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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pre-modern history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Early period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Medieval period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jesuit_missions_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jesuit_missions_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Jesuit missions in China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jesuit_missions_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-17th_to_18th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_to_18th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>17th to 18th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-17th_to_18th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_to_20th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_to_20th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>19th to 20th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_to_20th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protestant_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Protestant missions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hostile_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hostile_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Hostile laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hostile_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rapid_growth_after_1842" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rapid_growth_after_1842"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Rapid growth after 1842</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rapid_growth_after_1842-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hospitals_and_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hospitals_and_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Hospitals and schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hospitals_and_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expanding_beyond_the_port_cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expanding_beyond_the_port_cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Expanding beyond the port cities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expanding_beyond_the_port_cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Social services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secular_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secular_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.7</span> <span>Secular books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secular_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.8</span> <span>Opposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popularity_and_indigenous_growth_(1900–1925)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popularity_and_indigenous_growth_(1900–1925)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.9</span> <span>Popularity and indigenous growth (1900–1925)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popularity_and_indigenous_growth_(1900–1925)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.10</span> <span>Medical missions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indigenous_Christian_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_Christian_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.11</span> <span>Indigenous Christian leaders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_Christian_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_and_social_change:_the_war_against_Japan_and_the_Chinese_Civil_War_(1925–1949)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_and_social_change:_the_war_against_Japan_and_the_Chinese_Civil_War_(1925–1949)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>National and social change: the war against Japan and the Chinese Civil War (1925–1949)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_and_social_change:_the_war_against_Japan_and_the_Chinese_Civil_War_(1925–1949)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Since_1949" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_1949"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Since 1949</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_1949-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_People's_Republic_of_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_People's_Republic_of_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Contemporary People's Republic of China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_People's_Republic_of_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subdivision_of_the_Christian_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdivision_of_the_Christian_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Subdivision of the Christian community</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subdivision_of_the_Christian_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Official_organizations—the_Chinese_Patriotic_Catholic_Church_and_the_Chinese_Protestant_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_organizations—the_Chinese_Patriotic_Catholic_Church_and_the_Chinese_Protestant_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1.1</span> <span>Official organizations—the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Church and the Chinese Protestant Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_organizations—the_Chinese_Patriotic_Catholic_Church_and_the_Chinese_Protestant_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unregistered_churches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unregistered_churches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1.2</span> <span>Unregistered churches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unregistered_churches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_Independent_Churches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_Independent_Churches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1.3</span> <span>Chinese Independent Churches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_Independent_Churches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_Orthodox_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_Orthodox_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1.4</span> <span>Chinese Orthodox Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_Orthodox_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1.5</span> <span>Korean Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korean_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heterodox_sects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heterodox_sects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1.6</span> <span>Heterodox sects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heterodox_sects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_venues_and_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_venues_and_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>Religious venues and practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_venues_and_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics_and_geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics_and_geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Demographics and geography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics_and_geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demographics and geography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics_and_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mainland_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainland_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mainland China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainland_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Estimates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Estimates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics_by_province" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics_by_province"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Demographics by province</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics_by_province-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_administrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_administrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Special administrations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_administrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hong_Kong" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hong_Kong"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3.1</span> <span>Hong Kong</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hong_Kong-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3.2</span> <span>Macau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autonomous_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autonomous_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Autonomous regions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autonomous_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inner_Mongolia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inner_Mongolia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4.1</span> <span>Inner Mongolia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inner_Mongolia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tibet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tibet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4.2</span> <span>Tibet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tibet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xinjiang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xinjiang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4.3</span> <span>Xinjiang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xinjiang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guangxi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guangxi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4.4</span> <span>Guangxi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guangxi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Art and media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restrictions_and_international_interest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restrictions_and_international_interest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Restrictions and international interest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restrictions_and_international_interest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_and_further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_and_further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources and further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources_and_further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources and further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_and_further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Historiography and memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity in China</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86" title="المسيحية في الصين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المسيحية في الصين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ind%C9%99_xristianl%C4%B1q" title="Çində xristianlıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çində xristianlıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesisk_kirkehistorie" title="Kinesisk kirkehistorie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kinesisk kirkehistorie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christentum_in_China" title="Christentum in China – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Christentum in China" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%9A%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Χριστιανισμός στην Κίνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χριστιανισμός στην Κίνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="مسیحیت در چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مسیحیت در چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianisme_en_Chine" title="Christianisme en Chine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Christianisme en Chine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90" title="중국의 기독교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국의 기독교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekristenan_di_Tiongkok" title="Kekristenan di Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekristenan di Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianesimo_in_Cina" title="Cristianesimo in Cina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cristianesimo in Cina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F" title="נצרות בסין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נצרות בסין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kereszt%C3%A9nys%C3%A9g_K%C3%ADn%C3%A1ban" title="Kereszténység Kínában – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kereszténység Kínában" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendom_in_China" title="Christendom in China – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Christendom in China" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E3%82%AD%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E6%95%99" title="中国のキリスト教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中国のキリスト教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesisk_kirkehistorie" title="Kinesisk kirkehistorie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kinesisk kirkehistorie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianismo_na_China" title="Cristianismo na China – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cristianismo na China" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B5" title="Христианство в Китае – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Христианство в Китае" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%9B%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%83_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Хришћанство у Кини – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хришћанство у Кини" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristinusko_Kiinassa" title="Kristinusko Kiinassa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kristinusko Kiinassa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristendomens_historia_i_Kina" title="Kristendomens historia i Kina – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kristendomens historia i Kina" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in%27de_Hristiyanl%C4%B1k" title="Çin'de Hristiyanlık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin'de Hristiyanlık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99" title="中国基督教 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中国基督教" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">Christianity by country</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Continents_colour2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Continents_colour2.svg/150px-Continents_colour2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Continents_colour2.svg/225px-Continents_colour2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Continents_colour2.svg/300px-Continents_colour2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Africa" title="Christianity in Africa">Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Algeria" title="Christianity in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Angola" title="Christianity in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Benin" title="Christianity in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Botswana" title="Christianity in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Christianity in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Burundi" title="Christianity in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cameroon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cape_Verde" title="Christianity in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Chad" title="Christianity in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Comoros" title="Christianity in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Christianity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Djibouti" title="Christianity in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Christianity in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Eritrea" title="Christianity in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Eswatini" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ethiopia" title="Christianity in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Gambia" title="Christianity in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ghana" title="Christianity in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Christianity in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Christianity in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Lesotho" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Liberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Libya" title="Christianity in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Madagascar" title="Christianity in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Malawi" title="Christianity in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Mauritania" title="Christianity in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Mauritius" title="Christianity in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Morocco" title="Christianity in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Mozambique" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Namibia" title="Christianity in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Niger" title="Christianity in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nigeria" title="Christianity in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Seychelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Christianity in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Somalia" title="Christianity in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_South_Africa" title="Christianity in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sudan" title="Christianity in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Tanzania" title="Christianity in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Togo" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Uganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Zambia" title="Christianity in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Zimbabwe" title="Christianity in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Asia" title="Christianity in Asia">Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Afghanistan" title="Christianity in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bangladesh" title="Christianity in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bhutan" title="Christianity in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Brunei" title="Christianity in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hong_Kong" title="Christianity in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Indonesia" title="Christianity in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Japan" title="Christianity in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kazakhstan" title="Christianity in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Korea" title="Christianity in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Christianity in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Laos" title="Christianity in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Malaysia" title="Christianity in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Maldives" title="Christianity in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Mongolia" title="Christianity in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Myanmar" title="Christianity in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nepal" title="Christianity in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Pakistan" title="Christianity in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Philippines" title="Christianity in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Singapore" title="Christianity in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Christianity in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Taiwan" title="Christianity in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Tajikistan" title="Christianity in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Thailand" title="Christianity in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Turkmenistan" title="Christianity in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Uzbekistan" title="Christianity in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Vietnam" title="Christianity in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"> <ul><li><ul><li><small><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_East" title="Christianity in the Middle East">Middle East</a></small></li></ul></li></ul></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Azerbaijan" title="Christianity in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bahrain" title="Christianity in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cyprus" title="Christianity in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Christianity in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Israel" title="Christianity in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jordan" title="Christianity in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kuwait" title="Christianity in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Lebanon" title="Christianity in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Oman" title="Christianity in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Qatar" title="Christianity in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Christianity in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Turkey" title="Christianity in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Christianity in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Yemen" title="Christianity in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Europe" title="Christianity in Europe">Europe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Albania" title="Christianity in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Denmark" title="Christianity in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_France" title="Christianity in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ireland" title="Christianity in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Italy" title="Christianity in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kosovo" title="Christianity in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Liechtenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Malta" title="Christianity in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Norway" title="Christianity in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Russia" title="Christianity in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_San_Marino" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Serbia" title="Christianity in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity_in_North_America" title="Category:Christianity in North America">North America</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Canada" title="Christianity in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cuba" title="Christianity in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Dominica" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Haiti" title="Christianity in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jamaica" title="Christianity in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nicaragua" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Panama" title="Christianity in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_States" title="Christianity in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity_in_Oceania" title="Category:Christianity in Oceania">Oceania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Australia" title="Christianity in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Fiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kiribati" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nauru" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_New_Zealand" title="Christianity in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Tonga" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a 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Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_by_country" title="Template:Christianity by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_by_country" title="Template talk:Christianity by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> has been present in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> since the early medieval period, and became a significant presence in the country during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern era">early modern era</a>. The Assyrian <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> appeared in China in the 7th century, during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholicism</a> was one of the religions patronized by the emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, but it did not take root in China until its <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_missions_in_China" title="Jesuit missions in China">reintroduction by the Jesuits</a> during the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant missions in China</a> attracted small but influential followings, and independent Chinese churches were also established. </p><p>Accurate data on Chinese Christians is difficult to access. There are estimates that say Christianity is the fastest growing religion in China.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were some 4 million before 1949 (3 million Catholics and 1 million Protestants).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 2000s, there were approximately 38 million <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestants</a> and 10–12 million <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholics</a>, with a smaller number of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of Chinese Christians had increased significantly since the easing of restrictions on religious activities during the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">economic reforms</a> of the late 1970s. In 2018, the Chinese government declared that there are over 44 million Christians (38 million Protestants & 6 million Catholics) in China.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, some international Christian organizations estimate that there are tens of millions more, who choose not to publicly identify as such.<sup id="cite_ref-Wieland,_2013._p._3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieland,_2013._p._3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These estimations are controversial because the organizations which make them are often accused of deliberately inflating them.<sup id="cite_ref-Wieland,_2013._p._3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieland,_2013._p._3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research</a> reported in 2023: "Some media reports and academic papers have suggested the Christian share may be larger, with estimates as high as 7% (100 million) or 9% (130 million) of the total population, including children."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For most of Chinese imperial history, religious practice was tightly controlled by the state. The <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> also heavily regulates religion, and has increasingly implemented a policy of <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicization</a> of Christianity since 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese people over the age of 18 are only allowed to join Christian groups that are registered with one of three state-controlled bodies, either the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Catholic_Patriotic_Association" title="Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association">Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association</a>, the <a href="/wiki/China_Christian_Council" title="China Christian Council">China Christian Council</a>, or the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Patriotic_Movement" title="Three-Self Patriotic Movement">Three-Self Patriotic Movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many Chinese Christians are members of informal networks and <a href="/wiki/Underground_church" title="Underground church">underground churches</a>, often known as <a href="/wiki/House_church_(China)" title="House church (China)">house churches</a>. These began to proliferate during the 1950s when many Christians rejected the state-controlled bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of house churches represent diverse theological traditions, and have been described as representing a "silent majority" of Chinese Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_names_for_the_God_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Chinese names for the God of Abrahamic religions">Chinese names for the God of Abrahamic religions</a></div> <p>There are various names used for the Abrahamic God in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a>, the most prevalent of them is "<a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a>" (<span lang="zh">上帝</span>; 'Highest Emperor'), commonly used by both Protestants and non-Christians, and "Tianzhu" (<span lang="zh">天主</span>; 'Lord of Heaven'), commonly used by Catholics. The word "Shen" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">神</span></span>), which is also used by Chinese Protestants, may also refer to deities or the generative powers of nature in the context of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_traditional_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese traditional religion">Chinese traditional religion</a>. In addition, Christians have historically adopted terms from the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a> as references to God, such as 'Ruler' (<span lang="zh">主宰</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhǔzǎi</span></i>) and 'Creator' (<span lang="zh">造物主</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zàowùzhǔ</span></i>). </p><p>Chinese terms for Christian denominations include "Protestantism" (<span lang="zh">基督教新教</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jīdū jiào xīn jiào</span></i>; 'New Christian religion'), "Catholicism" (<span lang="zh">天主教</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Tiānzhǔ jiào</span></i>; 'Heavenly Lord religion'), and "<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a>" (<span lang="zh-Hans">东正教</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">東正教</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Dōng zhèng jiào</span></i>). <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox Christianity</a> as a whole is referred to as <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Zhèng jiào</span></i> (<span lang="zh">正教</span>). Christians in China are referred to as 'Christ followers' (<span lang="zh">基督徒</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jīdū tú</span></i>) or 'Christ religion followers' (<span lang="zh">基督教徒</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jīdū jiào tú</span></i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-modern_history">Pre-modern history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The significant lack of evidence of Christianity's existence in China between the 3rd century and the 7th century can likely be attributed to the barriers which were placed in Persia by the <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> and the closure of the trade route in <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="More historical context, please (March 2023)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Both events prevented Christians from staying in contact with their mother church, the Syriac <a href="/wiki/Antiochian" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochian">Antiochian</a> Church, thereby halting the spread of Christianity until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Taizong of Tang">Emperor Taizong of Tang</a> (627–649). Taizong, who had studied the Christian Scriptures which were given to him by the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> missionary <a href="/wiki/Alopen" title="Alopen">Alopen</a>, realized "their propriety and truth and specifically ordered their preaching and transmission."