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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Description</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Description-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Description subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Volcanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volcanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Driving_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Driving_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Driving mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Driving_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_global_sea_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_global_sea_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Impact on global sea level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_global_sea_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_seawater_chemistry_and_carbonate_deposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_seawater_chemistry_and_carbonate_deposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Impact on seawater chemistry and carbonate deposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_seawater_chemistry_and_carbonate_deposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_discovery:_seafloor_spreading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_discovery:_seafloor_spreading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Impact of discovery: seafloor spreading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_discovery:_seafloor_spreading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_mid-ocean_ridges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_mid-ocean_ridges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>List of mid-ocean ridges</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_mid-ocean_ridges-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of mid-ocean ridges subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_mid-ocean_ridges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-List_of_ancient_oceanic_ridges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_ancient_oceanic_ridges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>List of ancient oceanic ridges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_ancient_oceanic_ridges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mid-ocean ridge</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">62 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-oseaanrif" title="Mid-oseaanrif – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mid-oseaanrif" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B7" title="حيد وسط محيط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حيد وسط محيط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_mediooce%C3%A1nica" title="Dorsal mediooceánica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dorsal mediooceánica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta-Okean_silsil%C9%99si" title="Orta-Okean silsiləsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta-Okean silsiləsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munduk_tengah_samudra" title="Munduk tengah samudra – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Munduk tengah samudra" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE" title="মধ্য-মহাসাগর শৈলশিরা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্য-মহাসাগর শৈলশিরা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1i-ni%C3%A1" title="Hái-niá – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hái-niá" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Сярэдзінна-акіянічныя хрыбты – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сярэдзінна-акіянічныя хрыбты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Средноокеански хребет – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средноокеански хребет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjookeanski_grebeni" title="Srednjookeanski grebeni – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Srednjookeanski grebeni" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_oce%C3%A0nica" title="Dorsal oceànica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dorsal oceànica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C5%99edooce%C3%A1nsk%C3%BD_h%C5%99bet" title="Středooceánský hřbet – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Středooceánský hřbet" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanryg" title="Oceanryg – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oceanryg" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelozeanischer_R%C3%BCcken" title="Mittelozeanischer Rücken – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelozeanischer Rücken" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ookeani_keskahelik" title="Ookeani keskahelik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ookeani keskahelik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%89%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%87%CE%B7" title="Μεσοωκεάνια ράχη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεσοωκεάνια ράχη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_mediooce%C3%A1nica" title="Dorsal mediooceánica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dorsal mediooceánica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezoceana_dorso" title="Mezoceana dorso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezoceana dorso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozeano_dortsal" title="Ozeano dortsal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ozeano dortsal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%87_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پشته میانی اقیانوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پشته میانی اقیانوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsale_(g%C3%A9ologie)" title="Dorsale (géologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dorsale (géologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromanna_aig%C3%A9anacha" title="Dromanna aigéanacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dromanna aigéanacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_oce%C3%A1nica" title="Dorsal oceánica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dorsal oceánica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EB%A0%B9" title="해령 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해령" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%AB%D5%B6%D6%85%D5%BE%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%B2%D5%A9%D5%A1" title="Միջինօվկիանոսային լեռնաշղթա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջինօվկիանոսային լեռնաշղթա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="मध्य-महासागर पर्वतमाला – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मध्य-महासागर पर्वतमाला" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjooceanski_hrbat" title="Srednjooceanski hrbat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srednjooceanski hrbat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punggungan_tengah_samudra" title="Punggungan tengah samudra – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Punggungan tengah samudra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsale_oceanica" title="Dorsale oceanica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dorsale oceanica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%A1_%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%96-%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="רכס מרכז-אוקייני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רכס מרכז-אוקייני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="შუაოკეანური ქედები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შუაოკეანური ქედები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mgongo_kati_wa_bahari" title="Mgongo kati wa bahari – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mgongo kati wa bahari" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidusoke%C4%81nisk%C4%81_gr%C4%93da" title="Vidusokeāniskā grēda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vidusokeāniskā grēda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenyno_vidurio_kalnag%C5%ABbris" title="Vandenyno