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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Temperature, salinity and density</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Temperature,_salinity_and_density-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Temperature, salinity and density subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Temperature,_salinity_and_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Salinity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Density_and_the_Pycnocline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Density_and_the_Pycnocline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Density and the Pycnocline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Density_and_the_Pycnocline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Circulation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Circulation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Circulation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Circulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coriolis_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coriolis_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Coriolis effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coriolis_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ekman_transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ekman_transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ekman transport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ekman_transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Langmuir_circulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Langmuir_circulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Langmuir circulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Langmuir_circulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean–atmosphere_interface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean–atmosphere_interface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ocean–atmosphere interface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean–atmosphere_interface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planetary_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planetary_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Planetary waves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planetary_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_variability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_variability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Climate variability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_variability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-La_Niña–El_Niño" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#La_Niña–El_Niño"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>La Niña–El Niño</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-La_Niña–El_Niño-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antarctic_circumpolar_wave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antarctic_circumpolar_wave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.2</span> <span>Antarctic circumpolar wave</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antarctic_circumpolar_wave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_currents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_currents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Ocean currents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_currents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antarctic_circumpolar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antarctic_circumpolar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.1</span> <span>Antarctic circumpolar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antarctic_circumpolar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deep_ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deep_ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2</span> <span>Deep ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deep_ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_boundary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_boundary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3</span> <span>Western boundary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_boundary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_flux" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_flux"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Heat flux</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Heat_flux-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Heat flux subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Heat_flux-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heat_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Heat storage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sea_level_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_level_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Sea level change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_level_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rapid_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rapid_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Rapid variations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rapid_variations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rapid variations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rapid_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Tides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tsunamis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tsunamis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Tsunamis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tsunamis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Surface waves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical oceanography</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="علم المحيطات الفيزيائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المحيطات الفيزيائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanograf%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Oceanografía física – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Oceanografía física" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysisk_oceanografi" title="Fysisk oceanografi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fysisk oceanografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meref%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Merefüüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Merefüüsika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%89%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φυσική ωκεανογραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσική ωκεανογραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanograf%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Oceanografía física – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Oceanografía física" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3%E2%80%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="اقیانوس‌نگاری فیزیکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اقیانوس‌نگاری فیزیکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oc%C3%A9anographie_physique" title="Océanographie physique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Océanographie physique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%B4%EC%96%91%ED%95%99" title="물리해양학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="물리해양학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भौतिक समुद्र विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भौतिक समुद्र विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseanografi_fisik" title="Oseanografi fisik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Oseanografi fisik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanografia_fisica" title="Oceanografia fisica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Oceanografia fisica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אוקיינוגרפיה פיזיקלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוקיינוגרפיה פיזיקלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%A6%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ზღვის ფიზიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზღვის ფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Физичка океанографија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Физичка океанографија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൗതിക സമുദ്രശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൗതിക സമുദ്രശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseanografi_fizikal" title="Oseanografi fizikal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Oseanografi fizikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="海洋物理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海洋物理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysisk_oseanografi" title="Fysisk oseanografi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fysisk oseanografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanografia_fizyczna" title="Oceanografia fizyczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oceanografia fizyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysikaalinen_meritiede" title="Fysikaalinen meritiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fysikaalinen meritiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziksel_o%C5%9Finografi" title="Fiziksel oşinografi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fiziksel oşinografi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BA%A3i_d%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_h%E1%BB%8Dc_v%E1%BA%ADt_l%C3%BD" title="Hải dương học vật lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hải dương học vật lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="物理海洋学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="物理海洋学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of physical conditions and processes within the ocean</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AYool_topography_15min.