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>His virtues have been made manifest to you, and that unheard-of power over things, whether that which was openly exercised by Him or that which was used over the whole world by those who proclaimed Him: it has subdued the fires of passion, and caused races, and peoples, and nations most diverse in character to hasten with one accord to accept the same faith. For the deeds can be reckoned up and numbered which have been done in India, among the Seres [China], Persians, and Medes; in Arabia, Egypt, in Asia, Syria; among the Galatians, Parthians, Phrygians; in Achaia, Macedonia, Epirus; in all islands and provinces on which the rising and setting sun shines.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Arnobius" title="Arnobius">Arnobius</a> of Sicca, "Against the Heathen, Book II"</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nestorians-1-.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Nestorians-1-.jpg/220px-Nestorians-1-.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Nestorians-1-.jpg/330px-Nestorians-1-.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Nestorians-1-.jpg/440px-Nestorians-1-.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="952" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Stele" title="Xi'an Stele">Xi'an Stele</a> was erected in 781, and documents 150 years of early Christian history in China.<sup id="cite_ref-hill-108_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hill-108-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes texts both in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>.</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogao_Christian_painting_(original_version).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg/180px-Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg/270px-Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg/360px-Mogao_Christian_painting_%28original_version%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1908" data-file-height="3118" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">9th-century silk painting depicting a saint</a>, probably Jesus Christ</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yang_Wengshe_1314.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Yang_Wengshe_1314.jpg/180px-Yang_Wengshe_1314.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Yang_Wengshe_1314.jpg/270px-Yang_Wengshe_1314.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Yang_Wengshe_1314.jpg/360px-Yang_Wengshe_1314.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1316" data-file-height="1843" /></a><figcaption>Christian tombstone from <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quanzhou</a> with a <a href="/wiki/%27Phags-pa" class="mw-redirect" title="'Phags-pa">'Phags-pa</a> inscription dated 1314.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_period">Early period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Church of the East in China</a></div> <p>The Christian apologist <a href="/wiki/Arnobius" title="Arnobius">Arnobius</a> (died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 330</span>) claimed in his work <i>Against the Heathen: Book II</i>, that Christianity had reached the land of "<a href="/wiki/Serica" title="Serica">Serica</a>"—an ancient Roman name for northern China.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, to date, there is little to no archaeological evidence or knowledge about the pre-Church of the East classical Chinese and/or Tocharian church. </p><p>Two (possibly Church of the East) monks were preaching <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">Christianity in India</a> in the 6th century before they <a href="/wiki/Smuggling_of_silkworm_eggs_into_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire">smuggled silkworm eggs from China to the Byzantine Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Clare1899_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clare1899-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first documentation of Christianity entering China was written on the 8th-century <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Stele" title="Xi'an Stele">Xi'an Stele</a>. The stele records that Christians reached the Tang capital of <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a> in 635, and were allowed to establish places of worship and to propagate their faith. The leader of the Christian travellers was <a href="/wiki/Alopen" title="Alopen">Alopen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his meeting with Emperor Taizong was the most influential development in Chinese Christian history yet, leading to the spread of the religion to a much greater extent than ever before.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some modern scholars question whether <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> is the proper term for the Christianity that was practised in China, since it did not adhere to what was preached by <a href="/wiki/Nestorius" title="Nestorius">Nestorius</a>. They instead prefer to refer to it as "<a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Church of the East</a>", a term which encompasses the various forms of early Christianity in Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite inaccuracies by Tang historians regarding Christian history and doctrine,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there was a significant community of scholars who translated the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testaments</a> into <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a>, and understood them fully.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 845, at the height of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Anti-Buddhist_Persecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution">Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wuzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Wuzong of Tang">Emperor Wuzong of Tang</a> decreed that <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, Christianity, and <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> be banned, and their very considerable assets forfeited to the state. </p><p>In 986 a monk reported to the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_the_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of the East">Patriarch of the East</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Christianity is extinct in China; the native Christians have perished in one way or another; the church has been destroyed and there is only one Christian left in the land.</p></blockquote> <p>Karel Pieters noted that some Christian gravestones are dated from the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a> dynasties (ca. 900s to 1200s), implying that some Christians remained in China in these eras.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_period">Medieval period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medieval period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Martyrs_of_1307_Katowice_Panewniki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Chinese_Martyrs_of_1307_Katowice_Panewniki.jpg/150px-Chinese_Martyrs_of_1307_Katowice_Panewniki.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Chinese_Martyrs_of_1307_Katowice_Panewniki.jpg/225px-Chinese_Martyrs_of_1307_Katowice_Panewniki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Chinese_Martyrs_of_1307_Katowice_Panewniki.jpg/300px-Chinese_Martyrs_of_1307_Katowice_Panewniki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Painting of Chinese Martyrs of 1307, Chapel of the Martyrs of Nepi in Katowice Panewniki</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_061.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_061.jpg/150px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_061.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_061.jpg/225px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_061.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_061.jpg/300px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Indische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_061.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1686" data-file-height="1524" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Procession on Palm Sunday</a>", in a 7th- or 8th-century wall painting from a Church of the East church in Tang China</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_among_the_Mongols" title="Christianity among the Mongols">Christianity among the Mongols</a></div> <p>Christianity was a major influence in the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>, as several Mongol tribes were primarily Church of the East Christian, and many of the wives of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>'s descendants were Christian. Contacts with Western Christendom also began in this time period, via envoys from the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a> to the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> (present-day Beijing). </p><p>Church of the East Christianity was well established in China, as is attested by the monks <a href="/wiki/Rabban_Bar_Sauma" title="Rabban Bar Sauma">Rabban Bar Sauma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rabban_Marcos" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabban Marcos">Rabban Marcos</a>, both of whom made a famous pilgrimage to the West, visiting many Church of the East communities along the way. Marcos was elected as Patriarch of the Church of the East, and Bar Sauma went as far as visiting the courts of Europe in 1287–1288, where he told Western monarchs about Christianity among the Mongols. </p><p>In 1294, <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> friars from Europe initiated mission work in China. For about a century they worked in parallel with the Church of the East Christians. The Franciscan mission disappeared from 1368, as the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> set out to eject all foreign influences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Chinese called Muslims, Jews, and Christians starting in the Yuan dynasty<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What does ancient times mean here? (March 2023)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> by the same name, "<i>Hui Hui</i>" (<i>Hwuy-hwuy</i>). Christians were called "<i>Hwuy</i> who abstain from animals without the cloven foot", Muslims were called "<i>Hwuy</i> who abstain from pork", Jews were called "<i>Hwuy</i> who extract the sinews". "<i>Hwuy-tsze</i>" (<i>Hui zi</i>) or "<i>Hwuy-hwuy</i>" (<i>Hui Hui</i>) is presently used almost exclusively for Muslims, but Jews were still called "<i>Lan Maou Hwuy tsze</i>" (<i>Lan Mao Hui zi</i>) which means "Blue-cap Hui zi". At Kaifeng, Jews were called "<i>Teaou-kin-keaou</i>", "extract-sinew religion". Jews and Muslims in China shared the same name for synagogue and mosque, which were both called "<i>Tsing-chin sze</i>" (<i>Qingzhen si</i>), "temple of purity and truth", the name dated to the thirteenth century. The synagogue and mosques were also known as "<i>Le-pae sze</i>" (<i>Libai si</i>). A tablet indicated that Judaism was once known as "<i>Yih-tsze-lo-nee-keaou</i>" (Israelitish religion) and synagogues known as "<i>Yih-tsze lo née leen</i>" (Israelitish temple), but it faded out of use.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was also reported that competition with the Catholic Church and Islam were also factors in causing Church of the East Christianity to disappear in China; Catholics also considered the Church of the East as heretical,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> speaking of "controversies with the emissaries of [...] Rome, and the progress of Mohammedanism, sapped the foundations of their ancient churches."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kublai Khan doubled down on anti-Muslim anti-Halal slaughter laws under pressured from Christians like <a href="/wiki/Isa_Kelemechi" title="Isa Kelemechi">Isa Kelemechi</a> who served in Kublai's court, according to <a href="/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashid-al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isa Kelemechi was also instrumental in reinforcing anti-Muslim prohibitions in the Mongol realms, such as prohibiting <a href="/wiki/Halal" title="Halal">halal</a> slaughter and <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a>, and, according to Rashid al-Din encouraged denunciation of Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Foltz_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foltz-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isa Kelemechi also showed to Khubilai the Muslim precept of "Kill the polytheists, all of them", raising the suspicion of the Mongols towards Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-Foltz_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foltz-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Rashid al-Din, as a result "most Muslims left Khitai".<sup id="cite_ref-Foltz_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foltz-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_(1667)_%22Frontispicio%22_(22629197626).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg/220px-Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg/330px-Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg/440px-Athanasii_Kircheri..._China_monumentis_%281667%29_%22Frontispicio%22_%2822629197626%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="4928" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Book_frontispiece" title="Book frontispiece">frontispiece</a> of <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>'s 1667 <i><a href="/wiki/China_Illustrata" title="China Illustrata">China Illustrata</a></i>, depicting <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a> adoring the <a href="/wiki/Christogram#IHS" title="Christogram">monogram of Christ</a> in <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> while <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall von Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> labor on the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_missions_to_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit missions to China">Jesuit missions to China</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jesuit_missions_in_China">Jesuit missions in China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Jesuit missions in China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit China missions</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_rites_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese rites controversy">Chinese rites controversy</a></div> <p>By the 16th century, there is no reliable information about any practising Christians remaining in China. Fairly soon after the establishment of the direct European maritime contact with China in 1513 and the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> in 1540, at least some Chinese become involved with the Jesuit effort. As early as 1546, two Chinese boys became enrolled into the Jesuits' <a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul%27s_College,_Goa" title="Saint Paul's College, Goa">St. Paul's College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Goa">Goa</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a>. Antonio, one of these two Christian Chinese, accompanied <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">St. Francis Xavier</a>, co-founder of the Jesuits, when he decided to start missionary work in China. However, Xavier was not able to find a way to enter the Chinese mainland and died in 1552 on <a href="/wiki/Shangchuan_Island" title="Shangchuan Island">Shangchuan Island</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>. </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> establishing an enclave on <a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Island" title="Zhongshan Island">Zhongshan Island</a>'s Macao Peninsula, Jesuits established a base nearby on Green Island (now <a href="/wiki/Macao" class="mw-redirect" title="Macao">Macao</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ilha_Verde" title="Ilha Verde">Ilha Verde</a> neighborhood). <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Valignano" title="Alessandro Valignano">Alessandro Valignano</a>, the new regional manager ("Visitor") of the order, came to Macao in 1578–1579 and established <a href="/wiki/St._Paul%27s_College,_Macau" title="St. Paul's College, Macau">St. Paul's College</a> to begin training the missionaries in Chinese language and culture. He requested assistance from the orders' members in Goa in bringing over suitably talented linguists to staff the college and begin the mission in earnest. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg/200px-Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg/300px-Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg/400px-Paradigma_XV_Provinciarum_et_CLV_Urbium_Capitalium_Sinensis_Imperij.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2670" data-file-height="3782" /></a><figcaption>A map of the 200-odd Jesuit churches and missions established across China at the time of <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Couplet" title="Philippe Couplet">Philippe Couplet</a> & al.'s 1687 <i>Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission work inside China, introducing Western science, <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics#Renaissance" title="History of mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy#Renaissance_period" title="History of astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Early_modern_cartography" title="History of cartography">cartography</a>. Missionaries such as <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall von Bell</a> wrote Chinese catechisms<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and made influential converts like <a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a>, establishing Christian settlements throughout the country and becoming close to the imperial court, particularly its <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites">Ministry of Rites</a>, which oversaw official <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">astrology</a>. Ricci and others including <a href="/wiki/Michele_Ruggieri" title="Michele Ruggieri">Michele Ruggieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Couplet" title="Philippe Couplet">Philippe Couplet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francois_Noel_(missionary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francois Noel (missionary)">François Noël</a> undertook a century-long effort in translating the Chinese classics into Latin and spreading knowledge of Chinese culture and history in Europe, influencing the developing Enlightenment. The Jesuits also promoted phenomena of artistic hybridization in China, such as Chinese Christian cloisonné productions.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Franciscan_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan Order">Franciscans</a> (the first round of Catholic Church clergy to have come during this era)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other orders of missionaries, however, led to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_rites_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese rites controversy">a long-running controversy</a> over Chinese customs and names for God. The Jesuits, the secularized <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrats">scholar-bureaucrats</a>, and eventually the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> himself maintained that the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_veneration_of_ancestors" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese veneration of ancestors">Chinese veneration of ancestors</a> and Confucius were respectful but non-religious rituals compatible with Christian doctrine; other orders pointed to the beliefs of the common people of China to show that it was impermissible <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a> and that the common Chinese names for God confused the Creator with His creation. Acting on the complaint of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Maigrot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Maigrot (page does not exist)">Bishop of Fujian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-meingrot_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meingrot-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_XI" title="Pope Clement XI">Pope Clement XI</a> finally ended the dispute with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_rites_controversy#Pope_Clement_XI's_decree" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese rites controversy">a decisive ban</a> in 1704;<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his legate <a href="/wiki/Charles-Thomas_Maillard_De_Tournon" title="Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon">Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon</a> issued <a href="/wiki/Latae_sententiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Latae sententiae">summary and automatic excommunication</a> of any Christian permitting Confucian rituals as soon as word reached him in 1707.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By that time, however, Tournon and Bishop Maigrot had displayed such extreme ignorance in questioning before the throne that the Kangxi Emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism.<sup id="cite_ref-meingrot_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meingrot-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-heycharby_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heycharby-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tournon's policies, confirmed by Clement's 1715 <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">bull</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Ex illa die</i></span> led to the swift collapse of all of the missions across China,<sup id="cite_ref-heycharby_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heycharby-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the last Jesuits—<a href="/wiki/Fourth_vow" title="Fourth vow">obliged</a> to maintain allegiance to the papal rulings—finally being expelled after 1721.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until 1939 that the Catholic Church revisited its stance, with <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a> permitting some forms of Chinese customs. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> later confirmed the new policy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="17th_to_18th_centuries">17th to 18th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 17th to 18th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Further waves of missionaries came to China during the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1911) as a result of contact with foreign powers. <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Orthodoxy">Russian Orthodoxy</a> was introduced in 1715 and Protestants began entering China in 1807. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> was firmly against Christian converts among his own <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a>. He warned them that the Manchus must follow only the Manchu way of worshipping Heaven since different peoples <a href="/wiki/Heaven_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven worship">worshipped Heaven</a> differently.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated:<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The Lord of Heaven is Heaven itself. . . . In the empire we have a temple for honoring Heaven and sacrificing to Him. We Manchus have Tiao Tchin. The first day of every year we burn incense and paper to honor Heaven. We Manchus have our own particular rites for honoring Heaven; the Mongols, Chinese, Russians, and Europeans also have their own particular rites for honoring Heaven. I have never said that he [Urcen, a son of Sun] could not honor heaven but that everyone has his way of doing it. As a Manchu, Urcen should do it like us.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_to_20th_centuries">19th to 20th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 19th to 20th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CIM1902.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/CIM1902.jpg/200px-CIM1902.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/CIM1902.jpg/300px-CIM1902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/CIM1902.jpg/400px-CIM1902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2262" data-file-height="2294" /></a><figcaption>Stations of the <a href="/wiki/China_Inland_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="China Inland Mission">China Inland Mission</a> in 1902, with hubs in <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, and between <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the 1840s China became a major destination for Protestant missionaries from Europe and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catholic missionaries, who had been banned for a time, returned a few decades later.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is difficult to determine an exact number, but historian <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Lodwick" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathleen Lodwick">Kathleen Lodwick</a> estimates that some 50,000 foreigners served in mission work in China between 1809 and 1949, including both Protestants and Catholics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodwick2016xv_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodwick2016xv-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They encountered significant opposition from local elites, who were committed to Confucianism and resented Western ethical systems. Missionaries were often seen as part of Western imperialism. The educated gentry were afraid for their own power. The mandarins claim to power lay in the knowledge of the Chinese classics—all government officials had to pass extremely difficult tests on Confucianism. The elite currently in power feared this might be replaced by the Bible, scientific training and Western education. Indeed, the examination system was abolished in the early 20th century by reformers who admired Western models of modernization.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main goal was conversions, but they made relatively few. They were much more successful in setting up schools, as well as hospitals and dispensaries. They avoided Chinese politics, but were committed opponents of opium. Western governments could protect them in the treaty ports, but outside those limited areas they were at the mercy of local government officials and threats were common. They were a prime target of attack and murder by Boxers in 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg/150px-Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg/225px-Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg/300px-Robert_Morrison_1782-1834.jpg 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption>Robert Morrison of the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg/150px-CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg/225px-CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg/300px-CIM_Gospel_Tract.jpg 2x" data-file-width="627" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Gospel_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospel tract">Gospel tract</a> printed by the China Inland Mission, With a strong fundamentalist approach.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protestant_missions">Protestant missions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Protestant missions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant missions in China</a></div> <p>140 years of Protestant missionary work began with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary)" title="Robert Morrison (missionary)">Robert Morrison</a>, arriving in Macau on 4 September, 1807.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morrison produced a Chinese translation of the Bible. He also compiled a Chinese dictionary for the use of Westerners. The Bible translation took 12 years and the compilation of the dictionary, 16 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hostile_laws">Hostile laws</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hostile laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Qing government code included a prohibition of "Wizards, Witches, and all Superstitions". The <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a>, in 1814, added a sixth clause with reference to Christianity, modified in 1821 and printed in 1826 by the <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a> prohibiting those who spread Christianity among Han Chinese and Manchus. Christians who would not renounce their conversion were to be sent to Muslim cities in Xinjiang, to be given as slaves to Muslim leaders and <a href="/wiki/Baig" class="mw-redirect" title="Baig">beys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maclay_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maclay-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some hoped that the Chinese government would discriminate between Protestantism and the Catholic Church, since the law was directed at Rome, but after Protestant missionaries in 1835– 36 gave Christian books to Chinese, the Daoguang Emperor demanded to know who were the "traitorous natives in Canton who had supplied them with books".<sup id="cite_ref-Maclay_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maclay-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rapid_growth_after_1842">Rapid growth after 1842</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rapid growth after 1842"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The pace of missionary activity increased considerably after the <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> in 1842. Christian missionaries and their schools, under the protection of the Western powers, went on to play a major role in the westernization of China during the 19th and 20th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Liang_Fa" title="Liang Fa">Liang Fa</a> worked in a printing company in Guangzhou and came to know Robert Morrison in 1810, who translated the Bible to Chinese and needed printing of the translation. When William Milne arrived at Guangzhou in 1813 and worked with Morrison on translation of the Bible, he also came to know Liang, whom he baptized in 1816. In 1827, Liang was ordained by Morrison, thus, he became a missionary for the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> and the first Chinese Protestant minister and evangelist. </p><p>During the 1840s, Western missionaries promulgated Christianity in officially designated coastal <a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">treaty ports</a> that were open to foreign trade. The <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> (1850–1864) originated in the influence of missionaries on its leader <a href="/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" title="Hong Xiuquan">Hong Xiuquan</a>, who called himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ, but he was denounced as a heretic by mainstream Christian groups. Hong's revolt against the Qing government lead to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Heavenly_Kingdom" title="Taiping Heavenly Kingdom">Taiping Heavenly Kingdom</a>, and its capital was established at <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>. Hong attained control of significant parts of southern China, at its height, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom ruled around 30 million people. Hong's <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocratic</a> and militaristic regime instituted social reforms which included the strict separation of the sexes, the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a>, land socialization, the suppression of private trade, and the replacement of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> with Hong's version of Christianity. The Taiping rebellion was eventually put down by the Qing army, which was aided by French and British forces. With an estimated death toll of between 20 and 30 million due to warfare and the resulting starvation, this civil war is considered one of history's deadliest conflicts. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> viewed the Taiping as heroic revolutionaries who fought against a corrupt feudal system.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hospitals_and_schools">Hospitals and schools</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hospitals and schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christians established <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_hospitals_in_China" title="List of Christian hospitals in China">clinics and hospitals</a>, and provided training for nurses. Both Catholics and Protestants founded <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_colleges_in_China" title="List of Christian colleges in China">educational institutions</a> from the primary to the university level. Some prominent Chinese universities began as religious-founded institutions. Missionaries worked to abolish practices such as foot binding, and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> trade and brought treatment to many who were addicted.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated6_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated6-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several early leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings, such as Sun Yat-sen.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expanding_beyond_the_port_cities">Expanding beyond the port cities</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Expanding beyond the port cities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HudsonTaylorin1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/HudsonTaylorin1893.jpg/220px-HudsonTaylorin1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/HudsonTaylorin1893.jpg/330px-HudsonTaylorin1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/HudsonTaylorin1893.jpg/440px-HudsonTaylorin1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1872" /></a><figcaption>Hudson Taylor (1832–1905), leader of the China Inland Mission</figcaption></figure> <p>By the early 1860s, the Taiping movement was almost extinct, Protestant missions at the time were confined to five coastal cities. By the end of the century, however, the picture had vastly changed. Scores of new missionary societies had been organized, and several thousand missionaries were working in all parts of China. This transformation can be traced to the <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a> which forced the Chinese government to admit Western missionaries into the interior of the country, the excitement caused by the 1859 <a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakening</a> in Britain. A major role was played by <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" title="Hudson Taylor">Hudson Taylor</a> (1832–1905). Taylor (<a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a>) arrived in China in 1854. Historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Scott_Latourette" title="Kenneth Scott Latourette">Kenneth Scott Latourette</a> wrote that Hudson Taylor was "one of the greatest missionaries of all time, and ... one of the four or five most influential foreigners who came to China in the nineteenth century for any purpose."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/OMF_International" title="OMF International">China Inland Mission</a>, based in London with a strong appeal to fundamentalist and evangelical Anglicans, was the largest mission agency in China and it is estimated that Taylor was responsible for more people being converted to Christianity than at any other time since The days of the apostles. Out of the 8,500 Protestant missionaries that were at one time at work in China, 1000 of them were from the China Inland Mission. <a href="/wiki/Dixon_Edward_Hoste" title="Dixon Edward Hoste">Dixon Edward Hoste</a>, the successor to Hudson Taylor, originally expressed the self-governing principles of the <a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Self Church">Three-Self Church</a>, at the time he was articulating the goal of the China Inland Mission to establish an indigenous Chinese Church that was free from foreign control.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated6_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated6-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_services">Social services</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Social services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In imperial-times Chinese social and religious culture there were charitable organizations for virtually every social service: burial of the dead, care of orphans, provision of food for the hungry. The wealthiest in every community—typically, the merchants—were expected to give food, medicine, clothing, and even cash to those in need. According to Caroline Reeves, a historian at Emmanuel College in Boston, that began to change with the arrival of American missionaries in the late 19th century. One of the reasons they gave for being there was to help the poor Chinese. </p><p>By 1865 when the China Inland Mission began, there were already thirty different Protestant groups at work in China,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however the diversity of denominations represented did not equate to more missionaries on the field. In the seven provinces in which Protestant missionaries had already been working, there were an estimated 204 million people with only 91 workers, while there were eleven other provinces in inland China with a population estimated at 197 million, for whom absolutely nothing had been attempted.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the London Missionary Society, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions" title="American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions">American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions</a>, there were missionaries affiliated with <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopalians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wesleyanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wesleyanism">Wesleyans</a>. Most missionaries came from England, the United States, Sweden, France, Germany, Switzerland, or the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secular_books">Secular books</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Secular books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the publication and distribution of Christian literature and <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Chinese" title="Bible translations into Chinese">Bibles</a>, the Protestant missionary movement in China furthered the dispersion of knowledge with other printed works of history and science. As the missionaries went to work among the Chinese, they established and developed schools and introduced <a href="/wiki/Medical_missions_in_China" title="Medical missions in China">medical techniques from the West</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mission schools were viewed with some suspicion by the traditional Chinese teachers, but they differed from the norm by offering a basic education to poor Chinese, both boys and girls, who had no hope of learning at a school before the days of the Republic of China.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opposition">Opposition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Opposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Local affairs in China were under the control of local officials and the land-owning gentry. They led the opposition to missionary work.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian Paul Varg: </p> <dl><dd>The Chinese hostility to the missionary was based first of all on the fact that Western Christianity was utterly strange and incomprehensible to the Chinese. There was also the opposition based on what they did understand, namely the missionary's revolutionary program. The literati sensed from the very beginning that Christianization would deprive them of their power. So intense was their hostility that few missionaries considered it worthwhile to make any effort to win them over.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>In December 1897, Wilhelm II declared his intent to seize territory in China, which triggered a "scramble for concessions" by which Britain, France, Russia and Japan also secured their own <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a> in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–30_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–30-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the German government took over Shandong, many Chinese feared that the foreign missionaries and possibly all Christian activities were imperialist attempts at "carving the melon", i.e., to colonize China piece by piece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987Ch_3_"Imperialism_for_Christ's_Sake",_pp._68–95_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987Ch_3_"Imperialism_for_Christ's_Sake",_pp._68–95-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Local gentry published hate literature against the foreign missionaries. One tract featured foreign missionaries praying to crucified pigs—the Catholic term for God was <i>Tianzhu</i> (Heavenly Lord), in which the Chinese character "<i>zhu</i>" had the same pronunciation as the word for "pig". The pamphlet also showed Christian clergy engaging in orgies following Sunday services and removing the placentas, breasts, and testicles from kidnapped Chinese. It concluded with repeated calls for their extermination by vigilantes and the government.<sup id="cite_ref-mit_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mit-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> was in large part a reaction against Christianity in China. Missionaries were harassed and murdered, along with tens of thousands of converts. In 1895, the Manchu <a href="/wiki/Yuxian_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yuxian (Qing dynasty)">Yuxian</a>, a magistrate in the province, acquired the help of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Swords_Society" title="Big Swords Society">Big Swords Society</a> in fighting against bandits. The Big Swords practices heterodox practices, however, they were not bandits and were not seen as bandits by Chinese authorities. The Big Swords relentlessly crushed the bandits, but the bandits converted to the Catholic Church, because it made them legally immune to prosecution under the protection of the foreigners. The Big Swords proceeded to attack the bandits' Catholic churches and burn them.<sup id="cite_ref-ThreeKeys_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThreeKeys-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yuxian only executed several Big Sword leaders, but did not punish anyone else. More secret societies started emerging after this.<sup id="cite_ref-ThreeKeys_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThreeKeys-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Pingyuan, the site of another insurrection and major religious disputes, the county magistrate noted that Chinese converts to Christianity were taking advantage of their bishop's power to file false lawsuits which, upon investigation, were found groundless.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French Catholic missionaries were active in China; they were funded by appeals in French churches for money. The Holy Childhood Association (L'Oeuvre de la Sainte Enfance) was a Catholic charity founded in 1843 to rescue Chinese children from infanticide. It was a target of Chinese anti-Christian protests notably in the Tianjin Massacre of 1870. Rioting sparked by false rumors of the killing of babies led to the death of a French consul and provoked a diplomatic crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Popularity_and_indigenous_growth_(1900–1925)"><span id="Popularity_and_indigenous_growth_.281900.E2.80.931925.29"></span>Popularity and indigenous growth (1900–1925)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Popularity and indigenous growth (1900–1925)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catholic_Church_Cizhong_Yunnan_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Catholic_Church_Cizhong_Yunnan_China.jpg/220px-Catholic_Church_Cizhong_Yunnan_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Catholic_Church_Cizhong_Yunnan_China.jpg/330px-Catholic_Church_Cizhong_Yunnan_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Catholic_Church_Cizhong_Yunnan_China.jpg/440px-Catholic_Church_Cizhong_Yunnan_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A Catholic church by the <a href="/wiki/Lancang_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Lancang River">Lancang River</a> River at Cizhong, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. It was built by French missionaries in the mid-19th century, but was burnt during the anti-foreigner movement in 1905 and rebuilt in the 1920s. The congregation is mainly <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_people" title="Tibetan people">Tibetan</a>, but some members are of <a href="/wiki/Han_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Han (people)">Han</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nakhi_people" title="Nakhi people">Naxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisu_people" title="Lisu people">Lisu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yi_people" title="Yi people">Yi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bai_people" title="Bai people">Bai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> ethnicity.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many scholars see the historical period between the Boxer Uprising and the Second Sino-Japanese War as a golden age of Chinese Christianity, as converts grew rapidly and churches were built in many regions of China.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paul Varg argues that American missionaries worked very hard on changing China: </p> <blockquote><p> The growth of the missionary movement in the first decades of the [20th] century wove a tie between the American church-going public and China that did not exist between the United States and any other country. The number of missionaries increased from 513 in 1890 to more than 2,000 in 1914, and by 1920 there were 8,325 Protestant missionaries in China. In 1927 there were sixteen American universities and colleges, ten professional schools of collegiate rank, four schools of theology, and six schools of medicine. These institutions represented an investment of $19 million. By 1920, 265 Christian middle schools existed with an enrollment of 15,213. There were thousands of elementary schools; the Presbyterians alone had 383 primary schools with about 15,000 students.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Extensive fund-raising and publicity campaigns were held across the U.S. The Catholics in the United States also supported large mission operations in China.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/1910_World_Missionary_Conference" title="1910 World Missionary Conference">1910 World Missionary Conference</a> in Glasgow, Protestant missionaries energetically promoted what they called "indigenization", that is assigning the leadership of churches to local Christian leaders. The Chinese National YMCA was the first to do so. In the 1920s, a group of church leaders formed the <a href="/wiki/National_Christian_Council_of_China" title="National Christian Council of China">National Christian Council of China</a> to coordinate interdenominational activity. Among the leaders were <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Jingyi" title="Cheng Jingyi">Cheng Jingyi</a>, who was influential at the Glasgow Conference with his call for a non-denominational church. The way was prepared for the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Christ_in_China" title="Church of Christ in China">Church of Christ in China</a>, a unified non-denominational church.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War I, the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a> fostered an intellectual atmosphere that promoted Science and Democracy. Although some of the movement's leaders, such as <a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a>, initially expressed admiration for the role that Christianity played in building the strong nations of the West, as well as approving the emphasis on love and social service, Christianity became identified in the eyes of many young Chinese with foreign control of China. The 1923 <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_Movement_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christian Movement (China)">Anti-Christian Movement</a> attacked missionaries and their followers on the grounds that no religion was scientific and that the Christian church in China was a tool of the foreigners. Such Chinese Protestants as the liberals <a href="/wiki/David_Z._T._Yui" title="David Z. T. Yui">David Z. T. Yui</a>, head of the Chinese National YMCA, and <a href="/wiki/Y._T._Wu" title="Y. T. Wu">Y. T. Wu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wu_Leichuan" title="Wu Leichuan">Wu Leichuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/T._C._Chao" title="T. C. Chao">T. C. Chao</a>, and the theologically more conservative <a href="/wiki/Chen_Chonggui" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen Chonggui">Chen Chonggui</a> responded by developing social programs and theologies that devoted themselves to strengthening the Chinese nation. <a href="/wiki/Y._C._James_Yen" title="Y. C. James Yen">Y. C. James Yen</a>, a graduate of Yale University, led <a href="/wiki/Rural_Reconstruction_Movement" title="Rural Reconstruction Movement">a program of village reform</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Several political leaders of the Republican period were Protestant Christians, including <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhengting" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhengting">Wang Zhengting</a>. Leading writers include <a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a>, who renounced his Christianity for several decades.<sup id="cite_ref-HamrinBieler2011_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HamrinBieler2011-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His journey of faith from Christianity to Taoism and Buddhism, and back to Christianity in his later life was recorded in his book From Pagan to Christian (1959). <a href="/wiki/Lottie_Moon" title="Lottie Moon">Lottie Moon</a> (1840–1912), representing the Southern Baptist, was the most prominent woman missionary. Although an equality-oriented feminist who rejected male dominance, the Southern Baptists have memorialized her as a southern belle who followed traditional gender roles.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medical_missions">Medical missions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Medical missions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medical missions in China by the late 19th century laid the foundations for modern medicine in China. Western medical <a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christian)">missionaries</a> established the first modern clinics and hospitals, provided the first training for nurses, and opened the first medical schools in China.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1901, China was the most popular destination for medical missionaries. The 150 foreign physicians operated 128 hospitals and 245 dispensaries, treating 1.7 million patients. In 1894, male medical missionaries constituted 14 percent of all missionaries; women doctors were four percent. Modern medical education in China started in the early 20th century at hospitals run by international missionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They began establishing nurse training schools in China in the late 1880s, but nursing of sick men by female nurses was rejected by local traditions, so the number of Chinese students was small until the practice became accepted in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also a level of distrust on the part of traditional evangelical missionaries who thought hospitals were diverting needed resources away from the primary goal of conversions.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the 500 hospitals in China in 1931, 235 were run by Protestant missions and 10 by Catholic missions. The mission hospitals produce 61 percent of Western trained doctors, 32 percent nurses and 50 percent of medical schools. Already by 1923 China had half of the world's missionary hospital beds and half the world's missionary doctors.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the essential non-existence of Chinese doctors of Western medicine in China and Hong Kong, the founding of colleges of Western medicine was an important part of the medical mission. These colleges for the training of male and female doctors were separately founded. The training of female doctors was particularly necessary, due to the reluctance of Chinese women to see male doctors. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese">Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese</a> was founded in Hong Kong by the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> in 1887 for the training of male doctors. Sun Yat-sen the first graduate of this college and the founder of modern China, graduated in 1892. Hong Kui Wong (黄康衢) (1876–1961) graduated in 1900 and then moved to Singapore, where he supported the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> led by Sun Yat-sen.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Medical_College_for_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Hackett Medical College for Women">Hackett Medical College for Women</a>, the first medical college for women in China, and its affiliated hospital known as David Gregg Hospital for Women and Children (柔濟醫院), located together in Guangzhou, China, were founded by female medical missionary Mary H. Fulton (1854–1927). Fulton was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA), with the support of the Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church of Brooklyn, New York, of which David Gregg was pastor. The college was dedicated in 1902 and offered a four-year medical curriculum. Its graduates include <a href="/wiki/Lee_Sun_Chau" title="Lee Sun Chau">Lee Sun Chau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indigenous_Christian_leaders">Indigenous Christian leaders</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Indigenous Christian leaders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indigenous Christian evangelism started in China in the late 1800s. Man-Kai Wan (1869–1927) was one of the first Chinese doctors of Western medicine in Hong Kong, the inaugural chairman of the Hong Kong Chinese Medical Association (1920–1922, forerunner of the Hong Kong Medical Association), and a secondary school classmate of Sun Yat-sen in the Government Central College (currently known as <a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_College,_Hong_Kong" title="Queen's College, Hong Kong">Queen's College</a>) in Hong Kong. Wan and Sun graduated from secondary school around 1886. Doctor Wan was also the chairman of the board of a Christian newspaper called <i>Great Light Newspaper</i> (大光報) that was distributed in Hong Kong and China. Sun and Wan practiced Western Medicine together in a joint clinic. The father-in-law of Wan was <a href="/wiki/Au_Fung-Chi" title="Au Fung-Chi">Au Fung-Chi</a> (1847–1914), the secretary of the Hong Kong Department of Chinese Affairs, manager of Kwong Wah Hospital for its 1911 opening, and an elder of To Tsai Church (renamed Hop Yat Church since 1926), which was founded by the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> in 1888 and was the church of Sun Yat-sen.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_and_social_change:_the_war_against_Japan_and_the_Chinese_Civil_War_(1925–1949)"><span id="National_and_social_change:_the_war_against_Japan_and_the_Chinese_Civil_War_.281925.E2.80.931949.29"></span>National and social change: the war against Japan and the Chinese Civil War (1925–1949)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: National and social change: the war against Japan and the Chinese Civil War (1925–1949)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Sung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/John_Sung.jpg/150px-John_Sung.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/John_Sung.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="177" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Sung" title="John Sung">John Sung</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, China was devastated by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> which countered a Japanese invasion, and by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> which resulted in the separation of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> from mainland China. In this period the Chinese Christian churches and organizations had their first experience with autonomy from the Western structures of the missionary church organizations. Some scholars suggest this helped lay the foundation for the independent denominations and churches of the post-war period and the eventual development of the Three-Self Church and the Catholic Patriotic Church. At the same time the intense war period hampered the rebuilding and development of the churches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Since_1949">Since 1949</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Since 1949"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">Antireligious campaigns in China</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The People's Republic of China (PRC) was declared October 1, 1949 by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) led by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, while the Republic of China led by the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> maintained its government on Taiwan. The historian Daniel Bays comments that it was "not surprising that this new government, like the emperors of several dynasties of the last millennium, evinced an insistence on monitoring religious life and requiring all religions, for example, to register their venues and leadership personnel with a government office."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBays2012159_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBays2012159-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christian missionaries left in what was described by Phyllis Thompson of the China Inland Mission as a "reluctant exodus".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chinese Protestant church entered the communist era having made significant progress toward self-support and self-government. While the Chinese Communist Party was hostile to religion in general, it did not seek to systematically destroy religion as long as the religious organizations were willing to submit to the direction of the Chinese state. Many Protestants were willing to accept such accommodation and were permitted to continue religious life in China under the name "<a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Patriotic_Movement" title="Three-Self Patriotic Movement">Three-Self Patriotic Movement</a>". Catholics, on the other hand, with their allegiance to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>, could not submit to the Chinese state as their Protestant counterparts did, notwithstanding the willingness of the Vatican to compromise in order to remain on Chinese mainland—the papal <a href="/wiki/Nuncio" title="Nuncio">nuncio</a> in China did not withdraw to Taiwan like other western diplomats. Consequently, the Chinese state organized the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Patriotic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Patriotic Church">Catholic Patriotic Church</a> that operates without connection to the Vatican, and the Catholics who continued to acknowledge the authority of the Pope were subject to persecution. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, the United States froze all Chinese assets in the United States and banned the transfer of funds from the United States to within the PRC.<sup id="cite_ref-:Li_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Li-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 50">: 50 </span></sup> Among the effects of these policies was cutting off funding for American-affiliated cultural institutions in China, including Christian colleges and religious institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-:Li_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Li-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 50">: 50 </span></sup> The PRC responded by nationalizing American-affiliated cultural institutions, including religious ones.<sup id="cite_ref-:Li_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Li-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 50">: 50 </span></sup> </p><p>From 1966 to 1976 during the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, the expression of religious life in China was effectively banned, including even the <a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Self Church">Three-Self Church</a>. During the ten-year period the government began to crackdown and persecute all religions. This forced the Christians to be secretive and go underground to avoid getting executed by the communist government. Religions in China began to recover after the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">economic reforms</a> of the 1970s. In 1979 the government officially restored the Three-Self Church after thirteen years of non-existence,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1980 the <a href="/wiki/China_Christian_Council" title="China Christian Council">China Christian Council</a> (CCC) was formed. </p><p>Since then, persecution of Christians in China has been sporadic. During the Cultural Revolution believers were arrested and imprisoned and sometimes tortured for their faith.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bibles were destroyed, churches and homes were looted, and Christians were subjected to humiliation.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several thousand Christians were known to have been imprisoned between 1983 and 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1992 the government began a campaign to shut down all of the unregistered meetings. However, government implementation of restrictions since then has varied widely between regions of China and in many areas there is greater religious liberty.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The members of the underground Catholic Church in China, those who do not belong to the official Catholic Patriotic Church and are faithful to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a>, remain theoretically subject to persecution today. In practice, however, the Vatican and the Chinese State have been, at least unofficially, accommodating each other for some time. While some bishops who joined the Catholic Patriotic Church in its early years have been condemned and even excommunicated, the entire organization has never been declared schismatic by the Vatican and, at present, its bishops are even invited to church synods like other Catholic leaders. Also, many underground clergy and laymen are active in the official Patriotic Church as well. Still, there are periods of discomfort between Vatican and the Patriotic Church: <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> condemned the Patriotic Catholic leaders as "persons who are not ordained, and sometimes not even baptised", who "control and make decisions concerning important ecclesial questions, including the appointment of bishops". The Chinese state indeed continues to appoint bishops and intervene in the church's policy (most notably on abortion and artificial contraception) without consulting the Vatican and punishing outspoken dissenters. In one notable case that drew international attention, <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Ma_Daqin" title="Thaddeus Ma Daqin">Thaddeus Ma Daqin</a>, the auxiliary bishop of Shanghai whom both the Vatican and Chinese state agreed as the successor to the elderly <a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Jin_Luxian" title="Aloysius Jin Luxian">Aloysius Jin Luxian</a>, the Patriotic Catholic bishop of Shanghai (whom the Vatican also recognized as the coadjutor bishop), was arrested and imprisoned after publicly resigning from his positions in the Patriotic Church in 2012, an act which was considered a challenge to the state control over the Catholic Church in China. </p><p>A Christian spiritual revival has grown in the first decades of the twenty-first century. The Communist Party remains officially atheist, and has remained intolerant of churches outside party control.