vidurio kalnagūbris – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vandenyno vidurio kalnagūbris" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93ce%C3%A1ni_h%C3%A1ts%C3%A1g" title="Óceáni hátság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Óceáni hátság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Средноокеански гребен – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Средноокеански гребен" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C" title="സമുദ്രമധ്യവരമ്പ്‌ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സമുദ്രമധ്യവരമ്പ്‌" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabung_tengah_lautan" title="Rabung tengah lautan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rabung tengah lautan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-oceanische_rug" title="Mid-oceanische rug – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mid-oceanische rug" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%B6%BA" title="海嶺 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海嶺" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midthavsrygger" title="Midthavsrygger – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Midthavsrygger" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midthavsrygg" title="Midthavsrygg – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Midthavsrygg" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suv_osti_tizmalari" title="Suv osti tizmalari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Suv osti tizmalari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7-%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9F" title="ਮੱਧ-ਸਮੁੰਦਰੀ ਵੱਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੱਧ-ਸਮੁੰਦਰੀ ਵੱਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelozeaansch_R%C3%BCch" title="Middelozeaansch Rüch – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Middelozeaansch Rüch" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzbiet_%C5%9Br%C3%B3doceaniczny" title="Grzbiet śródoceaniczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Grzbiet śródoceaniczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_oce%C3%A2nica" title="Dorsal oceânica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dorsal oceânica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Срединно-океанический хребет – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Срединно-океанический хребет" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredooce%C3%A1nsky_chrb%C3%A1t" title="Stredooceánsky chrbát – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredooceánsky chrbát" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjeoceanski_hrbet" title="Srednjeoceanski hrbet – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Srednjeoceanski hrbet" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Средњоокеански гребен – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Средњоокеански гребен" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjeoceanski_hrbat" title="Srednjeoceanski hrbat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednjeoceanski hrbat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskisel%C3%A4nne" title="Keskiselänne – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskiselänne" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittoceanisk_rygg" title="Mittoceanisk rygg – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mittoceanisk rygg" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="நடுக்கடல் முகடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நடுக்கடல் முகடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3" title="เทือกเขากลางสมุทร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เทือกเขากลางสมุทร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okyanus_ortas%C4%B1_s%C4%B1rt%C4%B1" title="Okyanus ortası sırtı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Okyanus ortası sırtı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Серединно-океанічний хребет – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Серединно-океанічний хребет" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%91ng_n%C3%BAi_gi%E1%BB%AFa_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_d%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Sống núi giữa đại dương – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sống núi giữa đại dương" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%B4%8B%E8%84%8A" title="中洋脊 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中洋脊" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%B4%8B%E8%84%8A" title="中洋脊 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中洋脊" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%B4%8B%E8%84%8A" title="中洋脊 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中洋脊" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q104698#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Undersea_mountain_range" title="Undersea mountain range">Undersea mountain range</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mid-ocean_ridge_cut_away_view.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Mid-ocean_ridge_cut_away_view.png/440px-Mid-ocean_ridge_cut_away_view.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Mid-ocean_ridge_cut_away_view.png/660px-Mid-ocean_ridge_cut_away_view.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Mid-ocean_ridge_cut_away_view.png/880px-Mid-ocean_ridge_cut_away_view.png 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Mid-ocean ridge cross-section (cut-away view)</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>mid-ocean ridge</b> (<b>MOR</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Undersea_mountain_range" title="Undersea mountain range">seafloor mountain system</a> formed by <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. It typically has a depth of about 2,600 meters (8,500 ft) and rises about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) above the deepest portion of an <a href="/wiki/Ocean_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean basin">ocean basin</a>. This feature is where <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> takes place along a <a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">divergent plate boundary</a>. The rate of seafloor spreading determines the morphology of the crest of the mid-ocean ridge and its width in an ocean basin. </p><p>The production of new <a href="/wiki/Seafloor" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor">seafloor</a> and oceanic <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> results from <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> upwelling in response to plate separation. The melt rises as <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> at the linear weakness between the separating plates, and emerges as <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>, creating new <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> and lithosphere upon cooling. </p><p>The first discovered mid-ocean ridge was the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a>, which is a spreading center that bisects the North and South Atlantic basins; hence the origin of the name 'mid-ocean ridge'. Most oceanic spreading centers are not in the middle of their hosting ocean basis but regardless, are traditionally called mid-ocean ridges. Mid-ocean ridges around the globe are linked by plate tectonic boundaries and the trace of the ridges across the ocean floor appears similar to the seam of a <a href="/wiki/Baseball_(ball)" title="Baseball (ball)">baseball</a>. The mid-ocean ridge system thus is the longest mountain range on Earth, reaching about 65,000 km (40,000 mi). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_system">Global system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Global system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif/390px-World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif" decoding="async" width="390" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif/585px-World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif/780px-World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>World distribution of mid-oceanic ridges</figcaption></figure> <p>The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form <i>the</i> Ocean Ridge, a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>, making it the <a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#By_length" title="List of mountain ranges">longest</a> <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">mountain range</a> in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,400 mi) long (several times longer than the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, the longest continental mountain range), and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km (49,700 mi) long.<sup id="cite_ref-longest_mountain_range_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-longest_mountain_range-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:(Manuscript_painting_of_Heezen-Tharp_World_ocean_floor_map_by_Berann).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%28Manuscript_painting_of_Heezen-Tharp_World_ocean_floor_map_by_Berann%29.jpg/220px-%28Manuscript_painting_of_Heezen-Tharp_World_ocean_floor_map_by_Berann%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%28Manuscript_painting_of_Heezen-Tharp_World_ocean_floor_map_by_Berann%29.jpg/330px-%28Manuscript_painting_of_Heezen-Tharp_World_ocean_floor_map_by_Berann%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%28Manuscript_painting_of_Heezen-Tharp_World_ocean_floor_map_by_Berann%29.jpg/440px-%28Manuscript_painting_of_Heezen-Tharp_World_ocean_floor_map_by_Berann%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6047" data-file-height="3494" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Marie_Tharp" title="Marie Tharp">Marie Tharp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Heezen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruce Heezen">Bruce Heezen</a>, painted by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_C._Berann" title="Heinrich C. Berann">Heinrich C. Berann</a> (1977), showing the <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">relief</a> of the ocean floors with the system of mid-ocean ridges</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.gif" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="180" /></a><figcaption>A mid-ocean ridge, with magma rising from a chamber below, forming new <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere#Oceanic_lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">oceanic lithosphere</a> that spreads away from the ridge</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park,_Bl%C3%A1sk%C3%B3gabygg%C3%B0_(6969755432).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park%2C_Bl%C3%A1sk%C3%B3gabygg%C3%B0_%286969755432%29.jpg/170px-%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park%2C_Bl%C3%A1sk%C3%B3gabygg%C3%B0_%286969755432%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park%2C_Bl%C3%A1sk%C3%B3gabygg%C3%B0_%286969755432%29.jpg/255px-%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park%2C_Bl%C3%A1sk%C3%B3gabygg%C3%B0_%286969755432%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park%2C_Bl%C3%A1sk%C3%B3gabygg%C3%B0_%286969755432%29.jpg/340px-%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park%2C_Bl%C3%A1sk%C3%B3gabygg%C3%B0_%286969755432%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2884" data-file-height="3846" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rift_zone" title="Rift zone">Rift zone</a> in <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Eingvellir_National_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Þingvellir National Park">Þingvellir National Park</a>, Iceland. The island is a sub-aerial part of the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading#Seafloor_global_topography:_cooling_models" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading § Seafloor global topography: cooling models</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_depth_versus_age" title="Seafloor depth versus age">Seafloor depth versus age</a></div><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Spreading_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Spreading center">spreading center</a> on a mid-ocean ridge, the depth of the seafloor is approximately 2,600 meters (8,500 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the ridge flanks, the depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a base-level) is correlated with its age (age of the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> where depth is measured). The <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_depth_versus_age" title="Seafloor depth versus age">depth-age relation</a> can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate<sup id="cite_ref-Sclater-1971_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sclater-1971-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Parsons-1977_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parsons-1977-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading#Seafloor_global_topography:_cooling_models" title="Seafloor spreading">mantle half-space.</a><sup id="cite_ref-Davis-1974_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-1974-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A good approximation is that the depth of the seafloor at a location on a spreading mid-ocean ridge is proportional to the square root of the age of the seafloor.<sup id="cite_ref-Davis-1974_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-1974-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The overall shape of ridges results from <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Pratt" title="Wallace Pratt">Pratt</a> <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">isostasy</a>: close to the ridge axis, there is a hot, low-density mantle supporting the oceanic crust. As the oceanic plate cools, away from the ridge axis, the oceanic mantle <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> (the colder, denser part of the mantle that, together with the crust, comprises the oceanic plates) thickens, and the density increases. Thus older seafloor is underlain by denser material and is deeper.<sup id="cite_ref-Sclater-1971_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sclater-1971-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Parsons-1977_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parsons-1977-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Spreading rate</i> is the rate at which an ocean basin widens due to seafloor spreading. Rates can be computed by mapping marine magnetic anomalies that span mid-ocean ridges. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below <a href="/wiki/Curie_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Curie point">Curie points</a> of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's magnetic field are recorded in those oxides. The orientations of the field preserved in the oceanic crust comprise a record of directions of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> with time. Because the field has reversed directions at known intervals throughout its history, the pattern of <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_reversals" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetic reversals">geomagnetic reversals</a> in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age; given the crustal age and distance from the ridge axis, spreading rates can be calculated.<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spreading rates range from approximately 10–200 mm/yr.<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slow-spreading ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have spread much less far (showing a steeper profile) than faster ridges such as the <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a> (gentle profile) for the same amount of time and cooling and consequent bathymetric deepening.