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/AYool_topography_15min.png/300px-AYool_topography_15min.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/AYool_topography_15min.png/450px-AYool_topography_15min.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/AYool_topography_15min.png/600px-AYool_topography_15min.png 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption>World ocean <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetry</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Physical oceanography</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical</a> conditions and physical processes within the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters. </p><p>Physical oceanography is one of several sub-domains into which <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a> is divided. Others include <a href="/wiki/Biological_oceanography" title="Biological oceanography">biological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical oceanography">chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">geological</a> oceanography. </p><p>Physical oceanography may be subdivided into <i>descriptive</i> and <i>dynamical</i> physical oceanography.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Descriptive physical oceanography seeks to research the ocean through observations and complex numerical models, which describe the fluid motions as precisely as possible. </p><p>Dynamical physical oceanography focuses primarily upon the processes that govern the motion of fluids with emphasis upon theoretical research and numerical models. These are part of the large field of <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Geophysical Fluid Dynamics (GFD)</a> that is shared together with <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>. GFD is a sub field of <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a> describing flows occurring on spatial and temporal scales that are greatly influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_setting">Physical setting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 220px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-po.coas.oregonstate.edu/intro/pofig.html">Space and time scales of physical oceanographic processes.</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantic-trench.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlantic-trench.JPG/210px-Atlantic-trench.JPG" decoding="async" width="210" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlantic-trench.JPG/315px-Atlantic-trench.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlantic-trench.JPG/420px-Atlantic-trench.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1076" /></a><figcaption>Perspective view of the sea floor of the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The purple sea floor at the center of the view is the <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_Trench" title="Puerto Rico Trench">Puerto Rico Trench</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Roughly 97% of the planet's water is in its oceans, and the oceans are the source of the vast majority of <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a> that condenses in the atmosphere and falls as <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a> or <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> on the continents.<sup id="cite_ref-Pinet1996_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinet1996-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamblin1998_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamblin1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tremendous <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a> of the oceans moderates the planet's <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, and its absorption of various gases affects the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamblin1998_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamblin1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ocean's influence extends even to the composition of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> rocks through seafloor <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic rocks">metamorphism</a>, as well as to that of volcanic gases and <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magmas</a> created at <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zones">subduction zones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamblin1998_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamblin1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From sea level, the oceans are far deeper than the <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> are tall; examination of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Hypsographic_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypsographic curve">hypsographic curve</a> shows that the average elevation of Earth's landmasses is only 840 metres (2,760 ft), while the ocean's average depth is 3,800 metres (12,500 ft). Though this apparent discrepancy is great, for both land and sea, the respective extremes such as <a href="/wiki/Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountains">mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trenches" class="mw-redirect" title="Trenches">trenches</a> are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Pinet1996_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinet1996-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <caption>Area, volume plus mean and maximum depths of oceans (excluding adjacent seas) </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><b>Body</b> </td> <td><b>Area</b> (10<sup>6</sup>km<sup>2</sup>) </td> <td><b>Volume</b> (10<sup>6</sup>km<sup>3</sup>) </td> <td><b>Mean depth</b> (m) </td> <td><b>Maximum</b> (m) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> </td> <td>165.2 </td> <td>707.6 </td> <td>4282 </td> <td>-11033 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> </td> <td>82.4 </td> <td>323.6 </td> <td>3926 </td> <td>-8605 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> </td> <td>73.4 </td> <td>291.0 </td> <td>3963 </td> <td>-8047 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> </td> <td>20.3 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>-7235 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> </td> <td>14.1 </td> <td> </td> <td>1038 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> </td> <td>2.8 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>-7686 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Temperature,_salinity_and_density"><span id="Temperature.2C_salinity_and_density"></span>Temperature, salinity and density</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Temperature, salinity and density"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2008</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annual_mean_sea_surface_sea_water_density_(World_Ocean_Atlas_2009).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Annual_mean_sea_surface_sea_water_density_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png/200px-Annual_mean_sea_surface_sea_water_density_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Annual_mean_sea_surface_sea_water_density_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png/300px-Annual_mean_sea_surface_sea_water_density_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Annual_mean_sea_surface_sea_water_density_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png/400px-Annual_mean_sea_surface_sea_water_density_%28World_Ocean_Atlas_2009%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3308" data-file-height="2217" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">WOA</a> surface density.