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christianity has grown rapidly, reaching 67 million people including unofficial churches.<sup id="cite_ref-Hernandez_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hernandez-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years, however, the Communist Party has looked with distrust on organizations with international ties; it tends to associate Christianity with what it deems to be subversive Western values, and has closed churches and schools. In 2015, outspoken pastors in Hong Kong and their associates on the mainland came under close scrutiny from government officials.<sup id="cite_ref-Hernandez_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hernandez-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_People's_Republic_of_China"><span id="Contemporary_People.27s_Republic_of_China"></span>Contemporary People's Republic of China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Contemporary People's Republic of China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haidian_Church_2007_Xmas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Haidian_Church_2007_Xmas.jpg/220px-Haidian_Church_2007_Xmas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Haidian_Church_2007_Xmas.jpg/330px-Haidian_Church_2007_Xmas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Haidian_Church_2007_Xmas.jpg/440px-Haidian_Church_2007_Xmas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Haidian_Christian_Church" title="Haidian Christian Church">Haidian Christian Church</a> during Christmas 2007, Beijing. Haidian Church is operated by Three-Self Patriotic Movement.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subdivision_of_the_Christian_community">Subdivision of the Christian community</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Subdivision of the Christian community"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Official_organizations—the_Chinese_Patriotic_Catholic_Church_and_the_Chinese_Protestant_Church"><span id="Official_organizations.E2.80.94the_Chinese_Patriotic_Catholic_Church_and_the_Chinese_Protestant_Church"></span>Official organizations—the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Church and the Chinese Protestant Church</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Official organizations—the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Church and the Chinese Protestant Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Patriotic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Patriotic Church">Catholic Patriotic Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lianghui_(Protestantism)" title="Lianghui (Protestantism)">Lianghui (Protestantism)</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Patriotic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Patriotic Church">Catholic Patriotic Church</a> and the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Patriotic_Movement" title="Three-Self Patriotic Movement">Three-Self Patriotic Movement</a> are centralised and government-sanctioned Christian institutions which regulate all local Christian gatherings, all of which are required to be registered under their auspices. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Unregistered_churches">Unregistered churches</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Unregistered churches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Underground_church" title="Underground church">Underground church</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_church_(China)" title="House church (China)">House church (China)</a></div> <p>Many Christians hold meetings outside of the jurisdiction of the government-approved organizations and avoid registration with the government and are often illegal. While there has been continuous persecution of Chinese Christians throughout the twentieth century, particularly during the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, there has been increasing tolerance of unregistered churches since the late 1970s. </p><p>Catholic groups are usually known as <a href="/wiki/Underground_church" title="Underground church">underground churches</a> and Protestant groups are usually known as <a href="/wiki/House_church_(China)" title="House church (China)">house churches</a>. The Catholic underground churches are those congregations who remain fully faithful to the Pope in Rome and refuse to register as part of the Catholic Patriotic Church. Much of the Protestant house church movement dates back to the coerced unification of all Protestant denominations in the Three-Self Church in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is often significant overlap between the membership of registered and unregistered Christian bodies, as a large number of people attend both registered and unregistered churches.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._185_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._185-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Local authorities continued to harass and detain bishops, including Guo Xijin and Cui Tai, who refused to join the state-affiliated Catholic association. Chinese authorities raided or closed down hundreds of Protestant house churches in 2019, including Rock Church in Henan Province and <a href="/wiki/Shouwang_Church" title="Shouwang Church">Shouwang Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Zion_Church" title="Beijing Zion Church">Zion Church in Beijing</a>, with their pastor, <a href="/wiki/Jin_Tianming" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin Tianming">Jin Tianming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jin_Mingri" title="Jin Mingri">Jin Mingri</a> under house arrest. The government released some of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Rain_Covenant_Church" title="Early Rain Covenant Church">Early Rain Covenant Church</a> congregants who had been arrested in December 2018, but in December 2019 a court charged <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yi_(pastor)" title="Wang Yi (pastor)">Pastor Wang Yi</a> with “subversion of state power” and sentenced him to nine years imprisonment. Several local governments, including Guangzho city, offered cash bounties for individuals who informed on underground churches. In addition, authorities across the country have removed crosses from churches, banned youth under the age of 18 from participating in religious services, and replaced images of Jesus Christ or the Virgin Mary with pictures of <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Chinese_Independent_Churches">Chinese Independent Churches</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Chinese Independent Churches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Independent_Churches" title="Chinese Independent Churches">Chinese Independent Churches</a></div> <p>The Chinese Independent Churches are a group of Christian institutions that are independent from Western denominations. They were established in China in the late 19th and early 20th century, including both the <a href="/wiki/Local_churches_(affiliation)" title="Local churches (affiliation)">Little Flock</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Church_Assembly_Hall_(Chinese_christian_denomination)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Church Assembly Hall (Chinese christian denomination) (page does not exist)">Church Assembly Hall</a> and <a href="/wiki/True_Jesus_Church" title="True Jesus Church">True Jesus Church</a>. In the 1940s they gathered 200,000 adherents, which was 20% to 25% of the total Christian population of that time.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Miller (2006) explains that a significant amount of the house churches or unregistered congregations and meeting points of the Protestant spectrum, that refuse to join the Three-Self Church—China Christian Council, belong to the Chinese Independent Churches.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._191_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._191-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congregations of the Little Flock or the True Jesus Church tend to be uncooperative towards the Three-Self Church as to their principle it represents not only a tool of the government but also a different Christian tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._191_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._191-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Chinese_Orthodox_Church">Chinese Orthodox Church</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Chinese Orthodox Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Chinese Orthodox Church</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Harbin_%E7%B4%A2%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%9E%E6%9D%B1%E6%AD%A3%E6%95%99%E5%A0%82_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral%2C_Harbin_%E7%B4%A2%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%9E%E6%9D%B1%E6%AD%A3%E6%95%99%E5%A0%82_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Saint_Sophia_Cathedral%2C_Harbin_%E7%B4%A2%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%9E%E6%9D%B1%E6%AD%A3%E6%95%99%E5%A0%82_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral%2C_Harbin_%E7%B4%A2%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%9E%E6%9D%B1%E6%AD%A3%E6%95%99%E5%A0%82_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-Saint_Sophia_Cathedral%2C_Harbin_%E7%B4%A2%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%9E%E6%9D%B1%E6%AD%A3%E6%95%99%E5%A0%82_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral%2C_Harbin_%E7%B4%A2%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%9E%E6%9D%B1%E6%AD%A3%E6%95%99%E5%A0%82_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-Saint_Sophia_Cathedral%2C_Harbin_%E7%B4%A2%E9%9D%9E%E4%BA%9E%E6%9D%B1%E6%AD%A3%E6%95%99%E5%A0%82_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="2163" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Harbin" title="Saint Sophia Cathedral, Harbin">Saint Sophia Cathedral</a> in Harbin</figcaption></figure> <p>There are a small number of adherents of Russian Orthodoxy in northern China, predominantly in <a href="/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a>. The first mission was undertaken by Russians in the 17th century. Orthodox Christianity is also practiced by the small Russian minority in China. The Church operates relatively freely in Hong Kong (where the Ecumenical Patriarch has sent a metropolitan, Bishop Nikitas and the Russian Orthodox parish of St Peter and St Paul resumed its operation) and Taiwan (where archimandrite Jonah George Mourtos leads a mission church). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Korean_Christianity">Korean Christianity</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Korean Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chinese scholars of religion have reported that a large portion of the members of the networks of house or unregistered churches, and of their pastors, are Koreans living in China.<sup id="cite_ref-duihua.org_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duihua.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pastors of the independent Shouwang and Zion churches in Beijing are noted for having been prosecuted by the government, and are of Korean ethnicity.<sup id="cite_ref-duihua.org_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duihua.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Korean-Chinese pastors have a disproportional influence on the underground Christianity in China. Christianity has been an influential religion among the <a href="/wiki/Korean_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean people">Korean people</a> since the 19th century, and it has become the largest religion in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">division of Korea</a> in 1945. Christianity also has a strong presence in the <a href="/wiki/Yanbian_Korean_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture">Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a> province of China.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Christianity of Yanbian Koreans has a patriarchal character; Korean churches are usually led by men, in contrast to Chinese churches which more often have female leadership. For instance, of the 28 registered churches of <a href="/wiki/Yanji" title="Yanji">Yanji</a>, only three of which are Chinese congregations, all the Korean churches have a male pastor while all the Chinese churches have a female pastor.<sup id="cite_ref-Carpenter,_Dulk._2014._p._33_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carpenter,_Dulk._2014._p._33-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, Yanbian Korean church buildings are stylistically very similar to South Korean churches, with big spires surmounted by large red crosses.<sup id="cite_ref-Carpenter,_Dulk._2014._p._33_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carpenter,_Dulk._2014._p._33-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yanbian Korean churches and house churches in China have been a matter of controversy for the Chinese government because of their links to South Korean churches.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the Korean house churches in China receive financial support and pastoral ordinations from South Korean churches, and some of them are effectively branches of South Korean churches.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South Korean missionaries have major influence not only on Korean-Chinese churches but also the Han Chinese churches in mainland China. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Heterodox_sects">Heterodox sects</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Heterodox sects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In China there are also a variety of Christian sects based on biblical teachings that are considered by the government as "<a href="/wiki/Heterodox_teachings_(Chinese_law)" title="Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)">heterodox teachings</a>" (<span lang="zh-Hans">邪教</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiéjiào</span></i>) or cults, including the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lightning" title="Eastern Lightning">Eastern Lightning</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Shouters" title="The Shouters">the Shouters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Doyle_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doyle-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They primarily operate in a form similar to the "house churches",<sup id="cite_ref-Doyle_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doyle-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> small worship groups, outside of the state-sanctioned Three-Self Church, that meet in members' homes. One feature that some Christian sects with this label have in common is particular emphasis on the authority of a single leader, sometimes even <a href="/wiki/List_of_people_claimed_to_be_Jesus" title="List of people claimed to be Jesus">those claiming to be Jesus</a>. In the mid-1990s, the Chinese government started to monitor these new religious movements, and officially prohibited them, with their activities moving underground. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religious_venues_and_practice">Religious venues and practice</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Religious venues and practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2012 in China Catholicism has 6,300 churches, 116 active <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">dioceses</a> of which 97 under the Catholic Patriotic Church, 74 Chinese Patriotic bishops and 40 Catholic unofficial bishops, 2,150 Chinese Patriotic priests and 1,500 Catholic priests, 22 major and minor Chinese Patriotic seminaries and 10 Catholic unofficial seminaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wenzel-Teuber2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year, there are 53,000 Three-Self churches and meeting places and 21 <a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_theological_seminaries_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Protestant theological seminaries in the People's Republic of China">Three-Self theological seminaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wenzel-Teuber2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010, <a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_in_China" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in China">The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in China</a> revealed its on-going efforts to negotiate with authorities to regularize its activities in the country. The church has had expatriate members worshiping in China for a few decades previous to this, but with restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-lds_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lds-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 31, 2020, during its <a href="/wiki/General_Conference_(LDS_Church)" title="General Conference (LDS Church)">general conference</a>, the church announced its intent to build a <a href="/wiki/Temple_(LDS_Church)" title="Temple (LDS Church)">temple</a> in Shanghai as a "modest multipurpose meetinghouse."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When it opens it will operate by appointment only for Chinese members, excluding tourists.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics_and_geography">Demographics and geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Demographics and geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huazhong_University_of_Science_and_Technology_-_eastern_zone_-_cafeteria_and_student_services_center_-_P1040921.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Huazhong_University_of_Science_and_Technology_-_eastern_zone_-_cafeteria_and_student_services_center_-_P1040921.JPG/220px-Huazhong_University_of_Science_and_Technology_-_eastern_zone_-_cafeteria_and_student_services_center_-_P1040921.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Huazhong_University_of_Science_and_Technology_-_eastern_zone_-_cafeteria_and_student_services_center_-_P1040921.JPG/330px-Huazhong_University_of_Science_and_Technology_-_eastern_zone_-_cafeteria_and_student_services_center_-_P1040921.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Huazhong_University_of_Science_and_Technology_-_eastern_zone_-_cafeteria_and_student_services_center_-_P1040921.JPG/440px-Huazhong_University_of_Science_and_Technology_-_eastern_zone_-_cafeteria_and_student_services_center_-_P1040921.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>"Merry Christmas" signs (usually only in English) are common in China during the winter holiday season, even in areas with little sign of Christian observance</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainland_China">Mainland China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mainland China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuhan_-_former_Methodist_church,_now_Crown_Bakery_-_interior_-_P1050063.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Wuhan_-_former_Methodist_church%2C_now_Crown_Bakery_-_interior_-_P1050063.JPG/220px-Wuhan_-_former_Methodist_church%2C_now_Crown_Bakery_-_interior_-_P1050063.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Wuhan_-_former_Methodist_church%2C_now_Crown_Bakery_-_interior_-_P1050063.JPG/330px-Wuhan_-_former_Methodist_church%2C_now_Crown_Bakery_-_interior_-_P1050063.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Wuhan_-_former_Methodist_church%2C_now_Crown_Bakery_-_interior_-_P1050063.JPG/440px-Wuhan_-_former_Methodist_church%2C_now_Crown_Bakery_-_interior_-_P1050063.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The interior of a former Methodist church in <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>, converted to an upscale pastry shop with a Christian-themed decor</figcaption></figure> <p>Although a number of factors—the vast Chinese population and the characteristic Chinese approach to religion among others—contribute to a difficulty to obtain empirical data on the number of Christians in China, a series of surveys have been conducted and published by different agencies. Government figures only count adult baptized members of government sanctioned churches. Thus they generally do not include un-baptized persons attending Christian groups, non-adult children of Christian believers or other persons under age 18 and they generally do not take into account unregistered Christian groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambert-Tony_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambert-Tony-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is often significant overlap between the membership of registered and unregistered Christian bodies, as a large number of people attend both registered and unregistered churches.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._185_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._185-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tianjin_Xikai_cathedral_interior_0720.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tianjin_Xikai_cathedral_interior_0720.JPG/220px-Tianjin_Xikai_cathedral_interior_0720.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tianjin_Xikai_cathedral_interior_0720.JPG/330px-Tianjin_Xikai_cathedral_interior_0720.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tianjin_Xikai_cathedral_interior_0720.JPG/440px-Tianjin_Xikai_cathedral_interior_0720.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Joseph_Cathedral_(Tianjin)" title="St. Joseph Cathedral (Tianjin)">St. Joseph Cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Service_at_Haidian_Church.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Service_at_Haidian_Church.jpg/220px-Service_at_Haidian_Church.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Service_at_Haidian_Church.jpg/330px-Service_at_Haidian_Church.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Service_at_Haidian_Church.jpg/440px-Service_at_Haidian_Church.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3429" data-file-height="2306" /></a><figcaption>Inside <a href="/wiki/Haidian_Christian_Church" title="Haidian Christian Church">Haidian Christian Church</a> in Beijing</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:People_singing_chant.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/People_singing_chant.JPG/220px-People_singing_chant.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/People_singing_chant.JPG/330px-People_singing_chant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/People_singing_chant.JPG/440px-People_singing_chant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>A house church in Shunyi, Beijing</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Official membership</dt></dl> <p>As of 2023, there are approximately 44 million Chinese Christians registered with government-approved Christian groups.<sup id="cite_ref-:92_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:92-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 51">: 51 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Self Church">Three-Self Church</a> had a membership of 20 million people as of 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wenzel-Teuber2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Patriotic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Patriotic Church">Catholic Patriotic Church</a> had a membership of 6 million people as of 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wenzel-Teuber2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dt>Independent surveys</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>2005/2006/2007: three surveys of religions in China conducted in those years by the Horizon Research Consultancy Group on a disproportionately urban and suburban sampling, found that Christians constituted between 2% and 4% of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2007: two surveys were conducted that year to count the number of Christians in China. One of them was conducted by the Protestant missionary Werner Bürklin, founder of "China Partner", an international Christian organisation, and his team of 7,409 surveyors in every province and municipality of China. The other survey was conducted by professor Liu Zhongyu of the East China Normal University of Shanghai. The surveys were conducted independently and along different periods of time, but they reached the same results.<sup id="cite_ref-assist_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-assist-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-examiner_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-examiner-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the analyses, there were approximately 54 million Christians in China (≈4% of the total population), of whom 39 million were Protestants and 14 million were Catholics.<sup id="cite_ref-assist_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-assist-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-examiner_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-examiner-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2008: a survey of religions conducted in that year by Yu Tao of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> with a survey scheme led and supervised by the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy (CCAP) and the <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a>, analysing the rural populations of the six provinces of <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, each representing different geographic and economic regions of China, found that Christians constituted approximately 4% of the population, of whom 3.54% were Protestants and 0.49% were Catholics.<sup id="cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECRAN2012-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2008–2009: a household survey conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Social Sciences">Chinese Academy of Social Sciences</a> (CASS) counted 23 million Protestants (independent and registered) in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wenzel-Teuber2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2010: the "Chinese Spiritual Life Survey" counted 33 million Christians (≈2% of the total population), of whom 30 million Protestants and 3 million Catholics.<sup id="cite_ref-CSLS2010_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSLS2010-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2011: a survey conducted by the Baylor's Empirical Study of Values in China (ESVC) found 2.5% (≈30 to 40 million) of the population of China self-identifying as Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2012: a survey conducted by the <a href="/wiki/China_Family_Panel_Studies" title="China Family Panel Studies">China Family Panel Studies</a> (CFPS) institute, found Christians forming 2.4% of the population of Han China, or between 30 and 40 million people in absolute numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012-011-012-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, 1.9% were Protestants and 0.4% were Catholics.<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012-011-012-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Surveys on religion in China conducted in the years 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011 by the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of the <a href="/wiki/Renmin_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Renmin University">Renmin University</a> found that people self-identifying as Christians were, respectively for each year, 2.1%, 2.2%, 2.1% and 2.6% of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012p13CGSS_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012p13CGSS-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Estimates">Estimates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Estimates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>2010: the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Forum_on_Religion_%26_Public_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life">Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life</a> estimated over 67 million Christians in China,<sup id="cite_ref-pew2011_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pew2011-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which 35 million "independent" Protestants, 23 million Three-Self Protestants, 9 million Catholics and 20,000 Orthodox Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wenzel-Teuber2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2014: scholars at a conference for the 60th anniversary of the Three-Self Church showed that China has about 23 million to 40 million Protestants, 1.7% to 2.9% of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-rmrb20140805_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rmrb20140805-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each year, about 500,000 people are baptized as Protestants.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Protestants concentrate mainly in three regions: <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._186_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._186-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these provinces the Christian population is in the millions, yet small in percentage. For instance, in Zhejiang 2.8% of the population is officially Protestant as of 1999, higher than the national average.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._186_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._186-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a>, a city of Zhejiang, about one million people (approximately 11%) are Christians, the highest concentration in one city.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Protestant population consists predominantly of illiterate or semi-illiterate people, elderly people and women.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._186_113-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._186-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These characteristics are confirmed by the findings of the Yu Tao survey of 2008, which also found that Protestantism has the lowest proportion of believers who are at the same time members of the CCP in comparison to other religions,<sup id="cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECRAN2012-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the <a href="/wiki/China_Family_Panel_Studies" title="China Family Panel Studies">China Family Panel Studies</a>' survey of 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012p17_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012p17-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The province of <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> has a concentration of Catholics and is also home to the town of <a href="/wiki/Donglu" class="mw-redirect" title="Donglu">Donglu</a>, site of an alleged <a href="/wiki/Marian_apparition" title="Marian apparition">Marian apparition</a> and pilgrimage center. According to the Yu Tao survey of 2008, the Catholic population, though much smaller than that of the Protestants, is nevertheless younger, wealthier and better educated.