<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slow-spreading ridges (less than 40 mm/yr) generally have large <a href="/wiki/Rift_valley" title="Rift valley">rift valleys</a>, sometimes as wide as 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi), and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">relief</a> of up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-1982_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-1982-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, fast-spreading ridges (greater than 90 mm/yr) such as the East Pacific Rise lack rift valleys. The spreading rate of the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a> is ~ 25 mm/yr, while in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> region, it is 80–145 mm/yr.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest known rate is over 200 mm/yr in the <a href="/wiki/Miocene_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Miocene Era">Miocene</a> on the East Pacific Rise.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ridges that spread at rates <20 mm/yr are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges<sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dick-2003_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dick-2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Gakkel_Ridge" title="Gakkel Ridge">Gakkel Ridge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Indian_Ridge" title="Southwest Indian Ridge">Southwest Indian Ridge</a>). </p><p>The spreading center or axis commonly connects to a <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform fault</a> oriented at right angles to the axis. The flanks of mid-ocean ridges are in many places marked by the inactive scars of transform faults called <a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">fracture zones</a>. At faster spreading rates the axes often display <a href="/wiki/Overlapping_spreading_centers" title="Overlapping spreading centers">overlapping spreading centers</a> that lack connecting transform faults.<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The depth of the axis changes in a systematic way with shallower depths between offsets such as transform faults and overlapping spreading centers dividing the axis into segments. One hypothesis for different along-axis depths is variations in magma supply to the spreading center.<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultra-slow spreading ridges form both magmatic and amagmatic (currently lack volcanic activity) ridge segments without transform faults.<sup id="cite_ref-Dick-2003_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dick-2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanism">Volcanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Volcanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mid-ocean ridges exhibit active <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seismicity" title="Seismicity">seismicity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oceanic crust is in a constant state of 'renewal' at the mid-ocean ridges by the processes of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. New magma steadily emerges onto the ocean floor and intrudes into the existing <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">ocean crust</a> at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest along the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock#Decompression" title="Igneous rock">decompression melting</a> in the underlying <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Isentropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isentropic">isentropic</a> upwelling solid mantle material exceeds the <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidus (chemistry)">solidus</a> temperature and melts. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="MORB"></span>The crystallized magma forms a new crust of <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> known as <b>MORB</b> for mid-ocean ridge basalt, and <a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">gabbro</a> below it in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_oceanic_crust" title="Lower oceanic crust">lower oceanic crust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mid-ocean ridge basalt is a <a href="/wiki/Tholeiitic_basalt" class="mw-redirect" title="Tholeiitic basalt">tholeiitic basalt</a> and is low in <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_element" title="Incompatible element">incompatible elements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a> fueled by magmatic and volcanic heat are a common feature at oceanic spreading centers.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A feature of the elevated ridges is their relatively high heat flow values, of about 1–10 μcal/cm<sup>2</sup>s,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or roughly 0.04–0.4 W/m<sup>2</sup>. </p><p>Most crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is much younger than the 4.54 billion year <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">age of Earth</a>. This fact reflects the process of lithosphere recycling into the Earth's mantle during <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>. As the oceanic crust and lithosphere moves away from the ridge axis, the <a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">peridotite</a> in the underlying mantle lithosphere cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_lithosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic lithosphere">oceanic lithosphere</a>, which sits above the less rigid and viscous <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png/300px-Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png/450px-Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png/600px-Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>Age of oceanic crust. Red is most recent, and blue is the oldest.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Driving_mechanisms">Driving mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Driving mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic_spreading.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oceanic_spreading.svg/300px-Oceanic_spreading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oceanic_spreading.svg/450px-Oceanic_spreading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Oceanic_spreading.svg/600px-Oceanic_spreading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches.</figcaption></figure> <p>The oceanic lithosphere is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at ocean <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">trenches</a>. Two processes, <a href="/wiki/Ridge-push" class="mw-redirect" title="Ridge-push">ridge-push</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">slab pull</a>, are thought to be responsible for spreading at mid-ocean ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsyth-1975_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-1975-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ridge push refers to the gravitational sliding of the ocean plate that is raised above the hotter asthenosphere, thus creating a body force causing sliding of the plate downslope.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In slab pull the weight of a tectonic plate being subducted (pulled) below an overlying plate at a subduction zone drags the rest of the plate along behind it. The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsyth-1975_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-1975-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A process previously proposed to contribute to plate motion and the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" due to deep <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">convection</a> (see image).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some studies have shown that the <a href="/wiki/Upper_mantle_(Earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper mantle (Earth)">upper mantle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a>) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> to pull the tectonic plate along.