&rft.atitle=First+record+of+Acanthocephala+parasites+eggs+in+coprolites+preliminary+assigned+to+Crocodyliformes+from+the+Adamantina+Formation+%28Bauru+Group%2C+Upper+Cretaceous%29%2C+S%C3%A3o+Paulo%2C+Brazil&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=Supplement+2&rft.pages=e20170848&rft.date=2019-05-06&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11449%2F189712&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155091017%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2F0001-3765201920170848&rft.issn=0001-3765&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31090797&rft.aulast=Cardia&rft.aufirst=Daniel+F.+F.&rft.au=Bertini%2C+Reinaldo+J.&rft.au=Camossi%2C+Lucilene+G.&rft.au=Letizio%2C+Luiz+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252F0001-3765201920170848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppertFoxBarnes2004" class="citation cs2">Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821"><i>Invertebrate Zoology : a functional evolutionary approach</i></a></span> (7th ed.), Belmont, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology+%3A+a+functional+evolutionary+approach&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Thomson-Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+Richard+S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 788ff. – see particularly p. 804</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sielaff2015-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sielaff2015_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSielaffSchmidtStruckRosenkranz2016" class="citation journal cs1">Sielaff, M.; Schmidt, H.; Struck, T. H.; Rosenkranz, D.; Mark Welch, D. B.; Hankeln, T; Herlyn, H. (March 2016). "Phylogeny of Syndermata (syn. Rotifera): Mitochondrial gene order verifies epizoic <i>Seisonidea</i> as sister to endoparasitic <i>Acanthocephala</i> within monophyletic <i>Hemirotifera</i>". <i>Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</i>. <b>96</b>: 79–92. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016MolPE..96...79S">2016MolPE..96...79S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2015.11.017">10.1016/j.ympev.2015.11.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26702959">26702959</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+of+Syndermata+%28syn.+Rotifera%29%3A+Mitochondrial+gene+order+verifies+epizoic+Seisonidea+as+sister+to+endoparasitic+Acanthocephala+within+monophyletic+Hemirotifera&rft.volume=96&rft.pages=79-92&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26702959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2015.11.017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016MolPE..96...79S&rft.aulast=Sielaff&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+H.&rft.au=Struck%2C+T.+H.&rft.au=Rosenkranz%2C+D.&rft.au=Mark+Welch%2C+D.+B.&rft.au=Hankeln%2C+T&rft.au=Herlyn%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weber2012-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weber2012_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeberWey-Fabrizius_AlexandraPodsiadlowskiWitek2013" class="citation journal cs1">Weber, M.; Wey-Fabrizius Alexandra, R.; Podsiadlowski, L.; Witek, A.; Schill Ralph, O.; Sugár, L.; Herlyn, H.; Hankeln, T. 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(June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-0691.2009.02896.x">"An eye-catching acanthocephalan"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology and Infection</i>. <b>16</b> (6): 787–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-0691.2009.02896.x">10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02896.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19689468">19689468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+and+Infection&rft.atitle=An+eye-catching+acanthocephalan&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=787-8&rft.date=2010-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-0691.2009.02896.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19689468&rft.aulast=Haustein&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=Lawes%2C+M.&rft.au=Harris%2C+E.&rft.au=Chiodini%2C+P.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1469-0691.2009.02896.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Amin, O. M. (1987). "Key to the families and subfamilies of Acanthocephala, with erection of a new class (Polyacanthocephala) and a new order (Polyacanthorhynchida)". <i>Journal of Parasitology</i>. <b>73</b> (6): 1216–1219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3282307">10.2307/3282307</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3282307">3282307</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3437357">3437357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Parasitology&rft.atitle=Key+to+the+families+and+subfamilies+of+Acanthocephala%2C+with+erection+of+a+new+class+%28Polyacanthocephala%29+and+a+new+order+%28Polyacanthorhynchida%29&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1216-1219&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3437357&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3282307%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3282307&rft.aulast=Amin&rft.aufirst=O.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Lühe, M. (1904). "Geschichte und Ergebnisse der Echinorhynchen – Forschung bis auf Westrumb (1821)". <i>Zoologischer Annalen</i>. <b>1</b>: 139–250.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zoologischer+Annalen&rft.atitle=Geschichte+und+Ergebnisse+der+Echinorhynchen+%E2%80%93+Forschung+bis+auf+Westrumb+%281821%29&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=139-250&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=L%C3%BChe&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Tain, Luke; Marie-Jeanne Perrot-Minnot; Frank Cézilly (December 22, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1679890">"Altered host behaviour and brain serotonergic activity caused by acanthocephalans: evidence for specificity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society B">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a></i>. <b>273</b> (1605): 3039–3045. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2006.3618">10.1098/rspb.2006.3618</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1679890">1679890</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17015346">17015346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=Altered+host+behaviour+and+brain+serotonergic+activity+caused+by+acanthocephalans%3A+evidence+for+specificity&rft.volume=273&rft.issue=1605&rft.pages=3039-3045&rft.date=2006-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1679890%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17015346&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2006.3618&rft.aulast=Tain&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft.au=Marie-Jeanne+Perrot-Minnot&rft.au=Frank+C%C3%A9zilly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1679890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</a> (2000). <i><a href="/wiki/Parasite_Rex:_Inside_the_Bizarre_World_of_Nature%27s_Most_Dangerous_Creatures" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures">Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures</a></i>. Free Press. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-0011-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-0011-0"><bdi>978-0-7432-0011-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parasite+Rex%3A+Inside+the+Bizarre+World+of+Nature%27s+Most+Dangerous+Creatures&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-0011-0&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAcanthocephala" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthocephala&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Animalia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge"><b>Porifera (sponges)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora (comb jellies)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Planulozoa" title="Planulozoa">Planulozoa</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa (<i>Trichoplax</i> and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria"><b>Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> (Triploblasts)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(see below↓)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of the animal root <a href="/wiki/Animal#Internal_phylogeny" title="Animal">is disputed</a>; see also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Benthozoa" title="Benthozoa">Benthozoa</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div id="Bilateria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bilateria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -24px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata (chordates)</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm"><b>Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Protostomia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -35px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">Protostomia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -30px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scalidophora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Scalidophora" title="Scalidophora">Scalidophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida (penis worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">N+L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nematoida" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Nematoida" title="Nematoida">Nematoida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode"><b>Nematoda (roundworms)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="L+P" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera (corset animals)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Panarthropoda" title="Panarthropoda">Panarthropoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora (velvet worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod"><b>Arthropoda (arthropods)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade"><b>Tardigrada (waterbears)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -20px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gnathifera" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Gnathifera_(Spiralia)" title="Gnathifera (Spiralia)">Gnathifera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha (arrow worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulid" title="Gnathostomulid">Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limnognathia" title="Limnognathia">Micrognathozoa <i>(Limnognathia)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndermata" title="Syndermata">Syndermata</a> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">Rotifera (wheel animals)</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)</a></b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -41px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Platytrochozoa" title="Platytrochozoa">Platytrochozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="R+M" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">R+M</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Rouphozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouphozoa">Rouphozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm"><b>Platyhelminthes (flatworms)</b></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotrich" title="Gastrotrich">Gastrotricha (hairybacks)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida or Rhombozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinella" title="Salinella">Monoblastozoa (<i>Salinella</i>)</a>†</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><span style="margin: -44px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbion" title="Symbion">Cycliophora (<i>Symbion</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid"><b>Annelida (segmented worms)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+K</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca"><b>Mollusca (molluscs)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Kryptotrochozoa" title="Kryptotrochozoa">Kryptotrochozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea"><b>Nemertea (ribbon worms)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa s.l.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta or Kamptozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa"><b>Ectoprocta (moss animals)</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">Brachiopoda (lamp shells)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronida (horseshoe worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of Bilateria <a href="/wiki/Bilateria#Phylogeny" title="Bilateria">is disputed</a>; see also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">Deuterostomia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xenambulacraria" title="Xenambulacraria">Xenambulacraria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Centroneuralia" title="Centroneuralia">Centroneuralia</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Major_groupswithin_phyla" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #f0f0f0;">Major groups<br />within phyla</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponges</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">Demosponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexactinellid" title="Hexactinellid">Glass sponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_sponge" title="Calcareous sponge">Calcareous sponges</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidarians</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoans inc. corals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoans inc. jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoans</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordates</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">Lancelets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">Tunicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderms</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Sea lilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoans inc. starfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoans inc. sea urchins</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordates</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_worm" title="Acorn worm">Acorn worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterobranchia" title="Pterobranchia">Pterobranchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematodes</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromadorea" title="Chromadorea">Chromadorea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoplea" title="Enoplea">Enoplea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secernentea" title="Secernentea">Secernentea</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelicerata" title="Chelicerata">Chelicerates inc. arachnids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriapoda" title="Myriapoda">Myriapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapods inc. insects</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Platyhelminths</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turbellaria" title="Turbellaria">Turbellaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">Trematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">Monogenea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">Cestoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Ectoproctans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">Gymnolaemata</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelids</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">Polychaetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitellata" title="Clitellata">Clitellata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula">Sipuncula</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bivalvia" title="Bivalvia">Bivalves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiton" title="Chiton">Chitons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusk_shell" title="Tusk shell">Tusk shells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div> <dl><dd>Phyla with ≥1000 extant species <b>bolded</b></dd> <dd>Potentially <a href="/wiki/Dubious_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubious species">dubious phyla</a> †</dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Acanthocephala</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178235" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q178235">Q178235</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Faunal_Directory" title="Australian Faunal Directory">AFD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=11">11</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/2">2</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eu-nomen.eu/portal/taxon.php?GUID=urn:lsid:faunaeur.org:taxname:15463">15463</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea (new)</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fauna-eu.org/cdm_dataportal/taxon/ac029666-9a7a-4946-baad-6f741b761215">ac029666-9a7a-4946-baad-6f741b761215</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/67">67</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/151826">151826</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=121">121</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=64238">64238</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=10232">10232</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=49622">49622</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=67118">67118</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=18814">18814</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" 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