<sup id="cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECRAN2012-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The survey also found that Christianity overall has a higher proportion of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_China" title="Ethnic minorities in China">ethnic minority</a> believers than the other religions.<sup id="cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECRAN2012-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Controversy exists regarding the veracity of estimates published by some sources. For example, Gerda Wielander (2013) has claimed that estimates of the number of Christians in China that have been spread by Western media may have been highly inflated.<sup id="cite_ref-Wieland,_2013._p._3_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieland,_2013._p._3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, according to Asia Harvest, a US non-profit organization and "inter-denominational Christian ministry", there were 105 millions Christians in China in 2011. The compiler of these figures, Paul Hattaway, indicates that his figures are his own estimate, based on more than 2,000 published sources such as Internet reports, journals, and books, as well as interviews with house church leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study points out that "owing to the difficulties of conducting such a [study] in China today – not the least of which is the sheer size of the country – there is [in the study's rough estimation] a margin of error of 20 percent."<sup id="cite_ref-pew2011_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pew2011-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Citing one of the aforementioned surveys, Gerda Wielander says that the actual number of Christians is around 30 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Wieland,_2013._p._3_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieland,_2013._p._3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, missionary researcher Tony Lambert has highlighted that an estimate of "one hundred million Chinese Christians" was already being spread by American Christian media in 1983, and has been further exaggerated, through a chain of misquotations, in the 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christopher Marsh (2011) too has been critical of these overestimations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 6 January 2015, David Ferguson published on the <i><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a></i> the <a href="/wiki/News_satire" title="News satire">satirical news</a> <i>Merry Christmas, 100 million Chinese!</i> criticising such type of journalism.<sup id="cite_ref-en.people.cn_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-en.people.cn-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="with:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width:50%"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Christianity by the years, CGSS surveys<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012p13CGSS_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012p13CGSS-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="1">Denomination </th> <th colspan="1">2006 </th> <th colspan="1">2008 </th> <th colspan="1">2010 </th> <th colspan="1">2011 </th> <th colspan="1">Average </th></tr> <tr> <td>Catholic</td> <td align="center">0.3%</td> <td align="center">0.1%</td> <td align="center">0.2%</td> <td align="center">0.4%</td> <td align="center">0.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Protestant</td> <td align="center">1.8%</td> <td align="center">2.1%</td> <td align="center">1.9%</td> <td align="center">2.2%</td> <td align="center">2.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total Christian</b></td> <td align="center">2.1%</td> <td align="center">2.2%</td> <td align="center">2.1%</td> <td align="center">2.6%</td> <td align="center">2.3% </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="width:50%"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Christianity by age group, CFPS 2012<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012p17_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012p17-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="1">Denomination </th> <th colspan="1">60+ </th> <th colspan="1">50—60 </th> <th colspan="1">40—50 </th> <th colspan="1">30—40 </th> <th colspan="1">30- </th></tr> <tr> <td>Catholic</td> <td align="center">0.3%</td> <td align="center">0.3%</td> <td align="center">0.6%</td> <td align="center">0.1%</td> <td align="center">0.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Protestant</td> <td align="center">2.6%</td> <td align="center">2.0%</td> <td align="center">1.9%</td> <td align="center">1.1%</td> <td align="center">1.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total Christian</b></td> <td align="center">2.9%</td> <td align="center">2.3%</td> <td align="center">2.5%</td> <td align="center">1.2%</td> <td align="center">1.5% </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demographics_by_province">Demographics by province</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Demographics by province"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="with:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width:60%"> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <caption>Christian population by province in 2009<sup id="cite_ref-Wang2015_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang2015-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Province</th> <th>Population</th> <th>Christian %</th> <th>Christians' number </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing Municipality</a></td> <td>19,612,368</td> <td>0.78%</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_In_Beijin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity In Beijin (page does not exist)">152,976</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin Municipality</a></td> <td>12,938,224</td> <td>1.51%</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_In_Tianjin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity In Tianjin (page does not exist)">195,367</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei Province</a></td> <td>71,854,202</td> <td>3.05%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hebei" title="Christianity in Hebei">2,191,553</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi Province</a></td> <td>35,712,111</td> <td>2.17%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shaanxi" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Shaanxi">774,953</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region</a></td> <td>24,706,321</td> <td>2%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Christianity in Inner Mongolia">494,126</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning Province</a></td> <td>43,746,323</td> <td>2.2%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Liaoning" title="Christianity in Liaoning">962,419</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin Province</a></td> <td>27,462,297</td> <td>2%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jilin" title="Christianity in Jilin">549,246</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang Province</a></td> <td>38,312,224</td> <td>2.2%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Heilongjiang" title="Christianity in Heilongjiang">843,033</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai Municipality</a></td> <td>23,019,148</td> <td>2.6%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shanghai" title="Christianity in Shanghai">598,498</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu Province</a></td> <td>78,659,903</td> <td>2.64%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jiangsu" title="Christianity in Jiangsu">2,076,621</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang Province</a></td> <td>54,426,891</td> <td>2.62%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Zhejiang" title="Christianity in Zhejiang">1,425,984</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui Province</a></td> <td>59,500,510</td> <td>5.30%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Anhui" title="Christianity in Anhui">3,153,527</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian Province</a></td> <td>36,894,216</td> <td>3.5%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Fujian" title="Christianity in Fujian">1,291,298</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi Province</a></td> <td>44,567,475</td> <td>2.31%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jiangxi" title="Christianity in Jiangxi">1,029,508</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong Province</a></td> <td>95,793,065</td> <td>1.21%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shandong" title="Christianity in Shandong">1,159,096</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan Province</a></td> <td>94,023,567</td> <td>6.1%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Henan" title="Christianity in Henan">5,735,437</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei Province</a></td> <td>57,237,740</td> <td>0.58%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hebei" title="Christianity in Hebei">331,979</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan Province</a></td> <td>65,683,722</td> <td>0.77%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hunan" title="Christianity in Hunan">505,765</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong Province</a></td> <td>104,303,132</td> <td>1%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guangdong" title="Christianity in Guangdong">1,043,031</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region</a></td> <td>46,026,629</td> <td>0.26%</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_In_Guangxi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity In Guangxi (page does not exist)">119,669</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan Province</a><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>8,671,518</td> <td>0.48%</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Hainan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Hainan (page does not exist)">~41,623</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing Municipality</a></td> <td>28,846,170</td> <td>1.05%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Chongqing" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Chongqing">302,885</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan Province</a></td> <td>80,418,200</td> <td>0.68%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sichuan" title="Christianity in Sichuan">546,844</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou Province</a></td> <td>34,746,468</td> <td>0.99%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guizhou" title="Christianity in Guizhou">343,990</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan Province</a></td> <td>45,966,239</td> <td>1.3%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Yunnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Yunnan">597,561</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet Autonomous Region</a><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>3,002,166</td> <td>0.23%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Tibet">700</a> (Catholics only) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi Province</a></td> <td>37,327,378</td> <td>1.57%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Shaanxi" title="Catholic Church in Shaanxi">586,040</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu Province</a></td> <td>25,575,254</td> <td>0.5%</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Gansu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Gansu (page does not exist)">127,876</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai Province</a></td> <td>5,626,722</td> <td>0.76%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Qinghai" title="Christianity in Qinghai">42,763</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region</a></td> <td>6,301,350</td> <td>1.17%</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Ningxia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Ningxia (page does not exist)">73,726</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region</a></td> <td>21,813,334</td> <td>1%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Xinjiang" title="Christianity in Xinjiang">218,133</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong Special Administrative Region</a></td> <td>7,061,200</td> <td>11.7%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hong_Kong" title="Christianity in Hong Kong">826,160</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau Special Administrative Region</a></td> <td>552,300</td> <td>5%</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Macau">27,615</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total</b></td> <td><b>1,340,388,467</b></td> <td><b>2.1%</b></td> <td><b>28,327,679</b> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="width:40%"> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christianity_in_China_(Chinese_General_Social_Survey_2009).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Christianity_in_China_%28Chinese_General_Social_Survey_2009%29.png/400px-Christianity_in_China_%28Chinese_General_Social_Survey_2009%29.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Christianity_in_China_%28Chinese_General_Social_Survey_2009%29.png/600px-Christianity_in_China_%28Chinese_General_Social_Survey_2009%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Christianity_in_China_%28Chinese_General_Social_Survey_2009%29.png/800px-Christianity_in_China_%28Chinese_General_Social_Survey_2009%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3096" data-file-height="2157" /></a><figcaption>Mapping of Christianity in China by province according to the surveys.</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Percentage of Christians (both registered and unregistered) by province according to the CFPS survey of 2012<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012-011-012-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Province </th> <th>Protestants </th> <th>Catholics </th> <th>Total Christians </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Gansu </td> <td>0.4% </td> <td>0.1% </td> <td>0.5% </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Guangdong </td> <td>0.8% </td> <td>0.2% </td> <td>1% </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Liaoning </td> <td>2.1% </td> <td>0.1% </td> <td>2.2% </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Henan </td> <td>5.6% </td> <td>0.5% </td> <td>6.1% </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Shanghai </td> <td>1.9% </td> <td>0.7% </td> <td>2.6% </td></tr> <tr style="background:#9ff;"> <th>China<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>1.89% </th> <th>0.41% </th> <th>2.3% </th></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="width:400px;"> <caption>Weighed proportion of Christians on the combined population of the six provinces of Jiangsu, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Jilin, Hebei and Fujian according to the Yu Tao—CCAP—<a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">PU</a> survey of 2008<sup id="cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECRAN2012-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Protestantism</td> <td>3.54% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Catholicism</td> <td>0.39% </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total Christianity</b></td> <td><b>3.93%</b> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Special_administrations">Special administrations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Special administrations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hong_Kong">Hong Kong</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Hong Kong"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hong_Kong" title="Christianity in Hong Kong">Christianity in Hong Kong</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HK_Mid-levels_Caritas_Centre_%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E7%84%A1%E5%8E%9F%E7%BD%AA%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82%EF%BC%88The_Hong_Kong_Catholic_Cathedral_of_The_Immaculate_Conception_interior_%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E6%9E%B6_Nov-2010.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/HK_Mid-levels_Caritas_Centre_%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E7%84%A1%E5%8E%9F%E7%BD%AA%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82%EF%BC%88The_Hong_Kong_Catholic_Cathedral_of_The_Immaculate_Conception_interior_%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E6%9E%B6_Nov-2010.JPG/220px-HK_Mid-levels_Caritas_Centre_%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E7%84%A1%E5%8E%9F%E7%BD%AA%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82%EF%BC%88The_Hong_Kong_Catholic_Cathedral_of_The_Immaculate_Conception_interior_%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E6%9E%B6_Nov-2010.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/HK_Mid-levels_Caritas_Centre_%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E7%84%A1%E5%8E%9F%E7%BD%AA%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82%EF%BC%88The_Hong_Kong_Catholic_Cathedral_of_The_Immaculate_Conception_interior_%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E6%9E%B6_Nov-2010.JPG/330px-HK_Mid-levels_Caritas_Centre_%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E7%84%A1%E5%8E%9F%E7%BD%AA%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82%EF%BC%88The_Hong_Kong_Catholic_Cathedral_of_The_Immaculate_Conception_interior_%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E6%9E%B6_Nov-2010.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/HK_Mid-levels_Caritas_Centre_%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E7%84%A1%E5%8E%9F%E7%BD%AA%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82%EF%BC%88The_Hong_Kong_Catholic_Cathedral_of_The_Immaculate_Conception_interior_%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E6%9E%B6_Nov-2010.JPG/440px-HK_Mid-levels_Caritas_Centre_%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E7%84%A1%E5%8E%9F%E7%BD%AA%E4%B8%BB%E6%95%99%E5%BA%A7%E5%A0%82%EF%BC%88The_Hong_Kong_Catholic_Cathedral_of_The_Immaculate_Conception_interior_%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E6%9E%B6_Nov-2010.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_the_Immaculate_Conception_(Hong_Kong)" title="Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Hong Kong)">Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception</a> in Hong Kong</figcaption></figure> <p>Christianity has been practiced in Hong Kong since 1841. As of 2022, there were about 1.3 million Christians in Hong Kong (16% of the total population), most of them are <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> (around 900,000) and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Hong_Kong" title="Catholic Church in Hong Kong">Catholic</a> (around 401,000).<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Macau">Macau</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Macau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Religion in Macau</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StDominicsMacau.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/StDominicsMacau.JPG/220px-StDominicsMacau.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/StDominicsMacau.JPG/330px-StDominicsMacau.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/StDominicsMacau.JPG/440px-StDominicsMacau.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Dominic%27s_Church_(Macau)" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Dominic's Church (Macau)">St. Dominic's Church</a> in Macau is one of the oldest (AD 1587) existing churches in China built by three Spanish <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> priests</figcaption></figure> <p>As of 2010 approximately 5% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> self-identifies as Christian, predominantly Catholic.<sup id="cite_ref-stats2009_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stats2009-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catholic missionaries were the first to arrive in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>. In 1535, Portuguese traders obtained the rights to anchor ships in Macau's harbours and to carry out trading activities, though not the right to stay onshore. Around 1552–1553, they obtained temporary permission to erect storage sheds onshore, in order to dry out goods drenched by sea water; they soon built rudimentary stone houses around the area now called Nam Van. In 1576, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Macau">Diocese of Macau</a>. In 1583, the Portuguese in Macau were permitted to form a Senate to handle various issues concerning their social and economic affairs under strict supervision of the Chinese authority, but there was no transfer of sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-Macau_history_in_Macau_encyclopedia_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macau_history_in_Macau_encyclopedia-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Macau prospered as a port but was the target of repeated failed attempts by the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> to conquer it in the 17th century. <a href="/wiki/Cai_Gao" title="Cai Gao">Cai Gao</a> was the first mainland Chinese convert of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China_1807%E2%80%931953" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant missions in China 1807–1953">19th-century Protestant missions</a>. He was baptized by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary)" title="Robert Morrison (missionary)">Robert Morrison</a> at <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> in 1814. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Autonomous_regions">Autonomous regions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Autonomous regions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Inner_Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Inner Mongolia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Christianity in Inner Mongolia">Christianity in Inner Mongolia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Tibet">Tibet</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Tibet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet" title="Religion in Tibet">Religion in Tibet</a></div> <p>The Qing government permitted Christian missionaries to enter and proselytize in Tibetan lands, in order to weaken the power of the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhist</a> lamas, who refused to give allegiance to the Chinese. The Tibetan lamas were alarmed by Catholic missionaries converting natives to Catholicism. During the 1905 Tibetan Rebellion the Tibetan Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> Yellow Hat sect led a Tibetan revolt, with Tibetan men being led by lamas against Chinese officials, western Christian missionaries and native Christian converts.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wine making vineyards were left behind by them.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Xinjiang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Xinjiang" title="Christianity in Xinjiang">Christianity in Xinjiang</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> is a minority religion in the <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. The dominant ethnic group, the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Uyghur people">Uygur</a>, are predominantly <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> and very few are known to be Christian. </p><p>In 1904, <a href="/wiki/George_W._Hunter_(missionary)" title="George W. Hunter (missionary)">George Hunter</a> with the <a href="/wiki/China_Inland_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="China Inland Mission">China Inland Mission</a> opened the first mission station for CIM in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>. But already in 1892, the <a href="/wiki/Mission_Covenant_Church_of_Sweden" title="Mission Covenant Church of Sweden">Mission Covenant Church of Sweden</a> started missions in the area around <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a>, and later built mission stations, churches, hospitals and schools in <a href="/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yengisar" class="mw-redirect" title="Yengisar">Yengisar</a>. In the 1930s there were several hundreds of Christians among this people, but because of persecution the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered. The missionaries were forced to leave because of ethnic and factional battles during the <a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a> in the late 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Guangxi">Guangxi</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Guangxi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rapid church growth is reported to have taken place among the <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_people" title="Zhuang people">Zhuang people</a> in the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though still predominantly Buddhist and animistic, the region of <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> was first visited in 1877 by Protestant missionary Edward Fishe of the <a href="/wiki/China_Inland_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="China Inland Mission">China Inland Mission</a>. He died the same year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art_and_media">Art and media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Art and media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a> is an important part of expressing faith for Christians, archeological sites containing <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">early Christian art and architecture</a> can be found throughout China and are protected by the government as Chinese antiquities.<sup id="cite_ref-Clarke_2013_pp._15–48_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clarke_2013_pp._15–48-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is <a href="/wiki/Christian_media" title="Christian media">Christian media</a> produced in China. The Christian magazine <a href="/wiki/Tian_Feng_(magazine)" title="Tian Feng (magazine)"><i>Tian Feng</i></a> has a large reach, as do the <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Theological_Review" title="Chinese Theological Review">Chinese Theological Review</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Theological_Review" title="Nanjing Theological Review">Nanjing Theological Review</a></i>. The Bible is translated into Chinese, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Version" title="Chinese New Version">Chinese New Version</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Union_Version" title="Chinese Union Version">Chinese Union Version</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delegates%27_Version" title="Delegates' Version">Delegates' Version</a>, <a href="/wiki/Studium_Biblicum_Version" title="Studium Biblicum Version">Studium Biblicum Version</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Today%27s_Chinese_Version" title="Today's Chinese Version">Today's Chinese Version</a>. Hymnals include <i><a href="/wiki/Canaan_Hymns" title="Canaan Hymns">Canaan Hymns</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Hymnal" title="Chinese New Hymnal">Chinese New Hymnal</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music" title="Contemporary Christian music">Contemporary Christian music</a> is available on streaming services like <a href="/wiki/QQ_Music" title="QQ Music">QQ Music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-QQ_Relient_K_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QQ_Relient_K-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QQ_Lecrae_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QQ_Lecrae-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QQ_DC_Talk_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QQ_DC_Talk-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QQ_Veggietales_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QQ_Veggietales-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Foreign Christian media is handled differently than other forms of foreign media, as the China Film Administration and <a href="/wiki/National_Radio_and_Television_Administration" title="National Radio and Television Administration">National Radio and Television Administration</a> sees it as a distinctive expression of Christian faith. The <a href="/wiki/Publicity_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party">Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party</a> instead relegates the task of releasing and translation of foreign <a href="/wiki/Christian_film_industry" title="Christian film industry">Christian films</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Christian literature</a> to the <a href="/wiki/State_Administration_for_Religious_Affairs" title="State Administration for Religious Affairs">State Administration for Religious Affairs</a>, and the various <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Patriotic_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Patriotic Association">Catholic Patriotic Association</a>, <a href="/wiki/China_Christian_Council" title="China Christian Council">China Christian Council</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Patriotic_Movement" title="Three-Self Patriotic Movement">Three-Self Patriotic Movement</a> denominations. Christian television series such as <i><a href="/wiki/Superbook_(1981_TV_series)" title="Superbook (1981 TV series)">Superbook</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chosen_(TV_series)" title="The Chosen (TV series)">The Chosen</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Duck_Dynasty" title="Duck Dynasty">Duck Dynasty</a></i> are widely available in China, and are oftentimes even dubbed into Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-CBN.com_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBN.com-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Foust_2021_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foust_2021-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-网易_2013_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-网易_2013-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Christian_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian video games">Christian video games</a> and interactive media are also accessible in Chinese, including the <a href="/wiki/YouVersion" title="YouVersion">YouVersion</a> Bible app and <i>Superbook</i> games.<sup id="cite_ref-Storch_2010_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Storch_2010-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restrictions_and_international_interest">Restrictions and international interest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Restrictions and international interest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christian sentiment in China">Anti-Christian sentiment in China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kuanjie_Protestant_Christian_Church_(George_W._Bush).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kuanjie_Protestant_Christian_Church_%28George_W._Bush%29.jpg/220px-Kuanjie_Protestant_Christian_Church_%28George_W._Bush%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kuanjie_Protestant_Christian_Church_%28George_W._Bush%29.jpg/330px-Kuanjie_Protestant_Christian_Church_%28George_W._Bush%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kuanjie_Protestant_Christian_Church_%28George_W._Bush%29.jpg/440px-Kuanjie_Protestant_Christian_Church_%28George_W._Bush%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="381" /></a><figcaption>U.S. President George W. Bush at the <a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Patriotic_Movement" title="Three-Self Patriotic Movement">Three-Self</a> <a href="/wiki/Kuanjie_Protestant_Church" title="Kuanjie Protestant Church">Kuanjie Protestant Church</a> in 2008.