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper 400 km (250 mi), as deduced from <a href="/wiki/Seismic_tomography" title="Seismic tomography">seismic tomography</a> and observations of the seismic discontinuity in the upper mantle at about 400 km (250 mi). On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the <a href="/wiki/North_American_plate" title="North American plate">North American plate</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_American_plate" title="South American plate">South American plate</a> are in motion, yet only are being subducted in restricted locations such as the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles Arc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scotia_Arc" title="Scotia Arc">Scotia Arc</a>, pointing to action by the ridge push body force on these plates. Computer modeling of the plates and mantle motions suggest that plate motion and mantle convection are not connected, and the main plate driving force is slab pull.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_global_sea_level">Impact on global sea level</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Impact on global sea level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increased rates of <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> (i.e. the rate of expansion of the mid-ocean ridge) have caused the global (<a href="/wiki/Eustatic_sea_level" title="Eustatic sea level">eustatic</a>) sea level to rise over very long timescales (millions of years).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased seafloor spreading means that the mid-ocean ridge will then expand and form a broader ridge with decreased average depth, taking up more space in the ocean basin. This displaces the overlying ocean and causes sea levels to rise.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller-2009_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-2009-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sealevel change</a> can be attributed to other factors (<a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a>, ice melting, and <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">mantle convection</a> creating <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_topography" title="Dynamic topography">dynamic topography</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Over very long timescales, however, it is the result of changes in the volume of the ocean basins which are, in turn, affected by rates of seafloor spreading along the mid-ocean ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 100 to 170 meters higher sea level of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous Period</a> (144–65 Ma) is partly attributed to plate tectonics because thermal expansion and the absence of ice sheets only account for some of the extra sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller-2009_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-2009-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_seawater_chemistry_and_carbonate_deposition">Impact on seawater chemistry and carbonate deposition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Impact on seawater chemistry and carbonate deposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MgCaRatioChanges.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MgCaRatioChanges.jpg/280px-MgCaRatioChanges.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MgCaRatioChanges.jpg/420px-MgCaRatioChanges.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MgCaRatioChanges.jpg/560px-MgCaRatioChanges.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Magnesium/calcium ratio changes at mid-ocean ridges</figcaption></figure> <p>Seafloor spreading on mid-ocean ridges is a global scale <a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">ion-exchange</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-1999_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-1999-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hydrothermal vents at spreading centers introduce various amounts of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, and other elements into the ocean, some of which are recycled into the ocean crust. <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a>, an isotope that accompanies volcanism from the mantle, is emitted by hydrothermal vents and can be detected in plumes within the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fast spreading rates will expand the mid-ocean ridge causing basalt reactions with seawater to happen more rapidly. The magnesium/calcium ratio will be lower because more magnesium ions are being removed from seawater and consumed by the rock, and more calcium ions are being removed from the rock and released into seawater. Hydrothermal activity at the ridge crest is efficient in removing magnesium.<sup id="cite_ref-Coggon-2010_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coggon-2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A lower Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of low-Mg <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calcite_sea" title="Calcite sea">calcite seas</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hardie-1999_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardie-1999-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slow spreading at mid-ocean ridges has the opposite effect and will result in a higher Mg/Ca ratio favoring the precipitation of <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> and high-Mg calcite polymorphs of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aragonite_sea" title="Aragonite sea">aragonite seas</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Hardie-1999_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardie-1999-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experiments show that most modern high-Mg calcite organisms would have been low-Mg calcite in past calcite seas,<sup id="cite_ref-Ries-2004_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ries-2004-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that the Mg/Ca ratio in an organism's skeleton varies with the Mg/Ca ratio of the seawater in which it was grown. </p><p>The mineralogy of reef-building and sediment-producing organisms is thus regulated by chemical reactions occurring along the mid-ocean ridge, the rate of which is controlled by the rate of sea-floor spreading.<sup id="cite_ref-Coggon-2010_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coggon-2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ries-2004_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ries-2004-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery">Discovery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics#Development_of_the_theory" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics § Development of the theory</a></div> <p>The first indications that a ridge bisects the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> basin came from the results of the British <a href="/wiki/Challenger_expedition" title="Challenger expedition">Challenger expedition</a> in the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soundings from lines dropped to the seafloor were analyzed by oceanographers <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wyville_Thomson" title="Charles Wyville Thomson">Charles Wyville Thomson</a> and revealed a prominent rise in the seafloor that ran down the Atlantic basin from north to south. <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <a href="/wiki/Echo_sounding" title="Echo sounding">echo sounders</a> confirmed this in the early twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was not until after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, when the ocean floor was surveyed in more detail, that the full extent of mid-ocean ridges became known. The <i><a href="/wiki/Research_Vessel_Vema" class="mw-redirect" title="Research Vessel Vema">Vema</a></i>, a ship of the <a href="/wiki/Lamont%E2%80%93Doherty_Earth_Observatory" title="Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory">Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, traversed the Atlantic Ocean, recording echo sounder data on the depth of the ocean floor. A team led by <a href="/wiki/Marie_Tharp" title="Marie Tharp">Marie Tharp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_C._Heezen" title="Bruce C. Heezen">Bruce Heezen</a> concluded that there was an enormous mountain chain with a rift valley at its crest, running up the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. Scientists named it the 'Mid-Atlantic Ridge'. Other research showed that the ridge crest was seismically active<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and fresh lavas were found in the rift valley.