</figcaption></figure> <p>Because the vast majority of the world ocean's volume is deep water, the mean temperature of seawater is low; roughly 75% of the ocean's volume has a temperature from 0° – 5 °C (Pinet 1996). The same percentage falls in a salinity range between 34 and 35 ppt (3.4–3.5%) (Pinet 1996). There is still quite a bit of variation, however. Surface temperatures can range from below freezing near the poles to 35 °C in restricted tropical seas, while salinity can vary from 10 to 41 ppt (1.0–4.1%).<sup id="cite_ref-Marshak2001_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshak2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vertical structure of the temperature can be divided into three basic layers, a surface <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer" title="Mixed layer">mixed layer</a>, where gradients are low, a <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a> where gradients are high, and a poorly stratified abyss. </p><p>In terms of temperature, the ocean's layers are highly <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>-dependent; the <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a> is pronounced in the tropics, but nonexistent in polar waters (Marshak 2001). The <a href="/wiki/Halocline" title="Halocline">halocline</a> usually lies near the surface, where evaporation raises salinity in the tropics, or meltwater dilutes it in polar regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshak2001_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshak2001-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These variations of salinity and temperature with depth change the density of the seawater, creating the <a href="/wiki/Pycnocline" title="Pycnocline">pycnocline</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pinet1996_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pinet1996-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The temperature of ocean water varies significantly across different regions and depths. As mentioned, the vast majority of ocean water (around 75%) lies between 0° and 5°C, mostly in the deep ocean, where sunlight does not penetrate. The surface layers, however, experience far greater variability. In polar regions, surface temperatures can drop below freezing, while in tropical and subtropical regions, they may reach up to 35°C. This thermal stratification results in a vertical temperature gradient that divides the ocean into distinct layers. </p> <ol><li><b>Surface Mixed Layer</b>: This uppermost layer is well-mixed due to wind and wave action, resulting in minimal temperature variation with depth. The thickness of this layer varies depending on location and season but can extend from 50 to 200 meters.</li> <li><b>Thermocline</b>: Below the mixed layer lies the thermocline, a zone where temperature decreases rapidly with increasing depth. The thermocline is especially pronounced in tropical and temperate regions but is absent in polar waters where surface temperatures are already near freezing. The depth and sharpness of the thermocline can shift with seasonal changes and ocean currents, playing a critical role in regulating heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere.</li> <li><b>Abyssal Zone</b>: Beneath the thermocline is the deep ocean or abyssal zone, where temperatures remain relatively uniform, hovering just above freezing (0°-3°C). This cold, dense water originates from polar regions, where surface water cools, sinks, and spreads towards the equator along the ocean floor, forming the deep ocean circulation system.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salinity">Salinity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Salinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Salinity, a measure of the concentration of dissolved salts in seawater, typically ranges between 34 and 35 parts per thousand (ppt) in most of the world’s oceans. However, localized factors such as evaporation, precipitation, river runoff, and ice formation or melting cause significant variations in salinity. These variations are often most evident in coastal areas and marginal seas. </p> <ol><li><b>Surface Salinity</b>: In the open ocean, salinity is generally highest in subtropical regions where high evaporation rates dominate, and lowest in regions of high precipitation or freshwater influx from rivers, such as the mouths of the Amazon and Congo Rivers. Tropical and subtropical seas, such as the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, can experience salinities as high as 40-41 ppt due to intense evaporation and restricted water exchange with the open ocean.</li> <li><b>Halocline</b>: The halocline is a layer within the ocean where salinity changes rapidly with depth. This stratification can be influenced by surface processes like evaporation (which increases salinity) and freshwater input (which decreases it). The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, contributing to overall water column stability.</li> <li><b>Polar Regions</b>: In polar areas, surface salinity is generally lower due to freshwater input from melting ice. During sea ice formation, however, brine rejection increases the salinity of surrounding waters, contributing to the sinking of dense water masses and the formation of deep ocean currents that drive global circulation patterns.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Density_and_the_Pycnocline">Density and the Pycnocline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Density and the Pycnocline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The combination of temperature and salinity variations leads to changes in seawater density. Seawater density is primarily influenced by both these factors—colder, saltier water is denser than warmer, fresher water. This variation in density creates stratification in the ocean and is key to understanding ocean circulation patterns. </p> <ol><li><b>Pycnocline</b>: The pycnocline is a layer within the ocean where the density increases rapidly with depth. It typically coincides with the thermocline and halocline in tropical and subtropical waters, forming a sharp boundary between the less dense surface waters and the denser deep ocean waters. This density stratification acts as a barrier to vertical mixing, limiting the exchange of heat, gases, and nutrients between the surface and deep ocean layers.</li> <li><b>Thermohaline Circulation</b>: Density differences drive the thermohaline circulation, also known as the global "conveyor belt," which plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's climate. Cold, dense water formed in the polar regions sinks and moves along the ocean floor toward the equator, while warmer surface waters flow poleward to replace it. This global circulation helps redistribute heat and maintains the ocean's dynamic equilibrium.</li> <li><b>Regional Variations</b>: In areas of upwelling or downwelling, the density structure of the water column can be disrupted. Upwelling brings cooler, nutrient-rich water to the surface, while downwelling pushes surface waters to greater depths, impacting local ecosystems and global climate.</li></ol> <p>Understanding the complex interactions between temperature, salinity, and density is essential for predicting ocean circulation patterns, climate change effects, and the health of marine ecosystems. These factors also influence marine life, as many species are sensitive to the specific temperature and salinity ranges of their habitats. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Circulation">Circulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Circulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png/250px-Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png/375px-Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png/500px-Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Density-driven thermohaline circulation</figcaption></figure> <p>Energy for the ocean circulation (and for the atmospheric circulation) comes from solar radiation and gravitational energy from the Sun and Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude, being greater at the equator than at the poles, and this engenders fluid motion in both the atmosphere and ocean that acts to redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles, thereby reducing the temperature gradients that would exist in the absence of fluid motion. Perhaps three quarters of this heat is carried in the atmosphere; the rest is carried in the ocean. </p><p>The atmosphere is heated from below, which leads to convection, the largest expression of which is the <a href="/wiki/Hadley_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadley circulation">Hadley circulation</a>. By contrast the ocean is heated from above, which tends to suppress convection. Instead ocean deep water is formed in polar regions where cold salty waters sink in fairly restricted areas. This is the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">thermohaline circulation</a>. </p><p>Oceanic currents are largely driven by the surface wind stress; hence the large-scale <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">atmospheric circulation</a> is important to understanding the ocean circulation. The Hadley circulation leads to Easterly winds in the tropics and Westerlies in mid-latitudes. This leads to slow equatorward flow throughout most of a subtropical ocean basin (the <a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a>). The return flow occurs in an intense, narrow, poleward <a href="/wiki/Western_boundary_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Western boundary current">western boundary current</a>. Like the atmosphere, the ocean is far wider than it is deep, and hence horizontal motion is in general much faster than vertical motion. In the southern hemisphere there is a continuous belt of ocean, and hence the mid-latitude westerlies force the strong <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a>. In the northern hemisphere the land masses prevent this and the ocean circulation is broken into smaller <a href="/wiki/Gyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyre">gyres</a> in the Atlantic and Pacific basins. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coriolis_effect">Coriolis effect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Coriolis effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a> results in a deflection of fluid flows (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere). This has profound effects on the flow of the oceans. In particular it means the flow goes <i>around</i> high and low pressure systems, permitting them to persist for long periods of time. As a result, tiny variations in pressure can produce measurable currents. A slope of one part in one million in sea surface height, for example, will result in a current of 10 cm/s at mid-latitudes. The fact that the Coriolis effect is largest at the poles and weak at the equator results in sharp, relatively steady western boundary currents which are absent on eastern boundaries. Also see <a href="/wiki/Secondary_circulation" title="Secondary circulation">secondary circulation</a> effects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ekman_transport">Ekman transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ekman transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a> results in the net transport of surface water 90 degrees to the right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere, and 90 degrees to the left of the wind in the Southern Hemisphere. As the wind blows across the surface of the ocean, it "grabs" onto a thin layer of the surface water. In turn, that thin sheet of water transfers motion energy to the thin layer of water under it, and so on. However, because of the Coriolis Effect, the direction of travel of the layers of water slowly move farther and farther to the right as they get deeper in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. In most cases, the very bottom layer of water affected by the wind is at a depth of 100 m – 150 m and is traveling about 180 degrees, completely opposite of the direction that the wind is blowing. Overall, the net transport of water would be 90 degrees from the original direction of the wind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Langmuir_circulation">Langmuir circulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Langmuir circulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a> results in the occurrence of thin, visible stripes, called <a href="/wiki/Windrow" title="Windrow">windrows</a> on the surface of the ocean parallel to the direction that the wind is blowing. If the wind is blowing with more than 3 m s<sup>−1</sup>, it can create parallel windrows alternating upwelling and downwelling about 5–300 m apart. These windrows are created by adjacent ovular water cells (extending to about 6 m (20 ft) deep) alternating rotating clockwise and counterclockwise. In the <a href="/wiki/Convergence_zone" title="Convergence zone">convergence</a> zones debris, foam and seaweed accumulates, while at the <a href="/wiki/Divergence" title="Divergence">divergence</a> zones plankton are caught and carried to the surface. If there are many plankton in the divergence zone fish are often attracted to feed on them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean–atmosphere_interface"><span id="Ocean.E2.80.93atmosphere_interface"></span>Ocean–atmosphere interface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ocean–atmosphere interface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isabel_2003-09-15_1530Z.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Isabel_2003-09-15_1530Z.jpg/150px-Isabel_2003-09-15_1530Z.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Isabel_2003-09-15_1530Z.jpg/225px-Isabel_2003-09-15_1530Z.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Isabel_2003-09-15_1530Z.jpg/300px-Isabel_2003-09-15_1530Z.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6800" data-file-height="8800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Isabel" title="Hurricane Isabel">Hurricane Isabel</a> east of the Bahamas on 15 September 2003 </figcaption></figure> <p>At the ocean-atmosphere interface, the ocean and atmosphere exchange fluxes of heat, moisture and momentum. </p> <dl><dt>Heat</dt></dl> <p>The important <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> terms at the surface are the sensible heat <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a>, the latent heat flux, the incoming <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</a> and the balance of long-wave (<a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>) <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>. In general, the tropical oceans will tend to show a net gain of heat, and the polar oceans a net loss, the result of a net transfer of energy polewards in the oceans. </p><p>The oceans' large heat capacity moderates the climate of areas adjacent to the oceans, leading to a <a href="/wiki/Maritime_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime climate">maritime climate</a> at such locations. This can be a result of heat storage in summer and release in winter; or of transport of heat from warmer locations: a particularly notable example of this is <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, which is heated at least in part by the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf stream">north atlantic drift</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Momentum</dt></dl> <p>Surface winds tend to be of order meters per second; ocean currents of order centimeters per second. Hence from the point of view of the atmosphere, the ocean can be considered effectively stationary; from the point of view of the ocean, the atmosphere imposes a significant wind <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a> on its surface, and this forces large-scale currents in the ocean. </p><p>Through the wind stress, the wind generates <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean surface wave">ocean surface waves</a>; the longer waves have a <a href="/wiki/Phase_velocity" title="Phase velocity">phase velocity</a> tending towards the <a href="/wiki/Wind_speed" title="Wind speed">wind speed</a>. <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">Momentum</a> of the surface winds is transferred into the energy <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> by the ocean surface waves. The increased <a href="/wiki/Surface_roughness" title="Surface roughness">roughness</a> of the ocean surface, by the presence of the waves, changes the wind near the surface. </p> <dl><dt>Moisture</dt></dl> <p>The ocean can gain <a href="/wiki/Moisture" title="Moisture">moisture</a> from <a href="/wiki/Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainfall">rainfall</a>, or lose it through <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>. Evaporative loss leaves the ocean saltier; the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> for example have strong evaporative loss; the resulting plume of dense salty water may be traced through the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits of Gibraltar">Straits of Gibraltar</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>. At one time, it was believed that <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> was a major driver of ocean currents; it is now known to be only a very minor factor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Planetary_waves">Planetary waves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Planetary waves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Kelvin Waves</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a> is any <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">progressive wave</a> that is channeled between two boundaries or opposing forces (usually between the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Coastline" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastline">coastline</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>). There