</figcaption></figure> <p>In large cities with international links such as Beijing, foreign visitors have established Christian communities which meet in public establishments such as hotels and, sometimes, local churches. These fellowships, however, are typically restricted only to holders of non-Chinese passports. </p><p>American <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelist</a> <a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a> visited China in 1988 with his wife <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bell_Graham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruth Bell Graham">Ruth</a>; it was a homecoming for her since she had been born in China to missionary parents <a href="/wiki/L._Nelson_Bell" title="L. Nelson Bell">L. Nelson Bell</a> and his wife Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-baptisthistory_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baptisthistory-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1980s, U.S. officials visiting China have on multiple occasions visited Chinese churches, including <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>, who attended one of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>'s five officially recognized Protestant churches during a November 2005 Asia tour,<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Kuanjie_Protestant_Church" title="Kuanjie Protestant Church">Kuanjie Protestant Church</a> in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a> attended <a href="/wiki/Palm_Sunday" title="Palm Sunday">Palm Sunday</a> services in Beijing in 2005. </p><p>The law does not define "proselytization", but the constitution states that nobody can force a citizen to believe or not believe in a religion;<sup id="cite_ref-US2022_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US2022-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> new laws in 2022 required anyone preaching online to apply for a permit for proselytizing. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics" title="2008 Summer Olympics">2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing</a>, three <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> Christian protesters were deported from China after a demonstration at <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square" title="Tiananmen Square">Tiananmen Square</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> urged China to be open to Christianity, and said that he hoped the Olympic Games would offer an example of coexistence among people from different countries. Unregistered Catholic clergy has faced <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">political repression</a>, in large part due to its avowed <a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">loyalty</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a>, which the Chinese government has claimed interferes in the country's internal affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-state.gov_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state.gov-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/The_Associated_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The Associated Press">The Associated Press</a> reported in 2018 that "Xi is waging the most severe systematic suppression of Christianity in the country since religious freedom was written into the Chinese constitution in 1982." This has involved "destroying crosses, burning bibles, shutting churches and ordering followers to sign papers renouncing their faith," actions taken against "so-called underground or house churches that defy government restrictions."<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2018, crucifixes and other religious imagery inside of churches have increasingly been replaced with images of Xi Jinping.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 2020, Chinese authorities visited Christian homes in <a href="/wiki/Linfen" title="Linfen">Linfen</a> and informed welfare recipients that their benefits would be stopped unless they removed all crosses and replaced any displays of Jesus with portraits of Mao and <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of China">General Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2020, state officials oversaw the demolition of Sunzhuang Church in Henan province. Prior to the Church being demolished, one man was arrested and at least two women were injured.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In reports of countries with the strongest anti-Christian persecution, China was ranked by the <a href="/wiki/Open_Doors_(charitable_foundation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Doors (charitable foundation)">Open Doors</a> organisation in 2023 as 16th most severe.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 2023, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Huning" title="Wang Huning">Wang Huning</a> stated that Christian groups must "adhere to the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Sinicisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinicisation">sinicisation</a> of Christianity."<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/31px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/47px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/62px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Christianity_in_China" title="Bibliography of Christianity in China">Bibliography of Christianity in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Chinese Orthodox Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Rites Controversy">Chinese Rites Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sichuan" title="Christianity in Sichuan">Christianity in Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_Movement" title="Denunciation Movement">Denunciation Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Bibliography_of_the_China_Inland_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Bibliography of the China Inland Mission">Historical Bibliography of the China Inland Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Cross_Church,_Wanzhou" title="Holy Cross Church, Wanzhou">Holy Cross Church, Wanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Timeline of Christian missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_theological_seminaries_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Protestant theological seminaries in the People's Republic of China">List of Protestant theological seminaries in the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_teachings_(Chinese_law)" title="Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)">Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China#Religious_freedom" title="Human rights in China">Human rights in China#Religious freedom</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Data for Gansu, Guangdong, Liaoning, Henan, and Shanghai is updated according to the findings of the China Family Panel Studies of 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012-011-012-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Data for all provinces with <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> majority, excluding <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBays2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._Bays" title="Daniel H. Bays">Bays, Daniel H.</a> (2011-06-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lgS-j2m_0TEC"><i>A New History of Christianity in China</i></a>. 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Cultural Hybridization in Christian China: The Art of Cloisonné at The Service of God. Religions 2021, 12, 1103. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121103</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvgerinos1998" class="citation web cs1">Avgerinos (June 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220921174822/https://orthodox.cn/localchurch/jingjiao/9806avgerinos_en.htm">"How the Christian Denominations Came to in China"</a>. In a June 1998 issue of The Censer. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Metropolitanate_of_Hong_Kong_and_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia">Eastern Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia</a>. 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href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiščák2015" class="citation cs2">Liščák, Vladimir (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/19749487/Fran%C3%A7ois_No%C3%ABl_1651_1729_and_his_Latin_translations_of_Confucian_Classical_books_published_in_Prague_in_1711">"François Noël and His Latin Translations of Confucian Classical Books Published in Prague in 1711"</a>, <i>Anthropologia Integra</i>, vol. 6, pp. 45–8</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fran%C3%A7ois+No%C3%ABl+and+His+Latin+Translations+of+Confucian+Classical+Books+Published+in+Prague+in+1711&rft.btitle=Anthropologia+Integra&rft.pages=45-8&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Li%C5%A1%C4%8D%C3%A1k&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F19749487%2FFran%25C3%25A7ois_No%25C3%25ABl_1651_1729_and_his_Latin_translations_of_Confucian_Classical_books_published_in_Prague_in_1711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRule2003" class="citation cs2">Rule, Paul (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw9gYo4Pk0MC&pg=PA137">"François Noël, SJ, and the Chinese Rites Controversy"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw9gYo4Pk0MC"><i>The History of the Relations between the Low Countries and China in the Qing Era</i></a>, <i>Leuven Chinese Studies</i>, Vol. XIV, Leuven: Leuven University Press, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw9gYo4Pk0MC&pg=PA152">152</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-315-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-315-2"><bdi>978-90-5867-315-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fran%C3%A7ois+No%C3%ABl%2C+SJ%2C+and+the+Chinese+Rites+Controversy&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Relations+between+the+Low+Countries+and+China+in+the+Qing+Era&rft.place=Leuven&rft.series=%27%27Leuven+Chinese+Studies%27%27%2C+Vol.+XIV&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-90-5867-315-2&rft.aulast=Rule&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDw9gYo4Pk0MC%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ott, Michael (1913), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15001a.htm">Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon</a>", <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">The Catholic 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title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89870-916-2"><bdi>978-0-89870-916-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christians+in+China%3A+AD+600+to+2000&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=256-62&rft.pub=Ignatius+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-89870-916-2&rft.aulast=Charbonnier&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5yUzntxTZioC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeah2017" class="citation cs2">Seah, Audrey (2017), "The 1670 Chinese Missal: A Struggle for Indigenization amidst the Chinese Rites Controversy", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sOEzDwAAQBAJ"><i>China's Christianity: From Missionary to Indigenous Church</i></a>, Studies in Christian Mission, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 115, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34560-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34560-7"><bdi>978-90-04-34560-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+1670+Chinese+Missal%3A+A+Struggle+for+Indigenization+amidst+the+Chinese+Rites+Controversy&rft.btitle=China%27s+Christianity%3A+From+Missionary+to+Indigenous+Church&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Studies+in+Christian+Mission&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Koninklijke+Brill&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-90-04-34560-7&rft.aulast=Seah&rft.aufirst=Audrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsOEzDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" 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(1994), <i>The Chinese Rites Controversy: Its History and Meaning</i>, <i>Monumenta Serica</i> Monograph Series, vol. 33, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nettetal,_Germany&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nettetal, Germany (page does not exist)">Nettetal</a>: Steyler Verlag, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8050-0348-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8050-0348-3"><bdi>978-3-8050-0348-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Rites+Controversy%3A+Its+History+and+Meaning&rft.place=Nettetal&rft.series=%27%27Monumenta+Serica%27%27+Monograph+Series&rft.pub=Steyler+Verlag&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-3-8050-0348-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Mark C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA240"><i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</i></a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-4684-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-02</span></span>. <q>In his indictment of Sunu and other Manchu nobles who had converted to Christianity, the Yongzheng emperor reminded the rest of the Manchu elite that each people had its own way of honoring Heaven and that it was incumbent upon Manchus to observe Manchu practice in this regard:</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pages=240&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC%26pg%3DPA240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Mark C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA241"><i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</i></a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-4684-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-02</span></span>. <q>The Lord of Heaven is Heaven itself. . . . In the empire we have a temple for honoring Heaven and sacrificing to Him. We Manchus have Tiao Tchin. The first day of every year we burn incense and paper to honor Heaven. We Manchus have our own particular rites for honoring Heaven; the Mongols, Chinese, Russians, and Europeans also have their own particular rites for honoring Heaven. I have never said that he [Urcen, a son of Sunu] could not honor heaven but that everyone has his way of doing it. As a Manchu, Urcen should do it like us.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pages=241&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC%26pg%3DPA241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul A. Cohen, "Christian missions and their impact to 1900" in John King Fairbank, ed. <i>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Late Ch'ing 1800–1911, Part 1</i> (1978) pp 545–590.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth S. Latourette, <i>Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: volume 3: the 19th century outside Europe</i> (1961) pp 431–445. For more details see Latourette, <i>A History of Christian Missions in China</i> (1929).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELodwick2016xv-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodwick2016xv_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLodwick2016">Lodwick (2016)</a>, p. xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul A. Varg, "Missionaries and Relations Between the United States and China in the Late Nineteenth Century," <i>World Affairs Quarterly</i> (July 1956), pp. 115–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kathleen L. Lodwick, <i>Crusaders against opium: Protestant missionaries in China, 1874–1917</i> (University Press of Kentucky, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2001" class="citation book cs1">Johnstone, Patrick (2001). <i>Operation World</i>. London: Paternoster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Paternoster&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> p.164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maclay-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maclay_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maclay_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Samuel_Maclay1861" class="citation book cs1">Robert Samuel Maclay (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeamongchines00maclgoog"><i>Life among the Chinese: with characteristic sketches and incidents of missionary operations and prospects in China</i></a>. Carlton & Porter. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeamongchines00maclgoog/page/n353">336</a>–337<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+among+the+Chinese%3A+with+characteristic+sketches+and+incidents+of+missionary+operations+and+prospects+in+China&rft.pages=336-337&rft.pub=Carlton+%26+Porter&rft.date=1861&rft.au=Robert+Samuel+Maclay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeamongchines00maclgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John King Fairbank, <i>China: A new history</i> (1992) pp 206–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated6-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated6_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated6_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin2007" class="citation book cs1">Austin, Alvyn (2007). <i>China's Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society</i>. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2975-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2975-7"><bdi>978-0-8028-2975-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Millions%3A+The+China+Inland+Mission+and+Late+Qing+Society&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2975-7&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Alvyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoong1997" class="citation book cs1">Soong, Irma Tam (1997). <i>Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i</i>. Hawai'i: The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sun+Yat-sen%27s+Christian+Schooling+in+Hawai%27i&rft.place=Hawai%27i&rft.pub=The+Hawaiian+Journal+of+History%2C+vol.+13&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Soong&rft.aufirst=Irma+Tam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 151–178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMong2016" class="citation book cs1">Mong, Ambrose (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQWyDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA100"><i>Guns and Gospels: Imperialism and Evangelism in China</i></a>. James Clarke & Company Limited. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780227905968" title="Special:BookSources/9780227905968"><bdi>9780227905968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns+and+Gospels%3A+Imperialism+and+Evangelism+in+China&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=James+Clarke+%26+Company+Limited&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780227905968&rft.aulast=Mong&rft.aufirst=Ambrose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDQWyDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spence (1991), p. 206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor (1865),</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated4-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_D._Spence" title="Jonathan D. Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> (1991). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Search_for_modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="The Search for modern China">The Search for modern China</a></i>. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1"><bdi>978-0-393-30780-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+modern+China&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30780-1&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_D._Spence" title="Jonathan D. Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> (1991). <i>The Search for modern China</i>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1"><bdi>978-0-393-30780-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+modern+China&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30780-1&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George E. Paulsen, "The Szechwan Riots of 1895 and American 'Missionary Diplomacy'." <i>Journal of Asian Studies</i> 28.2 (1969): 285–298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Guy Daigle, "Challenging the imperial order: The precarious status of local Christians in late-Qing Sichuan." <i>European Journal of East Asian Studies</i> (2005): 1–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul A. Varg, "Missionaries and relations between the United States and China in the late 19th century" <i> World Affairs Quarterly</i> (July 1956), pp. 115–58, quoting p 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–30-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987129–30_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, p. 129–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987Ch_3_"Imperialism_for_Christ's_Sake",_pp._68–95-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsherick1987Ch_3_"Imperialism_for_Christ's_Sake",_pp._68–95_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsherick1987">Esherick (1987)</a>, Ch 3 "Imperialism for Christ's Sake", pp. 68–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mit-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mit_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/cause_of_the_riots/cr_book_01.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Cause of the Riots in the Yangtse Valley" (1891): Missionary Commentary on an Illustrated Anti-Christian Chinese Pamphlet"</a>, <i>Visualizing Cultures</i>, Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22The+Cause+of+the+Riots+in+the+Yangtse+Valley%22+%281891%29%3A+Missionary+Commentary+on+an+Illustrated+Anti-Christian+Chinese+Pamphlet&rft.btitle=Visualizing+Cultures&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Focw.mit.edu%2Fans7870%2F21f%2F21f.027%2Fcause_of_the_riots%2Fcr_book_01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ThreeKeys-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ThreeKeys_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ThreeKeys_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1997" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Paul A. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyinthreeke00paul"><i>History in three keys: the boxers as event, experience, and myth</i></a></span>. Columbia University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyinthreeke00paul/page/19">19</a>, 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10651-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10651-1"><bdi>978-0-231-10651-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+in+three+keys%3A+the+boxers+as+event%2C+experience%2C+and+myth&rft.pages=19%2C+114&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-231-10651-1&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryinthreeke00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiang2003" class="citation book cs1">Xiang, Lanxin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAxresT12ogC&pg=PA114"><i>The origins of the Boxer War: a multinational study</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1563-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1563-3"><bdi>978-0-7007-1563-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+the+Boxer+War%3A+a+multinational+study&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1563-3&rft.aulast=Xiang&rft.aufirst=Lanxin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlAxresT12ogC%26pg%3DPA114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henrietta Harrison, "'A Penny for the Little Chinese': The French Holy Childhood Association in China, 1843–1951." <i>American Historical Review</i> 113.1 (2008): 72–92. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3228646/Harrison.pdf?sequen..">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Fuliang Shan, "Triumph after Catastrophe: Church, State and Society in Post-Boxer China, 1900–1937", <i>Peace and Conflict Studies</i>, (Fall 2009, Vol. 16, No. 2), pp. 33–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul A. Varg, "Missionaries and Relations Between the United States and China in the Late Nineteenth Century," <i>World Affairs Quarterly</i> (July 1956), pp. 115–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph P. Ryan, "American Contributions to the Catholic Missionary Effort in China in the Twentieth Century," <i>Catholic Historical Review</i> 31.2 (1945): 171–180 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25014546">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._Bays" title="Daniel H. Bays">Daniel H. Bays</a>. <i>A New History of Christianity in China.</i> (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012)., pp. 110–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HamrinBieler2011-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HamrinBieler2011_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2011" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Rain Liu (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HutMAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA164">"Lin Yutang: Astride the Cultures of East and West"</a>. In Carol Lee Hamrin; Stacey Bieler (eds.). <i>Salt and Light, Volume 3: More Lives of Faith That Shaped Modern China</i>. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61097-158-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61097-158-4"><bdi>978-1-61097-158-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lin+Yutang%3A+Astride+the+Cultures+of+East+and+West&rft.btitle=Salt+and+Light%2C+Volume+3%3A+More+Lives+of+Faith+That+Shaped+Modern+China&rft.place=Eugene%2C+OR&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-61097-158-4&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Rain+Liu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHutMAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Regina D. Sullivan, "Myth, Memory, and the Making of Lottie Moon," in Jonathan Daniel Wells, and Sheila R. Phipps, eds. <i>Entering the fray: gender, politics, and culture in the New South</i> (U of Missouri Press; 2009) pp 11–41. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Iejkdi2ObwC">excerpt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerald H. Choa, <i>Heal the Sick" was Their Motto: The Protestant Medical Missionaries in China</i> (Chinese University Press, 1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Otis Dwight et al. eds., <i>The Encyclopedia of Missions</i> (2nd ed. 1904) p 446 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924029338187">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaiyi Chen, "Missionaries and the early development of nursing in China." <i>Nursing History Review</i> 4 (1996): 129–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theron Kue-Hing Young, "A conflict of professions: the medical missionary in China, 1835–1890." <i>Bulletin of the History of Medicine</i> 47.3 (1973): 250–272. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44450132">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoa1990" class="citation book cs1">Choa, Gerald H. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pqnMkfsZWlYC&pg=PA112"><i><span></span>'Heal the Sick' was Their Motto: The Protestant Medical Missionaries in China</i></a>. Chinese University Press. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789622014534" title="Special:BookSources/9789622014534"><bdi>9789622014534</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Heal+the+Sick%27+was+Their+Motto%3A+The+Protestant+Medical+Missionaries+in+China&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9789622014534&rft.aulast=Choa&rft.aufirst=Gerald+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpqnMkfsZWlYC%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://davidtkwong.net/">"Home"</a>. <i>davidtkwong.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=davidtkwong.net&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdavidtkwong.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cnac.org/rebeccachan01.htm">"CNAC Flight Stewardess Rebecca Chan"</a>. <i>cnac.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cnac.org&rft.atitle=CNAC+Flight+Stewardess+Rebecca+Chan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcnac.org%2Frebeccachan01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cnac.org/rebeccachan_piloted_to_serve_01.pdf">http://www.cnac.org/rebeccachan_piloted_to_serve_01.pdf</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBays2012159-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBays2012159_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBays2012">Bays (2012)</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1979" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Phyllis (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinareluctantex0000thom"><i>China – The Reluctant Exodus</i></a>. China Inland Mission. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0340241837" title="Special:BookSources/0340241837"><bdi>0340241837</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+%E2%80%93+The+Reluctant+Exodus&rft.pub=China+Inland+Mission&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0340241837&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Phyllis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinareluctantex0000thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Li-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Li_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Li_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Li_81-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2024" class="citation book cs1">Li, Hongshan (2024). <i>Fighting on the Cultural Front: U.S.-China Relations in the Cold War</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7312%2Fli--20704">10.7312/li--20704</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231207058" title="Special:BookSources/9780231207058"><bdi>9780231207058</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/li--20704">10.7312/li--20704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+on+the+Cultural+Front%3A+U.S.-China+Relations+in+the+Cold+War&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7312%2Fli--20704%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7312%2Fli--20704&rft.isbn=9780231207058&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Hongshan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_82-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2001" class="citation book cs1">Johnstone, Patrick (2001). <i>Operation World</i>. London: Paternoster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Paternoster&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> p.168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMa2019" class="citation web cs1">Ma, Alexandra (August 3, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-xi-jinping-is-attacking-religion-in-china-2018-11">"Jailing Muslims, burning Bibles, and forcing monks to wave the national flag: How Xi Jinping is attacking religion in China"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Business_Insider" title="Business Insider">Business Insider</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Jailing+Muslims%2C+burning+Bibles%2C+and+forcing+monks+to+wave+the+national+flag%3A+How+Xi+Jinping+is+attacking+religion+in+China&rft.date=2019-08-03&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fhow-xi-jinping-is-attacking-religion-in-china-2018-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hernandez-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hernandez_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hernandez_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJavier_C._HernándezCrystal_Tse2015" class="citation news cs1">Javier C. Hernández; Crystal Tse (27 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150831032501/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/27/world/asia/hong-kong-christian-groups-feel-new-scrutiny-from-mainland.html">"Hong Kong Christians Draw New Scrutiny From Mainland"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/27/world/asia/hong-kong-christian-groups-feel-new-scrutiny-from-mainland.html">the original</a> on 2015-08-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hong+Kong+Christians+Draw+New+Scrutiny+From+Mainland&rft.date=2015-08-27&rft.au=Javier+C.+Hern%C3%A1ndez&rft.au=Crystal+Tse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F08%2F27%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fhong-kong-christian-groups-feel-new-scrutiny-from-mainland.