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, crustal heat flow was higher here than elsewhere in the Atlantic Ocean basin.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, the ridge was thought to be a feature specific to the Atlantic Ocean. However, as surveys of the ocean floor continued around the world, it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of the mid-ocean ridge system. The <a href="/wiki/German_Meteor_expedition" title="German Meteor expedition">German Meteor expedition</a> traced the mid-ocean ridge from the <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="South Atlantic">South Atlantic</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> early in the twentieth century. Although the first-discovered section of the ridge system runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, it was found that most mid-ocean ridges are located away from the center of other ocean basins.<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_discovery:_seafloor_spreading">Impact of discovery: seafloor spreading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact of discovery: seafloor spreading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> proposed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a> in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot <a href="/wiki/Sima_(geology)" title="Sima (geology)">sima</a> [rising] from depth".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> could plow through ocean <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>, and the theory became largely forgotten. </p><p>Following the discovery of the worldwide extent of the mid-ocean ridge in the 1950s, geologists faced a new task: explaining how such an enormous geological structure could have formed. In the 1960s, geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a>. The discovery of mid-ocean ridges and the process of seafloor spreading allowed for <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Wegener's</a> theory to be expanded so that it included the movement of oceanic crust as well as the continents.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for seafloor spreading, and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of geologists resulted in a major <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> in geological thinking. </p><p>It is estimated that along Earth's mid-ocean ridges every year 2.7 km<sup>2</sup> (1.0 sq mi) of new seafloor is formed by this process.<sup id="cite_ref-Cogné-2006_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cogné-2006-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a crustal thickness of 7 km (4.3 mi), this amounts to about 19 km<sup>3</sup> (4.6 cu mi) of new ocean crust formed every year.<sup id="cite_ref-Cogné-2006_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cogné-2006-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 210.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 208.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry"><img alt="Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg/313px-Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="209" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg/469px-Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg/625px-Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2198" data-file-height="1266" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 178px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 176px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plates_tect2_en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory"><img alt="Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/264px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="176" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/396px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/528px-Plates_tect2_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4167" data-file-height="2844" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> theory</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 172px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seafloor magnetic striping"><img alt="Seafloor magnetic striping" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/255px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/382px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/509px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seafloor <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_striping" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic striping">magnetic striping</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Polarityshift.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="A demonstration of magnetic striping"><img alt="A demonstration of magnetic striping" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Polarityshift.gif" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="192" data-file-height="144" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A demonstration of magnetic striping</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_mid-ocean_ridges">List of mid-ocean ridges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: List of mid-ocean ridges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Oceanic_ridges" title="Category:Oceanic ridges">Oceanic ridges</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Ridge" title="Aden Ridge">Aden Ridge</a> – Rift portion in Gulf of Aden</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocos Ridge">Cocos Ridge</a> – Pacific volcanic hotspot<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_Ridge" title="Explorer Ridge">Explorer Ridge</a> – Mid-ocean ridge west of British Columbia, Canada</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands#Geology" title="Galápagos Islands">Galapagos Spreading Center</a> – an east–west trending mid-ocean ridge east of the eponymous islands between the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_plate" title="Nazca plate">Nazca</a> and Cocos plates</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorda_Ridge" title="Gorda Ridge">Gorda Ridge</a> – Tectonic spreading center off the northern coast of California and southern Oregon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge" title="Juan de Fuca Ridge">Juan de Fuca Ridge</a> – Divergent plate boundary off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American%E2%80%93Antarctic_Ridge" title="South American–Antarctic Ridge">South American–Antarctic Ridge</a> – Mid-ocean ridge in the South Atlantic between the South American plate and the Antarctic plate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile_Rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Chile Rise">Chile Rise</a> – Submarine oceanic ridge in the Pacific Ocean<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a> – Mid-oceanic ridge at a divergent tectonic plate boundary on the floor of the Pacific Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gakkel_Ridge" title="Gakkel Ridge">Gakkel Ridge</a> – Mid-oceanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean between the North American and Eurasian plates(Mid-Arctic Ridge)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific-Antarctic_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific-Antarctic Ridge">Pacific-Antarctic Ridge</a> – Tectonic plate boundary in the South Pacific Ocean<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indian_Ridge" title="Central Indian Ridge">Central Indian Ridge</a> – A north-south-trending mid-ocean ridge in the western Indian Ocean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carlsberg_Ridge" title="Carlsberg Ridge">Carlsberg Ridge</a> – Tectonic plate ridge</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Indian_Ridge" title="Southeast Indian Ridge">Southeast Indian Ridge</a> – Mid-ocean ridge in the southern Indian Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Indian_Ridge" title="Southwest Indian Ridge">Southwest