are two types, coastal and equatorial. Kelvin waves are <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's gravity">gravity</a> driven and <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_relation" title="Dispersion relation">non-dispersive</a>. This means that Kelvin waves can retain their shape and direction over long periods of time. They are usually created by a sudden shift in the wind, such as the change of the <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a> at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a>. </p><p>Coastal Kelvin waves follow <a href="/wiki/Shoreline" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoreline">shorelines</a> and will always propagate in a <a href="/wiki/Counterclockwise" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterclockwise">counterclockwise</a> direction in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern hemisphere">Northern hemisphere</a> (with the <a href="/wiki/Shoreline" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoreline">shoreline</a> to the right of the direction of travel) and <a href="/wiki/Clockwise" title="Clockwise">clockwise</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern hemisphere">Southern hemisphere</a>. </p><p>Equatorial Kelvin waves propagate to the east in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern hemisphere">Northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_hemisphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern hemisphere">Southern hemispheres</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Waveguide" title="Waveguide">guide</a>. </p><p>Kelvin waves are known to have very high speeds, typically around 2–3 meters per second. They have <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> of thousands of kilometers and <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitudes</a> in the tens of meters. </p> <dl><dt>Rossby Waves</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby waves</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Planetary_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary wave">planetary waves</a> are huge, slow waves generated in the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> by <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> differences between the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>. Their major <a href="/wiki/Restoring_force" title="Restoring force">restoring force</a> is the change in <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a> with <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>. Their wave <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitudes</a> are usually in the tens of meters and very large <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a>. They are usually found at low or mid latitudes. </p><p>There are two types of Rossby waves, <a href="/wiki/Barotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barotropic">barotropic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baroclinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baroclinic">baroclinic</a>. Barotropic Rossby waves have the highest speeds and do not vary vertically. Baroclinic Rossby waves are much slower. </p><p>The special identifying feature of Rossby waves is that the <a href="/wiki/Phase_velocity" title="Phase velocity">phase velocity</a> of each individual wave always has a westward component, but the <a href="/wiki/Group_velocity" title="Group velocity">group velocity</a> can be in any direction. Usually the shorter Rossby waves have an eastward group velocity and the longer ones have a westward group velocity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_variability">Climate variability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Climate variability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El-nino.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/El-nino.png/350px-El-nino.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/El-nino.png/525px-El-nino.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/El-nino.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="277" /></a><figcaption>December 1997 chart of ocean surface temperature anomaly [°C] during the last strong El Niño</figcaption></figure> <p>The interaction of ocean circulation, which serves as a type of <a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">heat pump</a>, and biological effects such as the concentration of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> can result in global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate changes</a> on a time scale of decades. Known <a href="/wiki/Climate_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate oscillation">climate oscillations</a> resulting from these interactions, include the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_decadal_oscillation" title="Pacific decadal oscillation">Pacific decadal oscillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_oscillation" title="North Atlantic oscillation">North Atlantic oscillation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arctic_oscillation" title="Arctic oscillation">Arctic oscillation</a>. The oceanic process of <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">thermohaline circulation</a> is a significant component of heat redistribution across the globe, and changes in this circulation can have major impacts upon the climate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="La_Niña–El_Niño"><span id="La_Ni.C3.B1a.E2.80.93El_Ni.C3.B1o"></span>La Niña–El Niño</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: La Niña–El Niño"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Niña">La Niña</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antarctic_circumpolar_wave">Antarctic circumpolar wave</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Antarctic circumpolar wave"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Wave" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Wave">Antarctic Circumpolar Wave</a></div> <p>This is a coupled <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>/<a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> that circles the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> about every eight years. Since it is a wave-2 phenomenon (there are two peaks and two troughs in a <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">latitude circle</a>) at each fixed point in space a signal with a <a href="/wiki/Simple_harmonic_motion" title="Simple harmonic motion">period</a> of four years is seen. The wave moves eastward in the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_currents">Ocean currents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ocean currents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the most important <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a> are the: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Deep ocean</a> (density-driven)</li> <li>Western boundary currents <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Current" title="Labrador Current">Labrador Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyashio_Current" title="Oyashio Current">Oyashio Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agulhas_Current" title="Agulhas Current">Agulhas Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_Current" title="Brazil Current">Brazil Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Australia_Current" class="mw-redirect" title="East Australia Current">East Australia Current</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Boundary currents <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Current" title="California Current">California Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Current" title="Canary Current">Canary Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peru_Current" class="mw-redirect" title="Peru Current">Peru Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benguela_Current" title="Benguela Current">Benguela Current</a></li></ul></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antarctic_circumpolar">Antarctic circumpolar</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Antarctic circumpolar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ocean body surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> is currently the only continuous body of water where there is a wide latitude band of open water. It interconnects the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian</a> oceans, and provide an uninterrupted stretch for the prevailing westerly winds to significantly increase wave amplitudes. It is generally accepted that these prevailing winds are primarily responsible for the circumpolar current transport. This current is now thought to vary with time, possibly in an oscillatory manner. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deep_ocean">Deep ocean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Deep ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Sea" title="Norwegian Sea">Norwegian Sea</a> evaporative cooling is predominant, and the sinking water mass, the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Deep_Water" title="North Atlantic Deep Water">North Atlantic Deep Water</a> (NADW), fills the basin and spills southwards through crevasses in the <a href="/wiki/Submarine_sill" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarine sill">submarine sills</a> that connect <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>. It then flows along the western boundary of the Atlantic with some part of the flow moving eastward along the equator and then poleward into the ocean basins. The NADW is entrained into the Circumpolar Current, and can be traced into the Indian and Pacific basins. Flow from the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> Basin into the Pacific, however, is blocked by the narrow shallows of the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a>. </p><p>Also see <b><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">marine geology</a></b> about that explores the <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> of the ocean floor including <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> that create deep ocean trenches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_boundary">Western boundary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Western boundary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An idealised subtropical ocean basin forced by winds circling around a high pressure (anticyclonic) systems such as the Azores-Bermuda high develops a <a href="/wiki/Gyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyre">gyre</a> circulation with slow steady flows towards the equator in the interior. As discussed by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stommel" title="Henry Stommel">Henry Stommel</a>, these flows are balanced in the region of the western boundary, where a thin fast polewards flow called a <a href="/wiki/Western_boundary_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Western boundary current">western boundary current</a> develops. Flow in the real ocean is more complex, but the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a>, Agulhas and <a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio</a> are examples of such currents. They are narrow (approximately 100 km across) and fast (approximately 1.5 m/s). </p><p>Equatorwards western boundary currents occur in tropical and polar locations, e.g. the East Greenland and Labrador currents, in the Atlantic and the <a href="/wiki/Oyashio_Current" title="Oyashio Current">Oyashio</a>. They are forced by winds circulation around low pressure (cyclonic). </p> <dl><dt>Gulf Stream</dt></dl> <p>The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension, <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Current" title="North Atlantic Current">North Atlantic Current</a>, is a powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland to the northeast before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. </p> <dl><dt>Kuroshio</dt></dl> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio Current</a> is an ocean current found in the western Pacific Ocean off the east coast of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and flowing northeastward past <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, where it merges with the easterly drift of the <a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Current" title="North Pacific Current">North Pacific Current</a>. It is analogous to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, transporting warm, tropical water northward towards the polar region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heat_flux">Heat flux</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Heat flux"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_storage">Heat storage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Heat storage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">ocean heat content</a></div> <p>Ocean heat flux is a turbulent and complex system which utilizes atmospheric measurement techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Eddy_covariance" title="Eddy covariance">eddy covariance</a> to measure the rate of heat transfer expressed in the unit of or <a href="/wiki/Petawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Petawatt">petawatts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heat_flux" title="Heat flux">Heat flux</a> is the flow of energy per unit of area per unit of time. Most of the Earth's heat storage is within its seas with smaller fractions of the heat transfer in processes such as evaporation, radiation, diffusion, or absorption into the sea floor. The majority of the ocean heat flux is through <a href="/wiki/Advection" title="Advection">advection</a> or the movement of the ocean's currents. For example, the majority of the warm water movement in the south Atlantic is thought to have originated in the Indian Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example of advection is the nonequatorial Pacific heating which results from subsurface processes related to atmospheric anticlines.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent warming observations of <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_bottom_water" title="Antarctic bottom water">Antarctic bottom water</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> is of concern to ocean scientists because bottom water changes will effect currents, nutrients, and biota elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The international awareness of global warming has focused scientific research on this topic since the 1988 creation of the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>. Improved ocean observation, instrumentation, theory, and funding has increased scientific reporting on regional and <a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">global issues</a> related to heat.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sea_level_change">Sea level change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sea level change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></div> <p>Tide gauges and satellite altimetry suggest an increase in sea level of 1.5–3 mm/yr over the past 100 years. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a> predicts that by 2081–2100, <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> will lead to a sea level rise of 260 to 820 mm.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rapid_variations">Rapid variations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Rapid variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tides">Tides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Tides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tides" class="mw-redirect" title="Tides">Tides</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wpdms_nasa_topo_bay_of_fundy_-_en.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_nasa_topo_bay_of_fundy_-_en.jpg/200px-Wpdms_nasa_topo_bay_of_fundy_-_en.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Wpdms_nasa_topo_bay_of_fundy_-_en.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>The Bay of Fundy is a bay located on the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, on the northeast end of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Maine" title="Gulf of Maine">Gulf of Maine</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of Canada">provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The rise and fall of the oceans due to tidal effects is a key influence upon the coastal areas. Ocean tides on the planet Earth are created by the gravitational effects of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. The tides produced by these two bodies are roughly comparable in magnitude, but the orbital motion of the Moon results in tidal patterns that vary over the course of a month. </p><p>The ebb and flow of the tides produce a cyclical current along the coast, and the strength of this current can be quite dramatic along narrow estuaries. Incoming tides can also produce a <a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">tidal bore</a> along a river or narrow bay as the water flow against the current results in a wave on the surface. </p><p><i>Tide and Current</i> (Wyban 1992) clearly illustrates the impact of these natural cycles on the lifestyle and livelihood of <a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a> tending coastal fishponds. <i>Aia ke ola ka hana</i> meaning . . . <i>Life is in labor</i>. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></i> occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy" title="Bay of Fundy">Bay of Fundy</a> since the time it takes for a large <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> to travel from the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">bay</a> to the opposite end, then reflect and travel back to the mouth of the bay coincides with the tidal rhythm producing the world's highest tides. </p><p>As the surface tide oscillates over topography, such as submerged seamounts or ridges, it generates <a href="/wiki/Internal_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal waves">internal waves</a> at the tidal frequency, which are known as <a href="/wiki/Internal_tides" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal tides">internal tides</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tsunamis">Tsunamis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Tsunamis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a></div> <p>A series of surface waves can be generated due to large-scale displacement of the ocean water. These can be caused by sub-marine <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>, seafloor deformations due to <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, or the impact of a large <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a>. </p><p>The waves can travel with a velocity of up to several hundred km/hour across the ocean surface, but in mid-ocean they are barely detectable with <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> spanning hundreds of kilometers. </p><p>Tsunamis, originally called tidal waves, were renamed because they are not related to the tides. They are regarded as <a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">shallow-water waves</a>, or waves in water with a depth less than 1/20 their wavelength. Tsunamis have very large periods, high speeds, and great wave heights. </p><p>The primary impact of these waves is along the coastal shoreline, as large amounts of ocean water are cyclically propelled inland and then drawn out to sea. This can result in significant modifications to the coastline regions where the waves strike with sufficient energy. </p><p>The tsunami that occurred in <a href="/wiki/Lituya_Bay" title="Lituya Bay">Lituya Bay</a>, Alaska on July 9, 1958 was 520 m (1,710 ft) high and is the biggest tsunami ever measured, almost 90 m (300 ft) taller than the <a href="/wiki/Sears_Tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sears Tower">Sears Tower</a> in Chicago and about 110 m (360 ft) taller than the former <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center</a> in New York.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_waves">Surface waves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Surface waves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean surface waves">Ocean surface waves</a></div> <p>The wind generates ocean surface waves, which have a large impact on <a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">offshore structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">ships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbour">harbours</a>. After their generation by the wind, ocean surface waves can travel (as <a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">swell</a>) over long distances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, 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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">Climate change (general concept)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CORA_dataset" title="CORA dataset">CORA dataset</a> temperature and salinity oceanographic dataset</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Geophysical fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models" title="List of ocean circulation models">List of ocean circulation models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landforms#Coastal_and_oceanic_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of landforms">List of Oceanic Landforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFD.L.J.(Oceanographer)2011" class="citation book cs1">D., Talley, Lynne; L., Pickard, George; J., Emery, William; (Oceanographer), Swift, James H. (2011). <i>Descriptive physical oceanography : an introduction</i>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750645522" title="Special:BookSources/9780750645522"><bdi>9780750645522</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/784140610">784140610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descriptive+physical+oceanography+%3A+an+introduction&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F784140610&rft.isbn=9780750645522&rft.aulast=D.&rft.aufirst=Talley%2C+Lynne&rft.au=L.%2C+Pickard%2C+George&rft.au=J.%2C+Emery%2C+William&rft.au=%28Oceanographer%29%2C+Swift%2C+James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-po.coas.oregonstate.edu/intro/">Physical Oceanography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120717064415/http://www-po.coas.oregonstate.edu/intro/">Archived</a> 2012-07-17 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> Oregon State University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pinet1996-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pinet1996_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pinet1996_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pinet1996_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinet1996" class="citation book cs1">Pinet, Paul R. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/invitationtoocea0000pine_i9f0"><i>Invitation to Oceanography</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7637-2136-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7637-2136-0"><bdi>0-7637-2136-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invitation+to+Oceanography&rft.place=St.+Paul%2C+MN&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=West+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7637-2136-0&rft.aulast=Pinet&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finvitationtoocea0000pine_i9f0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hamblin1998-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hamblin1998_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hamblin1998_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hamblin1998_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamblinChristiansen,_Eric_H.1998" class="citation book cs1">Hamblin, W. Kenneth; Christiansen, Eric H. (1998). <i>Earth's Dynamic Systems</i> (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-018371-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-018371-7"><bdi>0-13-018371-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth%27s+Dynamic+Systems&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-13-018371-7&rft.aulast=Hamblin&rft.aufirst=W.+Kenneth&rft.au=Christiansen%2C+Eric+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marshak2001-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marshak2001_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marshak2001_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshak2001" class="citation book cs1">Marshak, Stephen (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earthportraitofp00mars"><i>Earth: Portrait of a Planet</i></a></span>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-97423-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-97423-5"><bdi>0-393-97423-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth%3A+Portrait+of+a+Planet&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-393-97423-5&rft.aulast=Marshak&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearthportraitofp00mars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Munk, W. and Wunsch, C., 1998: Abyssal recipes II: energetics of tidal and wind mixing. Deep-Sea Research Part I, 45, pp. 1977--2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalley2013" class="citation web cs1">Talley, Lynne D. (Fall 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pord.ucsd.edu/~ltalley/sio210/transports/">"Reading-Advection, transports, budgets"</a>. <i>SIO 210: Introduction to Physical Oceanography</i>. San Diego: Scripps Institute of Oceanography. University of California San Diego<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 30,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SIO+210%3A+Introduction+to+Physical+Oceanography&rft.atitle=Reading-Advection%2C+transports%2C+budgets&rft.ssn=fall&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Talley&rft.aufirst=Lynne+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pord.ucsd.edu%2F~ltalley%2Fsio210%2Ftransports%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald1995" class="citation thesis cs1">Macdonald, Alison M. (1995). <i>Oceanic fluxes of mass, heat, and freshwater : a global estimate and perspective</i> (Thesis). WHOI Theses. Falmouth, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1575%2F1912%2F5620">10.1575/1912/5620</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1912%2F5620">1912/5620</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Oceanic+fluxes+of+mass%2C+heat%2C+and+freshwater+%3A+a+global+estimate+and+perspective&rft.inst=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology+and+the+Woods+Hole+Oceanographic+Institution&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1912%2F5620&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1575%2F1912%2F5620&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Alison+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuLiZhang2014" class="citation journal cs1">Su, Jingzhi; Li, Tim; et al. (2014). "The Initiation and Developing Mechanisms of Central Pacific El Niños". <i>Journal of Climate</i>. <b>27</b> (12): 4473–4485. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JCli...27.4473S">2014JCli...27.4473S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI-D-13-00640.1">10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00640.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&rft.atitle=The+Initiation+and+Developing+Mechanisms+of+Central+Pacific+El+Ni%C3%B1os&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4473-4485&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FJCLI-D-13-00640.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014JCli...27.4473S&rft.aulast=Su&rft.aufirst=Jingzhi&rft.au=Li%2C+Tim&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Renhe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman2012" class="citation news cs1">Goldman, Jana (March 20, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204203919/https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/1309/Amount-of-coldest-Antarctic-water-near-ocean-floor-decreasing-for-decades">"Amount of coldest Antarctic water near ocean floor decreasing for decades"</a>. NOAA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/1309/Amount-of-coldest-Antarctic-water-near-ocean-floor-decreasing-for-decades">the original</a> on 4 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Amount+of+coldest+Antarctic+water+near+ocean+floor+decreasing+for+decades&rft.date=2012-03-20&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Jana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.noaa.gov%2Farticle%2FArtMID%2F587%2FArticleID%2F1309%2FAmount-of-coldest-Antarctic-water-near-ocean-floor-decreasing-for-decades&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/profiles/greycloud/lists/3461529">"MyWorldCat list-OceanHeat"</a>. WorldCat<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Aug 30,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MyWorldCat+list-OceanHeat&rft.pub=WorldCat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Fprofiles%2Fgreycloud%2Flists%2F3461529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStocker2013" class="citation book cs1">Stocker, Thomas F. (2013). <i>Technical Summary In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technical+Summary+In%3A+Climate+Change+2013%3A+The+Physical+Science+Basis.+Contribution+of+Working+Group+I+to+the+Fifth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Stocker&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080726155930/http://home.att.net/~thehessians/tsunamis.html">"Tsuanmi Threats"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.att.net/~thehessians/tsunamis.html">the original</a> on 2008-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsuanmi+Threats&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.att.net%2F~thehessians%2Ftsunamis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill1982" class="citation book cs1">Gill, Adrian E. (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atmosphereoceand0000gill"><i>Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics</i></a></span>. San Diego: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-283520-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-283520-4"><bdi>0-12-283520-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atmosphere-Ocean+Dynamics&rft.place=San+Diego&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-12-283520-4&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=Adrian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatmosphereoceand0000gill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Samelson, R. M. (2011) <i>The Theory of Large-Scale Ocean Circulation</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/theory-of-largescale-ocean-circulation/32F43314F565972ABF98839E0695F32C">doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511736605.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaury1855" class="citation book cs1">Maury, Matthew F. (1855). <i>The Physical Geography of the Seas and Its Meteorology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physical+Geography+of+the+Seas+and+Its+Meteorology&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Maury&rft.aufirst=Matthew+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2007" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Robert H. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160329145127/http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/PDF_files/book.pdf"><i>Introduction to Physical Oceanography</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. College Station: Texas A&M University. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/169907785">169907785</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/PDF_files/book.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Physical+Oceanography&rft.place=College+Station&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F169907785&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foceanworld.tamu.edu%2Fresources%2Focng_textbook%2FPDF_files%2Fbook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyban1992" class="citation book cs1">Wyban, Carol Araki (1992). <i>Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawaiʻi</i>. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1396-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1396-0"><bdi>0-8248-1396-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tide+and+Current%3A+Fishponds+of+Hawai%CA%BBi&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8248-1396-0&rft.aulast=Wyban&rft.aufirst=Carol+Araki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_oceanography&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWay" class="citation web cs1">Way, John H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070330175100/http://www.lhup.edu/jway/101/101.sg/hypsographic_curve.htm">"Hypsographic curve"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lhup.edu/jway/101/101.sg/hypsographic_curve.htm">the original</a> on 2007-03-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-01-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hypsographic+curve&rft.aulast=Way&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lhup.edu%2Fjway%2F101%2F101.sg%2Fhypsographic_curve.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+oceanography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050702080141/http://science.hq.nasa.gov/oceans/">NASA Oceanography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanmotion.org/">Ocean Motion and Surface Currents</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060202041527/http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/home/course_book.htm">Ocean World</a> (digital book)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noaa.gov/ocean.html">National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unols.org/">University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdc.org">Pacific Disaster Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tsunami.org/">Pacific Tsunami Museum</a> <a href="/wiki/Hilo,_Hawaii" title="Hilo, Hawaii">Hilo, Hawaii</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sthjournal.org">Science of Tsunami Hazards</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060207141615/http://www.sthjournal.org/">Archived</a> 2006-02-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>(journal)</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nemo-ocean.eu">NEMO</a> academic software for oceanography</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://salinometry.com/early-determination-of-salinity-from-ancient-concepts-to-challenger-results/">[1]</a> History of Salinity Determination</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_branches_of_physics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_physics" title="Template talk:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_branches_of_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" title="Physical optics">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics" title="Non-equilibrium thermodynamics">Non-equilibrium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mechanics" title="Relativistic mechanics">Relativistic mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle 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interdisciplinary physics">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ocean physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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