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bays, 1999. p. 348</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._185-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._185_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._185_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, 2006. p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/USCIRF%202020%20Annual%20Report_Final_42920.pdf">"Annual Report"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>United States Commission on International Religious Freedom</i>. April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Commission+on+International+Religious+Freedom&rft.atitle=Annual+Report&rft.date=2020-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uscirf.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FUSCIRF%25202020%2520Annual%2520Report_Final_42920.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bays, 1999. p. 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller,_2006._p._191-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._191_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller,_2006._p._191_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, 2006. p. 191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-duihua.org-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-duihua.org_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-duihua.org_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dui Hua</i>, issue 46, Winter 2012: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://duihua.org/wp/?p=5313"><i>Uncovering China's Korean Christians</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carpenter, Dulk. 2014. pp. 29–31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carpenter,_Dulk._2014._p._33-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carpenter,_Dulk._2014._p._33_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carpenter,_Dulk._2014._p._33_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carpenter, Dulk. 2014. p. 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carpenter, Dulk. 2014. p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carpenter, Dulk. 2014. pp. 36–37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doyle-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doyle_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doyle_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dr. G. Wright Doyle (2010). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalchinacenter.org/analysis/christianity-in-china/how-dangerous-are-chinese-house-churches.php">How Dangerous are Chinese House Churches</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140606205633/http://www.globalchinacenter.org/analysis/christianity-in-china/how-dangerous-are-chinese-house-churches.php">Archived</a> 2014-06-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. A review of "Redeemed by Fire: The Rise of Popular Christianity in Modern China", a book of Lian Xi. Yale University Press, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12339-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12339-5">978-0-300-12339-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Murray Thomas. <i>Religion in Schools: Controversies Around the World</i>. Praeger, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99061-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99061-9">978-0-275-99061-9</a>. p. 99, quote: «Protestantism expanded rapidly in China within the confines of the TSPM. But that movement accounted for only a portion of Chinese Protestants. Another portion was composed of believers outside the official body, members of sects not acceptable to the government—sects referred to as "house churches", because their covert meetings were usually held in members' homes. [...] The Shouters was one such groups [...] Over the last half of the twentieth century, a variety of Christian evangelical groups sprang up in China, much to the distress of the government. [...] illegal cults, which included not only the Shouters, but also Eastern Lightning, the Society of Disciples, [...] the Full Scope Church, the Spirit Sect, the New Testament Church, [...] the Lord God Sect, the Established King Church [...] and more. The Local Church is the official title of the group that became known as the Shouters because of the members' practice of stamping their feet and repeatedly yelling "O Lord Jesus" during religious services.»</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wenzel-Teuber2012-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wenzel-Teuber2012_97-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Katharina Wenzel-Teuber. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2013-3.18-43_Wenzel-Teuber_2012_Statistical_Update_on_Religions_and_Churches_in_China.pdf">2012 Statistical Update on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China and in Taiwan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141231234412/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2013-3.18-43_Wenzel-Teuber_2012_Statistical_Update_on_Religions_and_Churches_in_China.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-12-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Religions & Christianity in Today's China, Vol. III, 2013, No. 3, pp. 18–43, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2192-9289">2192-9289</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lds-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lds_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/news-releases-stories/church-in-talks-to-regularize-activities-in-china">"Church in Talks to "Regularize" Activities in China"</a> (Press release). August 30, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Church+in+Talks+to+%22Regularize%22+Activities+in+China&rft.date=2010-08-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.churchofjesuschrist.org%2Fldsnewsroom%2Feng%2Fnews-releases-stories%2Fchurch-in-talks-to-regularize-activities-in-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/new-temples-april-2020-general-conference">"Prophet Announces Eight New Temples at General Conference"</a>. <i>newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org</i>. 2020-04-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-04-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org&rft.atitle=Prophet+Announces+Eight+New+Temples+at+General+Conference&rft.date=2020-04-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org%2Farticle%2Fnew-temples-april-2020-general-conference&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert-Tony-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lambert-Tony_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lambert, Tony. <i>Counting Christians in China: A Cautionary Report</i>. International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 2003, vol. 27, no 1, p. 6-10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:92-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:92_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlára2023" class="citation book cs1">Klára, Dubravčíková (2023). "Religions, Traditions, and Values". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). <i>Contemporary China: a New Superpower?</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-03-239508-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-03-239508-1"><bdi>978-1-03-239508-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religions%2C+Traditions%2C+and+Values&rft.btitle=Contemporary+China%3A+a+New+Superpower%3F&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-03-239508-1&rft.aulast=Kl%C3%A1ra&rft.aufirst=Dubrav%C4%8D%C3%ADkov%C3%A1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>'s Religion and Public Life Project: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/2008/05/01/religion-in-china-on-the-eve-of-the-2008-beijing-olympics/">Religion in China on the Eve of the 2008 Beijing Olympics</a></i>, publishing the results of the 2005, 2006 and 2007 surveys of the Horizon Research Consultancy Group.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-assist-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-assist_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-assist_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Ellis: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm">China Survey Reveals Fewer Christians than Some Evangelicals Want to Believe</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104012913/http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2007/s07100011.htm">Archived</a> 2012-01-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> ASSIST News Service, October 1, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-examiner-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-examiner_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-examiner_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Ellis: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html">New China survey reveals fewer Christians than most estimates</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513115559/http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Nov07/Art_Nov07_17.html">Archived</a> 2013-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Christian Examiner,</i> November 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ECRAN2012-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ECRAN2012_105-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Yu Tao, University of Oxford. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4943529/A_Solo_a_Duet_or_an_Ensemble_Analysing_the_Recent_Development_of_Religious_Communities_in_Contemporary_Rural_China">A Solo, a Duet, or an Ensemble? Analysing the Recent Development of Religious Communities in Contemporary Rural China</a></i>. ECRAN – Europe-China Research and Advice Network. University of Nottingham, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CSLS2010-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CSLS2010_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey conducted by Dr. Yang Fenggang, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Statistics published in: Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, David Strait. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf">People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184353/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Religions & Christianity in Today's China, Vol. II, 2012, No. 3, pp. 29–54, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2192-9289">2192-9289</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsh, 2011. p. 231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CFPS2012-011-012-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CFPS2012-011-012_108-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/China_Family_Panel_Studies" title="China Family Panel Studies">China Family Panel Studies</a>'s survey of 2012. Published on: <i>The World Religious Cultures</i> issue 2014: 卢云峰：当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS（2012）调查数据. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140809051625/http://iwr.cass.cn/zjwh/201403/W020140303370398758556.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iwr.cass.cn/zjwh/201403/W020140303370398758556.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiwr.cass.cn%2Fzjwh%2F201403%2FW020140303370398758556.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CFPS2012p13CGSS-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CFPS2012p13CGSS_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CFPS2012p13CGSS_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/China_Family_Panel_Studies" title="China Family Panel Studies">China Family Panel Studies</a>'s survey of 2012. Published on: <i>The World Religious Cultures</i> issue 2014: 卢云峰：当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS（2012）调查数据. p. 13, reporting the results of the Renmin University's Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) for the years 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140809051625/http://iwr.cass.cn/zjwh/201403/W020140303370398758556.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iwr.cass.cn/zjwh/201403/W020140303370398758556.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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No. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sommelier+India+%E2%80%93+India%27s+Premier+Wine+Magazine&rft.atitle=China%27s+Wine+Promise&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2016-02-08&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Jancis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sommelierindia.com%2Fchinas-wine-promise%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff" class="citation news cs1">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://globalnews.ca/news/1965127/china-now-boasts-more-wine-making-vineyards-than-france/">"China now boasts more wine-making vineyards than France"</a>. <i>The Associated Press</i>. Paris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Associated+Press&rft.atitle=China+now+boasts+more+wine-making+vineyards+than+France&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobalnews.ca%2Fnews%2F1965127%2Fchina-now-boasts-more-wine-making-vineyards-than-france%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScally2015" class="citation news cs1">Scally, Patrick (April 30, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gokunming.com/en/blog/item/3480/mot_hennessy_to_debut_yunnan_wine_this_fall">"Moët Hennessy to debut Yunnan wine this fall"</a>. <i>GoKunming</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GoKunming&rft.atitle=Mo%C3%ABt+Hennessy+to+debut+Yunnan+wine+this+fall&rft.date=2015-04-30&rft.aulast=Scally&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gokunming.com%2Fen%2Fblog%2Fitem%2F3480%2Fmot_hennessy_to_debut_yunnan_wine_this_fall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy2016" class="citation news cs1">McCoy, Elin (April 28, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Arts&Leisure&title=tasting-chinas-new-250-a-bottle-luxury-wine-backed-by-lvmh&id=126634">"Tasting China's new, $250-a-bottle luxury wine, backed by LVMH"</a>. <i>Bloomberg</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg&rft.atitle=Tasting+China%27s+new%2C+%24250-a-bottle+luxury+wine%2C+backed+by+LVMH&rft.date=2016-04-28&rft.aulast=McCoy&rft.aufirst=Elin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bworldonline.com%2Fcontent.php%3Fsection%3DArts%26Leisure%26title%3Dtasting-chinas-new-250-a-bottle-luxury-wine-backed-by-lvmh%26id%3D126634&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2001" class="citation book cs1">Johnstone, Patrick (2001). <i>Operation World</i>. London: Paternoster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Paternoster&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> p.167; For more on the Swedish mission in Xinjiang see John Hultvall (1981), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://equmeniakyrkan.se/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Hultvall-ENG.pdf">Mission and Revolution in Central Asia</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clarke_2013_pp._15–48-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clarke_2013_pp._15–48_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke2013" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Jeremy (August 1, 2013). "Chinese Christian art during the pre-modern period". <i>The Virgin Mary and Catholic Identities in Chinese History</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E7%BD%91%E6%98%93&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%80%E5%91%A8%E7%BE%8E%E5%89%A7%E6%94%B6%E8%A7%86%EF%BC%9A%E3%80%8A%E9%B8%AD%E5%AD%90%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E3%80%8B%E9%A6%96%E6%92%AD%E7%99%BB%E9%A1%B6%E6%94%B6%E8%A7%86%E6%8E%92%E8%A1%8C%E6%A6%9C&rft.date=2013-08-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.163.com%2Fent%2Farticle%2F96ULR5ST00031GVS.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Storch_2010-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Storch_2010_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStorch2010" class="citation web cs1">Storch, Terry (December 28, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.youversion.com/2010/12/youversion-com-now-in-simplified-and-traditional-chinese/">"YouVersion.com: Now in Simplified and Traditional Chinese"</a>. <i>YouVersion</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouVersion&rft.atitle=YouVersion.com%3A+Now+in+Simplified+and+Traditional+Chinese&rft.date=2010-12-28&rft.aulast=Storch&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.youversion.com%2F2010%2F12%2Fyouversion-com-now-in-simplified-and-traditional-chinese%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-baptisthistory-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-baptisthistory_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110829105151/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-87912863.html">"Billy Graham: an appreciation: wherever one travels around the world, the names of three Baptists are immediately known and appreciated—Jimmy Carter, Billy Graham and Martin Luther King, Jr. One is a politician, one an evangelist, and the other was a civil rights leader. All of them have given Baptists and the Christian faith a good reputation. (Biography)"</a>. Baptist History and Heritage. June 22, 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-87912863.html">the original</a> on August 29, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Billy+Graham%3A+an+appreciation%3A+wherever+one+travels+around+the+world%2C+the+names+of+three+Baptists+are+immediately+known+and+appreciated%E2%80%94Jimmy+Carter%2C+Billy+Graham+and+Martin+Luther+King%2C+Jr.+One+is+a+politician%2C+one+an+evangelist%2C+and+the+other+was+a+civil+rights+leader.+All+of+them+have+given+Baptists+and+the+Christian+faith+a+good+reputation.+%28Biography%29&rft.date=2006-06-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1G1-87912863.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/19/AR2005111901286_pf.html">"Bush Attends Beijing Church, Promoting Religious Freedom"</a>. <i>Washingtonpost.com</i>. 2005-11-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-02-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washingtonpost.com&rft.atitle=Bush+Attends+Beijing+Church%2C+Promoting+Religious+Freedom&rft.date=2005-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F11%2F19%2FAR2005111901286_pf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chinaaid.org/2008/08/10/president-bush-visited-officially-staged-church-service-house-church-pastor-hua-huiqi-arrested-and-escaped-from-police-custody/">"President Bush Visited Officially Staged Church Service; House Church Pastor Hua Huiqi Arrested and Escaped from Police Custody"</a>. <i>China Aid</i>. 2008-08-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+Aid&rft.atitle=President+Bush+Visited+Officially+Staged+Church+Service%3B+House+Church+Pastor+Hua+Huiqi+Arrested+and+Escaped+from+Police+Custody&rft.date=2008-08-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchinaaid.org%2F2008%2F08%2F10%2Fpresident-bush-visited-officially-staged-church-service-house-church-pastor-hua-huiqi-arrested-and-escaped-from-police-custody%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723024205/http://www.beijingnews.net/story/392406">"Bush visits controversial Beijing church"</a>. <i>Beijing News</i>. 2008-08-10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beijingnews.net/story/392406">the original</a> on 2011-07-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Beijing+News&rft.atitle=Bush+visits+controversial+Beijing+church&rft.date=2008-08-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.beijingnews.net%2Fstory%2F392406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-US2022-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-US2022_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/China">US State Dept 2022 report</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanchard2008" class="citation news cs1">Blanchard, Ben (2008-08-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/reutersComService_2_MOLT/idUSPEK25586720080807">"Beijing police stop protest by U.S. Christians"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Beijing+police+stop+protest+by+U.S.+Christians&rft.date=2008-08-07&rft.aulast=Blanchard&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FreutersComService_2_MOLT%2FidUSPEK25586720080807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson2008" class="citation news cs1">Carlson, Mark (2008-08-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvMTdU7mt0c">"U.S. Demonstrators Taken From Tiananmen Square"</a>. Associated Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/IvMTdU7mt0c">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=U.S.+Demonstrators+Taken+From+Tiananmen+Square&rft.date=2008-08-07&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DIvMTdU7mt0c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-state.gov-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-state.gov_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108404.htm">U.S. State Department "International Religious Freedom Report 2008"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/china-beijing-freedom-of-religion-international-news-asia-pacific-c09b2ee4b71540c8a7fd6178820c5970">"Group: Officials destroying crosses, burning bibles in China"</a>. <i>AP NEWS</i>. April 30, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+NEWS&rft.atitle=Group%3A+Officials+destroying+crosses%2C+burning+bibles+in+China&rft.date=2021-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fchina-beijing-freedom-of-religion-international-news-asia-pacific-c09b2ee4b71540c8a7fd6178820c5970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPM2020" class="citation web cs1">PM, Nate Flannagan 19 July 2020 | 7:46 (19 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christiantoday.com/article/china-tells-christians-renounce-faith-in-jesus-worship-president-xi-jinping/135221.htm">"China tells Christians to renounce faith in Jesus & worship President Xi Jinping instead"</a>. <i>www.christiantoday.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.christiantoday.com&rft.atitle=China+tells+Christians+to+renounce+faith+in+Jesus+%26+worship+President+Xi+Jinping+instead&rft.date=2020-07-19&rft.aulast=PM&rft.aufirst=Nate+Flannagan+19+July+2020+%7C+7%3A46&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.christiantoday.com%2Farticle%2Fchina-tells-christians-renounce-faith-in-jesus-worship-president-xi-jinping%2F135221.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christianpost.com/news/china-200-communist-officials-demolish-church-beat-christians.html">"China: 200 communist officials demolish church, beat Christians"</a>. <i>www.christianpost.com</i>. 27 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.christianpost.com&rft.atitle=China%3A+200+communist+officials+demolish+church%2C+beat+Christians&rft.date=2020-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianpost.com%2Fnews%2Fchina-200-communist-officials-demolish-church-beat-christians.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opendoorsuk.org/persecution/world-watch-list/china/">Open Doors website, retrieved 2023-08-08</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoo2023" class="citation news cs1">Woo, Ryan (December 25, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/china/christmas-china-brings-glittering-decor-foreign-influence-concerns-2023-12-25/">"Christmas in China brings glittering decor and foreign influence concerns"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 25,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Christmas+in+China+brings+glittering+decor+and+foreign+influence+concerns&rft.date=2023-12-25&rft.aulast=Woo&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fchina%2Fchristmas-china-brings-glittering-decor-foreign-influence-concerns-2023-12-25%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_and_further_reading">Sources and further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Sources and further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._Bays" title="Daniel H. Bays">Daniel H. Bays</a>. <i>Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present</i>. Stanford University Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3651-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3651-0">978-0-8047-3651-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBays2012" class="citation book cs1">———— (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lgS-j2m_0TEC"><i>A New History of Christianity in China</i></a>. Chichester, West Sussex ; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405159548" title="Special:BookSources/9781405159548"><bdi>9781405159548</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Christianity+in+China&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex+%3B+Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781405159548&rft.aulast=Bays&rft.aufirst=Daniel+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlgS-j2m_0TEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Carpenter, Joel, and Kevin R. den Dulk. <i>Christianity in Chinese Public Life: Religion, Society, and the Rule of Law</i>. Palgrave Pivot, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-42787-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-42787-8">978-1-137-42787-8</a></li> <li>Crofts, Daniel W. <i>Upstream Odyssey: An American in China, 1895–1944</i> (East Bridge, 2008), scholarly biography of Daniel Crofts, minister in China Inland Mission (CIM).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsherick1987" class="citation book cs1">Esherick, Joseph W. (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofboxerup00jose"><i>The Origins of the Boxer Uprising</i></a></span>. U of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06459-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06459-3"><bdi>0-520-06459-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Boxer+Uprising&rft.pub=U+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-520-06459-3&rft.aulast=Esherick&rft.aufirst=Joseph+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofboxerup00jose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVESdBSMasMC&q=Secondary+devils">Excerpt</a></li> <li>Harrison, Henrietta, "'A Penny for the Little Chinese': The French Holy Childhood Association in China, 1843–1951." <i>American Historical Review</i> 113.1 (2008): 72–92. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3228646/Harrison.pdf?sequen..">online</a></li> <li>Hynter, Jane. <i>The gospel of gentility: American women missionaries in turn-of-the-century China</i> (Yale UP, 1984).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatourette1929" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Scott_Latourette" title="Kenneth Scott Latourette">Latourette, Kenneth Scott</a> (1929). <i>A History of Christian Missions in China</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christian+Missions+in+China&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Latourette&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi0000unse_h0o1">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodwick2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Lodwick" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathleen Lodwick">Lodwick, Kathleen L.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tv9sDQAAQBAJ"><i>How Christianity Came to China: A Brief History</i></a>. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451472301" title="Special:BookSources/9781451472301"><bdi>9781451472301</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Christianity+Came+to+China%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+Minnesota&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781451472301&rft.aulast=Lodwick&rft.aufirst=Kathleen+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtv9sDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lee Shiu Keung. <i>The Cross and the Lotus</i>. Christian Study Centre on Chinese Religion and Culture, Hong Kong, 1971.</li> <li>Marsh, Christopher. <i>Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival</i>. Bloomsbury Academic, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1247-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1247-7">978-1-4411-1247-7</a></li> <li>Miller, James. <i>Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies</i>. ABC-CLIO, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-626-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-626-8">978-1-85109-626-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoong1997" class="citation journal cs1">Soong, Irma Tam (1997). "Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i". <i>The Hawaiian Journal of History</i>. <b>13</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hawaiian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Sun+Yat-sen%27s+Christian+Schooling+in+Hawai%27i&rft.volume=13&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Soong&rft.aufirst=Irma+Tam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_D._Spence" title="Jonathan D. Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> (1991). <i>The Search for modern China</i>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30780-1"><bdi>978-0-393-30780-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+modern+China&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30780-1&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stark, Rodney. <i>A star in the East : the rise of Christianity in China</i> (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/starineastriseof0000star">online</a></li> <li>Thompson, Phyllis. <i>The Reluctant Exodus</i> (Singapore: OMF Books, 1979)</li> <li>Varg, Paul. <i>Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats: The American Protestant Missionary Movement in China, 1890–1952</i> (1958) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/missionarieschin0000varg">online</a></li> <li>Wielander, Gerda. <i>Christian Values in Communist China</i>. Routledge, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52223-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52223-6">978-0-415-52223-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYin2015" class="citation book cs1">Yin, Peng (2015). "Chinese Protestantism and the Prospect of a Public Religion". In <a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Hunt" title="Stephen J. Hunt">Hunt, Stephen J.</a> (ed.). <i>Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity: Themes and Developments in Culture, Politics, and Society</i>. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 10. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 229–246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004291027_013">10.1163/9789004291027_013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26538-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26538-7"><bdi>978-90-04-26538-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1874-6691">1874-6691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+Protestantism+and+the+Prospect+of+a+Public+Religion&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Global+Contemporary+Christianity%3A+Themes+and+Developments+in+Culture%2C+Politics%2C+and+Society&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Brill+Handbooks+on+Contemporary+Religion&rft.pages=229-246&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=1874-6691&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004291027_013&rft.isbn=978-90-04-26538-7&rft.aulast=Yin&rft.aufirst=Peng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Historiography and memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Handbook of Christianity in China, Volume One: 635-1800</i>, (Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section 4 China), Edited by Nicolas Standaert, Brill: Leiden - Boston 2000, 964 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11431-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11431-9">978-90-04-11431-9</a></li> <li><i>Handbook of Christianity in China. Volume Two: 1800 – present</i>. (Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section 4 China), Edited by <a href="/wiki/R._G._Tiedemann" title="R. G. Tiedemann">R. G. Tiedemann</a>, Brill: Leiden – Boston 2010, 1050 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11430-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11430-2">978-90-04-11430-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayford2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hayford, Charles (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0104.xml#">"Christianity in China"</a>. <i>Oxford Bibliographies Online Chinese Studies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199920082-0104">10.1093/obo/9780199920082-0104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199920082" title="Special:BookSources/9780199920082"><bdi>9780199920082</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies+Online+Chinese+Studies&rft.atitle=Christianity+in+China&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199920082-0104&rft.isbn=9780199920082&rft.aulast=Hayford&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199920082%2Fobo-9780199920082-0104.xml%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMing_Ng2015" class="citation book cs1">Ming Ng, Peter Tze (2015). "Chinese Christianity: A 'Global-Local' Perspective". In <a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Hunt" title="Stephen J. Hunt">Hunt, Stephen J.