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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cell_repair_machines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_repair_machines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Cell repair machines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_repair_machines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanomedicine</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88" title="طب النانو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طب النانو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedizin" title="Nanomedizin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nanomedizin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomeditsiin" title="Nanomeditsiin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nanomeditsiin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8A%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Νανοϊατρική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νανοϊατρική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedikuntza" title="Nanomedikuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nanomedikuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="نانوپزشکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نانوپزشکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanom%C3%A9decine" title="Nanomédecine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nanomédecine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EB%85%B8%EC%9D%98%ED%95%99" title="나노의학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="나노의학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="नैनो-औषधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नैनो-औषधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicino" title="Nanomedicino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nanomedicino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_kedokteran_nano" title="Ilmu kedokteran nano – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu kedokteran nano" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A0%D7%95-%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94" title="ננו-רפואה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ננו-רפואה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedisina" title="Nanomedisina – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Nanomedisina" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ნანომედიცინა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნანომედიცინა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedic%C4%ABna" title="Nanomedicīna – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nanomedicīna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB" title="നാനോമെഡിസിൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നാനോമെഡിസിൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8A%E3%83%8E%E3%83%A1%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3%E3%82%B7%E3%83%B3" title="ナノメディシン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ナノメディシン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Наномедицина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Наномедицина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicina" title="Nanomedicina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nanomedicina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanol%C3%A4%C3%A4ketiede" title="Nanolääketiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nanolääketiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99" title="การแพทย์นาโน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การแพทย์นาโน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Наномедицина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Наномедицина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%81_%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="قزمہ طب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قزمہ طب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedisina" title="Nanomedisina – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Nanomedisina" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E7%B1%B3%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="纳米医学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="纳米医学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical application of nanotechnology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Nanotherapeutics" redirects here. 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Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. <small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Nanomedicine%22">"Nanomedicine"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Nanomedicine%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Nanomedicine%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Nanomedicine%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Nanomedicine%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20em;border: 1px solid #777777"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color: #ededeb;">Part of a series of articles on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color: #ededeb;"><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">Impact of<br />nanotechnology</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nanotechnology_implications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nanotechnology implications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nanomedicine</b> is the medical application of <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanomed1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanomed1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a> and <a href="/wiki/BioBrick" title="BioBrick">biological devices</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">nanoelectronic</a> biosensors, and even possible future applications of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">molecular nanotechnology</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Biological_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological machine">biological machines</a>. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to <a href="/wiki/Nanotoxicology" title="Nanotoxicology">toxicity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Implications_of_nanotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Implications of nanotechnology">environmental impact</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanoscale materials</a> (materials whose structure is on the scale of nanometers, i.e. billionths of a <a href="/wiki/Meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Meter">meter</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them with biological molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can be useful for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the integration of nanomaterials with biology has led to the development of diagnostic devices, contrast agents, analytical tools, physical therapy applications, and drug delivery vehicles. </p><p>Nanomedicine seeks to deliver a valuable set of research tools and clinically useful devices in the near future.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Nanotechnology_Initiative" title="National Nanotechnology Initiative">National Nanotechnology Initiative</a> expects new commercial applications in the <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a> that may include advanced drug delivery systems, new therapies, and <a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a> imaging.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nanomedicine research is receiving funding from the US <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health_Common_Fund" title="National Institutes of Health Common Fund">National Institutes of Health Common Fund</a> program, supporting four nanomedicine development centers.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nanomedicine sales reached $16 billion in 2015, with a minimum of $3.8 billion in nanotechnology R&D being invested every year. Global funding for emerging nanotechnology increased by 45% per year in recent years, with product sales exceeding $1 trillion in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-nsf_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the nanomedicine industry continues to grow, it is expected to have a significant impact on the economy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drug_delivery">Drug delivery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Drug delivery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanoparticles_biomolecule_interaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Nanoparticles_biomolecule_interaction.svg/220px-Nanoparticles_biomolecule_interaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Nanoparticles_biomolecule_interaction.svg/330px-Nanoparticles_biomolecule_interaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Nanoparticles_biomolecule_interaction.svg/440px-Nanoparticles_biomolecule_interaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Liposome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Liposome.jpg/220px-Liposome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Liposome.jpg/330px-Liposome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Liposome.jpg/440px-Liposome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="820" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Graphs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Graphs.jpg/220px-Graphs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Graphs.jpg/330px-Graphs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Graphs.jpg/440px-Graphs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3635" data-file-height="1901" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">Nanoparticles</a> <i>(top)</i>, <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposomes</a> <i>(middle)</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Dendrimer" title="Dendrimer">dendrimers</a> <i>(bottom)</i> are some <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a> being investigated for use in nanomedicine.