Indian Ridge</a> – A mid-ocean ridge on the bed of the south-west Indian Ocean and south-east Atlantic Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolbeinsey_Ridge" title="Kolbeinsey Ridge">Kolbeinsey Ridge</a> – Segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of Iceland in the Arctic Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohns_Ridge" title="Mohns Ridge">Mohns Ridge</a> – Geographical region in the Atlantic basin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Mikhailovich_Knipovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Mikhailovich Knipovich">Knipovich</a> – Russian zoologist<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span> Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjanes_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Reykjanes Ridge">Reykjanes Ridge</a> – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span> (south of Iceland)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_ancient_oceanic_ridges">List of ancient oceanic ridges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: List of ancient oceanic ridges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegir_Ridge" title="Aegir Ridge">Aegir Ridge</a> – Extinct mid-ocean ridge in the far-northern Atlantic Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Ridge" title="Alpha Ridge">Alpha Ridge</a> – Major volcanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kula-Farallon_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Kula-Farallon Ridge">Kula-Farallon Ridge</a> – Ancient mid-ocean ridge<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Labrador_Ridge" title="Mid-Labrador Ridge">Mid-Labrador Ridge</a> – Mid-ocean ridge in the Labrador Sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific-Farallon_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific-Farallon Ridge">Pacific-Farallon Ridge</a> – Spreading ridge during the Late Cretaceous<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific-Kula_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific-Kula Ridge">Pacific-Kula Ridge</a> – Former mid-ocean ridge<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenix Ridge">Phoenix Ridge</a> – Ancient mid-ocean ridge between the Phoenix and Pacific plates<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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data-file-height="328" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afar_Triangle" title="Afar Triangle">Afar Triangle</a> – Geological depression caused by the Afar triple junction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iceland" title="Geography of Iceland">Geography of Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landforms#Coastal_and_oceanic_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of landforms">List of oceanic landforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrological_Database_of_the_Ocean_Floor" title="Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor">Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_FAMOUS" title="Project FAMOUS">Project FAMOUS</a> – first crewed submersible study of the rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RISE_project_(oceanography)" class="mw-redirect" title="RISE project (oceanography)">RISE project</a> – discovery of black smokers hydrothermal systems on the East Pacific Rise</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a> – Type of gap in a subducted oceanic plate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a> – Underwater vents or fissures in the Earth's surface from which magma can erupt</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine-Matthews-Morely</a> hypothesis; explains relation of marine magnetic anomalies to seafloor spreading.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-longest_mountain_range-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-longest_mountain_range_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/midoceanridge.html">"What is the longest mountain range on earth?"</a>. <i>Ocean Facts</i>. NOAA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ocean+Facts&rft.atitle=What+is+the+longest+mountain+range+on+earth%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foceanservice.noaa.gov%2Ffacts%2Fmidoceanridge.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMid-ocean+ridge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macdonald-2019-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macdonald-2019_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald2019" class="citation cs2">Macdonald, Ken C. (2019), "Mid-Ocean Ridge Tectonics, Volcanism, and Geomorphology", <i>Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences</i>, Elsevier, pp. 405–419, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6">10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128130827" title="Special:BookSources/9780128130827"><bdi>9780128130827</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264225475">264225475</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mid-Ocean+Ridge+Tectonics%2C+Volcanism%2C+and+Geomorphology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ocean+Sciences&rft.pages=405-419&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264225475%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6&rft.isbn=9780128130827&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Ken+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMid-ocean+ridge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Searle-2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle-2013_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSearle2013" class="citation book cs1">Searle, Roger (2013-09-19). <i>Mid-ocean ridges</i>. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107017528" title="Special:BookSources/9781107017528"><bdi>9781107017528</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/842323181">842323181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mid-ocean+ridges&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=2013-09-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F842323181&rft.isbn=9781107017528&rft.aulast=Searle&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMid-ocean+ridge" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sclater-1971-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sclater-1971_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sclater-1971_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSclaterAndersonBell1971" class="citation journal cs1">Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>76</b> (32): 7888–7915. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971JGR....76.7888S">1971JGR....76.7888S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2Fjb076i032p07888">10.1029/jb076i032p07888</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2156-2202">2156-2202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Elevation+of+ridges+and+evolution+of+the+central+eastern+Pacific&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=7888-7915&rft.date=1971-11-10&rft.issn=2156-2202&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2Fjb076i032p07888&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971JGR....76.7888S&rft.aulast=Sclater&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Roger+N.&rft.au=Bell%2C+M.+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMid-ocean+ridge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parsons-1977-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parsons-1977_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parsons-1977_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsonsSclater1977" class="citation journal cs1">Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>82</b> (5): 803–827. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JGR....82..803P">1977JGR....82..803P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2Fjb082i005p00803">10.1029/jb082i005p00803</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2156-2202">2156-2202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=An+analysis+of+the+variation+of+ocean+floor+bathymetry+and+heat+flow+with+age&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=803-827&rft.date=1977-02-10&rft.issn=2156-2202&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2Fjb082i005p00803&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977JGR....82..803P&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=Sclater%2C+John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMid-ocean+ridge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis-1974-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davis-1974_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davis-1974_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisLister1974" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). 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global seafloor generation rate: SEAFLOOR GENERATION RATE"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</i>. <b>7</b> (3): n/a. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2005GC001148">10.1029/2005GC001148</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128900649">128900649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochemistry%2C+Geophysics%2C+Geosystems&rft.atitle=Trends+and+rhythms+in+global+seafloor+generation+rate%3A+SEAFLOOR+GENERATION+RATE&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=n%2Fa&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2005GC001148&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128900649%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cogn%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pascal&rft.au=Humler%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00149322%2Ffile%2FCogn-_et_al-2006-Geochemistry%252C_Geophysics%252C_Geosystems.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMid-ocean+ridge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indian_Ridge" title="Central Indian Ridge">Central Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile_Ridge" title="Chile Ridge">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_Ridge" title="Explorer Ridge">Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gakkel_Ridge" title="Gakkel Ridge">Gakkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorda_Ridge" title="Gorda Ridge">Gorda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge" title="Juan de Fuca Ridge">Juan de Fuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific-Antarctic_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific-Antarctic Ridge">Pacific-Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American%E2%80%93Antarctic_Ridge" title="South American–Antarctic Ridge">South American-Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Indian_Ridge" title="Southeast Indian Ridge">Southeast Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Indian_Ridge" title="Southwest Indian Ridge">Southwest Indian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif/120px-World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif/180px-World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif 1.5x, 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class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific-Farallon Ridge">Pacific-Farallon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific-Kula_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific-Kula Ridge">Pacific-Kula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth&#039;s_landforms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earth%27s_landforms" title="Template:Earth's landforms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earth%27s_landforms" title="Template talk:Earth's landforms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earth%27s_landforms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earth's landforms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth&#039;s_landforms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms" title="Glossary of landforms">List of landforms</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mountainous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butte" title="Butte">Butte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_(landform)" title="Flat (landform)">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill" title="Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">Mountain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">range</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge" title="Ridge">Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tableland" title="Tableland">Tableland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continental plain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">Ice sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial_sediment_processes" title="Fluvial sediment processes">Fluvial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">Alluvial fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">Cliff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">Floodplain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">Lake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_island" title="Lake island">island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">Meander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">Oasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapids" title="Rapids">Rapids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">River</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">mouth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">Swamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">Waterfall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glacial_landform" title="Glacial landform">Glacial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte" title="Arête">Arête</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirque" title="Cirque">Cirque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esker" title="Esker">Esker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">Glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_field" title="Ice field">Ice field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_valley" title="Tunnel valley">Tunnel valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Oceanic and<br /> coastal landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_(geography)" title="Cape (geography)">Cape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">Isthmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">Volcanic island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Volcanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">Caldera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">Geyser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">Lava dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_field" title="Lava field">Lava field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_crater" title="Volcanic crater">Volcanic crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_crater_lake" title="Volcanic crater lake">Volcanic crater lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_dam" title="Volcanic dam">Volcanic dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">Volcanic island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_plateau" title="Volcanic plateau">Volcanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_plug" title="Volcanic plug">Volcanic plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_rock" title="Wall rock">Wall rock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Aeolian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_lake" title="Dry lake">Dry lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Dune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandhill" title="Sandhill">Sandhill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artificial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_island" title="Artificial island">Artificial island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_reef" title="Artificial reef">Artificial reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch" title="Ditch">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder" title="Polder">Polder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geographical_feature" title="Geographical feature">Geographical feature</a></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" 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