</a> (ed.). <i>Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity: Themes and Developments in Culture, Politics, and Society</i>. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 10. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 152–166. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004291027_009">10.1163/9789004291027_009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26538-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26538-7"><bdi>978-90-04-26538-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1874-6691">1874-6691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+Christianity%3A+A+%27Global-Local%27+Perspective&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Global+Contemporary+Christianity%3A+Themes+and+Developments+in+Culture%2C+Politics%2C+and+Society&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Brill+Handbooks+on+Contemporary+Religion&rft.pages=152-166&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=1874-6691&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004291027_009&rft.isbn=978-90-04-26538-7&rft.aulast=Ming+Ng&rft.aufirst=Peter+Tze&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMing_Ng2012" class="citation book cs1">Ming Ng, Peter Tze (2012). <i>Chinese Christianity: An Interplay between Global and Local Perspectives</i>. Religion in Chinese Societies. Vol. 4. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004225756">10.1163/9789004225756</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22574-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22574-9"><bdi>978-90-04-22574-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1877-6264">1877-6264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Christianity%3A+An+Interplay+between+Global+and+Local+Perspectives&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Religion+in+Chinese+Societies&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=1877-6264&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004225756&rft.isbn=978-90-04-22574-9&rft.aulast=Ming+Ng&rft.aufirst=Peter+Tze&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mungello, D. E. “Reinterpreting the History Of Christianity in China.” <i>Historical Journal,</i> 55#2 (2012), Pp. 533–552. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.Jstor.Org/Stable/23263349">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1868" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" title="Hudson Taylor">Taylor, James Hudson</a> (1868). <i>China's Spiritual Need and Claims</i> (Third ed.). London: James Nisbet.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Spiritual+Need+and+Claims&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=James+Nisbet&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=James+Hudson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924023067972">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_China&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Christianity_in_China" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Christianity in China">Christianity in China</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Christianity in China</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Christianity+%E2%80%93+China">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Christianity+%E2%80%93+China&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCordier1908" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Cordier" title="Henri Cordier">Cordier, Henri</a> (1908). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/The Church in China"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/The_Church_in_China">"The Church in China" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Church+in+China&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Cordier&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ricci Institute for Chinese-Western Cultural History, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/about.html">The Ricci 21st Century Roundtable on the History of Christianity in China</a>." Includes Bibliographies (an unannotated listing); biographies of people who played a role in the history of Christianity in China, web links.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bdcconline.net/">Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="https://orthodoxwiki.org/Timeline_of_Orthodoxy_in_China" class="extiw" title="orthodoxwiki:Timeline of Orthodoxy in China">Timeline of Orthodoxy in China</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib-nt2.hkbu.edu.hk/sca_fb/index.html">Preservation for the Documentation of Chinese Christianity 香港浸會大學圖書館華人基督宗教文獻保存計劃</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191017081254/http://lib-nt2.hkbu.edu.hk/sca_fb/index.html">Archived</a> 2019-10-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/outline?searchword='%25'&channelid=57203&sortfield=%2BPrimary_Title">Documentation of Christianity in Hong Kong Database (香港基督教文獻數據庫)</a> Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib-nt.hkbu.edu.hk/libsca/dcp/booklist.html">Christianity Rare Books Database 基督教古籍數據庫</a> Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/search?channelid=7336">Christianity in Contemporary China Clippings 當代中國基督教發展剪報數據庫</a> Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib-nt2.hkbu.edu.hk/sca_fb/index.html">Preservation for the Documentation of Chinese Christianity 香港浸會大學圖書館華人基督宗教文獻保存計劃</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191017081254/http://lib-nt2.hkbu.edu.hk/sca_fb/index.html">Archived</a> 2019-10-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/trsimage/lantern/home.html">China Through the Eyes of CIM Missionaries</a> Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/trsimage/lantern/pdf/CIM_booklist.pdf">Library Holdings on China Inland Mission</a> Special Collections & Archives, Hong Kong Baptist University Library.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em 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aria-labelledby="Christianity_in_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_in_China" title="Template:Christianity in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_in_China" title="Template talk:Christianity in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline of Chinese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Sichuan" title="Catholic Church in Sichuan">Catholic Church in Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Shaanxi" title="Catholic Church in Shaanxi">Catholic Church in Shaanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Tibet" title="Catholic Church in Tibet">Catholic Church in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Sichuan" title="Protestantism in Sichuan">Protestantism in Sichuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Chinese Orthodox Church</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_names_for_the_God_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Chinese names for the God of Abrahamic religions">Terms for God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianzhu_(Chinese_name_of_God)" title="Tianzhu (Chinese name of God)">Tianzhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Chinese" title="Bible translations into Chinese">Bible translations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delegates%27_Version" title="Delegates' Version">Delegates' Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Union_Version" title="Chinese Union Version">Chinese Union Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studium_Biblicum_Version" title="Studium Biblicum Version">Studium Biblicum Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Version" title="Chinese New Version">Chinese New Version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Today%27s_Chinese_Version" title="Today's Chinese Version">Today's Chinese Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_hymn_books" title="List of Chinese hymn books">Hymns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hymns_of_Universal_Praise" title="Hymns of Universal Praise">Hymns of Universal Praise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Hymnal" title="Chinese New Hymnal">Chinese New Hymnal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan_Hymns" title="Canaan Hymns">Canaan Hymns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">Church of the East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Stele" title="Xi'an Stele">Xi'an Stele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingjiao_Documents" title="Jingjiao Documents">Jingjiao Documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alopen" title="Alopen">Alopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_(monk)" title="Adam (monk)">Adam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Catholic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_missions_to_Mongol_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic missions to Mongol China">Franciscan missions (Yuan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit missions (Ming)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Foreign_Missions_Society" title="Paris Foreign Missions Society">Foreign Missions Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Montecorvino" title="John of Montecorvino">John of Montecorvino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odoric_of_Pordenone" title="Odoric of Pordenone">Odoric of Pordenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_de%27_Marignolli" title="Giovanni de' Marignolli">Giovanni de' Marignolli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet" title="Joachim Bouvet">Joachim Bouvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angelo_Zottoli" title="Angelo Zottoli">Angelo Zottoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Vincent_Lebbe" title="Frédéric-Vincent Lebbe">Frédéric-Vincent Lebbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyr_Saints_of_China" title="Martyr Saints of China">Martyr Saints of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Paul%27s_College,_Macau" title="St. Paul's College, Macau">St. Paul's College, Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_missionary_societies_in_China_(1807%E2%80%931953)" title="List of Protestant missionary societies in China (1807–1953)">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_missions_in_China" title="Medical missions in China">Medical missions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary)" title="Robert Morrison (missionary)">Robert Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_G%C3%BCtzlaff" title="Karl Gützlaff">Karl Gützlaff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divie_Bethune_McCartee" title="Divie Bethune McCartee">Divie Bethune McCartee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Taylor" title="Hudson Taylor">Hudson Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lottie_Moon" title="Lottie Moon">Lottie Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Richard" title="Timothy Richard">Timothy Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Goforth" title="Jonathan Goforth">Jonathan Goforth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Seven" title="Cambridge Seven">Cambridge Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Liddell" title="Eric Liddell">Eric Liddell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Aylward" title="Gladys Aylward">Gladys Aylward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_missionaries_in_China" title="List of Protestant missionaries in China"><i>(more...)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By province<br />and region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Anhui" title="Christianity in Anhui">Christianity in Anhui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Fujian" title="Christianity in Fujian">Christianity in Fujian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jiangsu" title="Christianity in Jiangsu">Christianity in Jiangsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jiangxi" title="Christianity in Jiangxi">Christianity in Jiangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shandong" title="Christianity in Shandong">Christianity in Shandong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shanghai" title="Christianity in Shanghai">Christianity in Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Zhejiang" title="Christianity in Zhejiang">Christianity in Zhejiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">West</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sichuan" title="Christianity in Sichuan">Christianity in Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Gansu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Gansu (page does not exist)">Christianity in Gansu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guizhou" title="Christianity in Guizhou">Christianity in Guizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Ningxia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Ningxia (page does not exist)">Christianity in Ningxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Qinghai" title="Christianity in Qinghai">Christianity in Qinghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Shaanxi" title="Catholic Church in Shaanxi">Christianity in Shaanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sichuan" title="Christianity in Sichuan">Christianity in Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet#Christianity" title="Religion in Tibet">Christianity in Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Xinjiang" title="Christianity in Xinjiang">Christianity in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Yunnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Yunnan">Christianity in Yunnan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Henan" title="Christianity in Henan">Christianity in Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Hubei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Hubei (page does not exist)">Christianity in Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hunan" title="Christianity in Hunan">Christianity in Hunan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Beijing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Beijing (page does not exist)">Christianity in Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hebei" title="Christianity in Hebei">Christianity in Hebei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Heilongjiang" title="Christianity in Heilongjiang">Christianity in Heilongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Christianity in Inner Mongolia">Christianity in Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jilin" title="Christianity in Jilin">Christianity in Jilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Liaoning" title="Christianity in Liaoning">Christianity in Liaoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Shanxi" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Shanxi">Christianity in Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Tianjin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Tianjin (page does not exist)">Christianity in Tianjin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Guangdong" title="Christianity in Guangdong">Christianity in Guangdong</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Guangxi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Guangxi (page does not exist)">Christianity in Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_Hainan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in Hainan (page does not exist)">Christianity in Hainan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hong_Kong" title="Christianity in Hong Kong">Christianity in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau#Christianity" title="Religion in Macau">Christianity in Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chinese Christians <br /><small>(by period of <br />prominence)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candida_Xu" title="Candida Xu">Candida Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Tingyun" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang Tingyun">Yang Tingyun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" title="Hong Xiuquan">Hong Xiuchuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Fa" title="Liang Fa">Liang Fa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Shengmo" title="Xi Shengmo">Xi Shengmo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T._C._Chao" title="T. C. Chao">T. C. Chao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Jingyi" title="Cheng Jingyi">Cheng Jingyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Yuzhi" title="Deng Yuzhi"> Deng Yuzhi (Cora Deng)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hsu" title="Francis Hsu">Francis Hsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yuming" title="Jia Yuming">Jia Yuming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Zhengxiang" title="Lu Zhengxiang">Lu Zhengxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Xiangbo" title="Ma Xiangbo">Ma Xiangbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchman_Nee" title="Watchman Nee">Watchman Nee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Stone_(doctor)" title="Mary Stone (doctor)">Mary Stone (Shi Meiyu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sung" title="John Sung">John Sung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yatsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Baosun" title="Zeng Baosun">Tseng Pao-sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ming-Dao" title="Wang Ming-Dao">Wang Ming-Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_C._M._Wei" title="Francis C. M. Wei">Francis C. M. Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wei" title="Paul Wei">Paul Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ching_Hsiung_Wu" title="John Ching Hsiung Wu">John Ching Hsiung Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Leichuan" title="Wu Leichuan">Wu Leichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Yi-fang" title="Wu Yi-fang">Wu Yi-fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y._C._James_Yen" title="Y. C. James Yen">Y. C. James Yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying_Lianzhi" title="Ying Lianzhi">Ying Lianzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dora_Yu" title="Dora Yu">Dora Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Yu_Pin" title="Paul Yu Pin">Paul Yu Pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Z._T._Yui" title="David Z. T. Yui">David Z. T. Yui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's<br />Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gu" title="Joseph Gu">Joseph Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Guanghu" title="He Guanghu">He Guanghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Jin_Luxian" title="Aloysius Jin Luxian">Aloysius Jin Luxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_Kung_Pin-Mei" title="Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei">Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Lamb" title="Samuel Lamb">Samuel Lamb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shengben" title="Lin Shengben">Lin Shengben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaofeng_(academic)" title="Liu Xiaofeng (academic)">Liu Xiaofeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiaomin" title="Lu Xiaomin">Lü Xiaomin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Lu" title="Matthias Lu">Matthias Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._H._Ting" title="K. H. Ting">K. H. Ting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Weifan" title="Wang Weifan">Wang Weifan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yi_(pastor)" title="Wang Yi (pastor)">Wang Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y._T._Wu" title="Y. T. Wu">Y. T. Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Yuan" title="Allen Yuan">Allen Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Fusan" title="Zhao Fusan">Zhao Fusan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Church-state relations<br />in People's Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Patriotic_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Patriotic Association">Catholic Patriotic Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_church" title="Underground church">Underground church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Manifesto" title="The Christian Manifesto">The Christian Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lianghui_(Protestantism)" title="Lianghui (Protestantism)">Protestant Lianghui</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-Self_Patriotic_Movement" title="Three-Self Patriotic Movement">Three-Self Patriotic Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Christian_Council" title="China Christian Council">China Christian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Protestant_theological_seminaries_in_China" title="List of Protestant theological seminaries in China">Seminaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_church_(China)" title="House church (China)">House church</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_rites_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese rites controversy">Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangzhou_riot" title="Yangzhou riot">Yangzhou riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_Movement_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christian Movement (China)">Anti-Christian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanjing incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China#Jesuit_activity_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion#China" title="Sex-selective abortion">Anti-sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_binding#History" title="Foot binding">Anti-footbinding campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium#Prohibition_and_conflict_in_China" title="Opium">Anti-opium campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese#Missionary_systems" title="Romanization of Chinese">Chinese Roman Type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese#Romanization" title="Cantonese">Cantonese Roman Type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_colleges_in_China" title="List of Christian colleges in China">Chinese Christian Colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_revival" title="Manchurian revival">Manchurian revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Christian_theology" title="Sino-Christian theology">Sino-Christian theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdenominational<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Christian_Council" title="China Christian Council">China Christian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Christian_Council_of_China" title="National Christian Council of China">National Christian Council of China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Religion_in_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_in_China" title="Template talk:Religion in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Religion_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Major religions in China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">Ancestor veneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk ritual ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravada Buddhism">Theravada Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in China">Roman Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of China"><img alt="Flag of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/53px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="53" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/80px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/106px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_China" title="Baháʼí Faith in China">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongbaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongbaism">Dongbaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_China" title="Hinduism in China">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian folk religion">Mongolian folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_China" title="Sikhism in China">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao folk religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northeast_China" title="Religion in Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Religion in Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet" title="Religion in Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_teachings_(Chinese_law)" title="Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)">Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Religious_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional Religious System">Regional Religious System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">Ghosts in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Persian_religions" title="Three Persian religions">Three Persian religions</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_Persecution_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Huichang Persecution of Buddhism">Huichang Persecution of Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity_in_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Asia" title="Christianity in Asia">Christianity in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Afghanistan" title="Christianity in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Azerbaijan" title="Christianity in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bahrain" title="Christianity in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bangladesh" title="Christianity in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bhutan" title="Christianity in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Brunei" title="Christianity in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cyprus" title="Christianity in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Christianity in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Indonesia" title="Christianity in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Israel" title="Christianity in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Japan" title="Christianity in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Jordan" title="Christianity in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kazakhstan" title="Christianity in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kuwait" title="Christianity in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Christianity in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Laos" title="Christianity in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Lebanon" title="Christianity in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Malaysia" title="Christianity in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Maldives" title="Christianity in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Mongolia" title="Christianity in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Myanmar" title="Christianity in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nepal" title="Christianity in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Oman" title="Christianity in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Pakistan" title="Christianity in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Philippines" title="Christianity in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Qatar" title="Christianity in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Russia" title="Christianity in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Christianity in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Singapore" title="Christianity in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Christianity in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Tajikistan" title="Christianity in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Thailand" title="Christianity in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Turkey" title="Christianity in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Turkmenistan" title="Christianity in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Christianity in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Uzbekistan" title="Christianity in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Vietnam" title="Christianity in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Yemen" title="Christianity in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td 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territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Hong_Kong" title="Christianity in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><span title="Tagalog-language text"><span lang="tl" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural 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[\"CITEREFGreat_Britain._Foreign_Office,_India._Foreign_and_Political_Dept,_India._Governor-General1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrover2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalbertsma\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayford2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofrichter,_Peter_L.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael_Smith_Clare1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJavier_C._HernándezCrystal_Tse2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstone2001\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFKeung\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlára2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLatourette1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiščák2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLodwick2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMa2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCoy2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMing_Ng2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMing_Ng2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMong2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMungello1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNing2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPM2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicci1603\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Foltz2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Samuel_Maclay1861\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2016\"] = 1,\n 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[\"Cite news\"] = 16,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 31,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Explain\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 9,\n [\"ISSN\"] = 3,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang-zh\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 9,\n [\"Not a typo\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteTag\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Religion in China\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 4,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfnb\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Update\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 9,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 7,\n [\"Zhl\"] = 2,\n [\"Zhp\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","320","21.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","18.4"],["dataWrapper 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