</div></div></div></div><p> Nanotechnology has provided the possibility of delivering drugs to specific cells using nanoparticles.<sup id="cite_ref-ijn2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ijn2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The overall drug consumption and side-effects may be lowered significantly by depositing the <a href="/wiki/Active_pharmaceutical_ingredient" class="mw-redirect" title="Active pharmaceutical ingredient">active pharmaceutical agent</a> in the morbid region only and in no higher dose than needed. Targeted drug delivery is intended to reduce the side effects of drugs with concomitant decreases in consumption and treatment expenses. Additionally, targeted drug delivery reduces the side effects of crude drugs by minimizing undesired exposure to healthy cells. <a href="/wiki/Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">Drug delivery</a> focuses on maximizing <a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability">bioavailability</a> both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A benefit of using nanoscale for medical technologies is that smaller devices are less invasive and can possibly be implanted inside the body, plus biochemical reaction times are much shorter. These devices are faster and more sensitive than typical drug delivery.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The efficacy of drug delivery through nanomedicine is largely based upon: a) efficient encapsulation of the drugs, b) successful delivery of drug to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful release of the drug.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several nano-delivery drugs were on the market by 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drug delivery systems, lipid-<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or polymer-based nanoparticles, can be designed to improve the <a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">pharmacokinetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodistribution" title="Biodistribution">biodistribution</a> of the drug.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nanomedicine is highly variable among different patients.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When designed to avoid the body's defence mechanisms,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nanoparticles have beneficial properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Complex drug delivery mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes and into cell <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drug delivery systems may also be able to prevent tissue damage through regulated drug release; reduce drug clearance rates; or lower the volume of distribution and reduce the effect on non-target tissue. However, the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is still imperfect due to the complex host's reactions to nano- and microsized materials<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the difficulty in targeting specific organs in the body. Nevertheless, a lot of work is still ongoing to optimize and better understand the potential and limitations of nanoparticulate systems. While advancement of research proves that targeting and distribution can be augmented by nanoparticles, the dangers of nanotoxicity become an important next step in further understanding of their medical uses.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The toxicity of nanoparticles varies, depending on size, shape, and material. These factors also affect the build-up and organ damage that may occur. Nanoparticles are made to be long-lasting, but this causes them to be trapped within organs, specifically the liver and spleen, as they cannot be broken down or excreted. This build-up of non-biodegradable material has been observed to cause organ damage and inflammation in mice.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magnetic targeted delivery of <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide_nanoparticle" title="Iron oxide nanoparticle">magnetic nanoparticles</a> to the tumor site under the influence of inhomogeneous stationary <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic fields">magnetic fields</a> may lead to enhanced tumor growth. In order to circumvent the pro-tumorigenic effects, alternating <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic fields">electromagnetic fields</a> should be used.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nanoparticles are under research for their potential to decrease <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> or for various antimicrobial uses.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nanoparticles might also be used to circumvent <a href="/wiki/Multidrug_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Multidrug resistance">multidrug resistance</a> (MDR) mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-ijn2012_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ijn2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_under_research">Systems under research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Systems under research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advances in lipid nanotechnology were instrumental in engineering medical nanodevices and novel drug delivery systems, as well as in developing sensing applications.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another system for <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a> delivery under preliminary research is <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a> formed by the self-assembly of two different microRNAs deregulated in cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One potential application is based on small electromechanical systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectromechanical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoelectromechanical system">nanoelectromechanical systems</a> being investigated for the active release of drugs and sensors for possible cancer treatment with iron nanoparticles or gold shells.<sup id="cite_ref-pubs.rsc.org_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pubs.rsc.org-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another system of drug delivery involving nanoparticles is the use of <a href="/wiki/Aquasome" title="Aquasome">aquasomes</a>, self-assembled nanoparticles with a <a href="/wiki/Nanocrystalline_material" title="Nanocrystalline material">nanocrystalline</a> center, a coating made of a polyhydroxyl <a href="/wiki/Oligomer" title="Oligomer">oligomer</a>, covered in the desired drug, which protects it from <a href="/wiki/Dehydration_reaction" title="Dehydration reaction">dehydration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conformational_change" title="Conformational change">conformational change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some nanotechnology-based drugs that are commercially available or in human clinical trials include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraxane" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraxane">Abraxane</a>, approved by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) to treat <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Non-small-cell_lung_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-small-cell lung carcinoma">non-small- cell lung cancer</a> (NSCLC)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer" title="Pancreatic cancer">pancreatic cancer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the nanoparticle albumin bound paclitaxel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxil" class="mw-redirect" title="Doxil">Doxil</a> was originally approved by the FDA for the use on HIV-related <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma" title="Kaposi's sarcoma">Kaposi's sarcoma</a>. It is now being used to also treat ovarian cancer and multiple myeloma. The drug is encased in <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposomes</a>, which helps to extend the life of the drug that is being distributed. Liposomes are self-assembling, spherical, closed colloidal structures that are composed of lipid bilayers that surround an aqueous space. The liposomes also help to increase the functionality and it helps to decrease the damage that the drug does to the heart muscles specifically.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Onivyde, liposome encapsulated <a href="/wiki/Irinotecan" title="Irinotecan">irinotecan</a> to treat metastatic pancreatic cancer, was approved by FDA in October 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapamune" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapamune">Rapamune</a> is a nanocrystal-based drug that was approved by the FDA in 2000 to prevent organ rejection after transplantation. The nanocrystal components allow for increased drug solubility and dissolution rate, leading to improved absorption and high bioavailability.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabenuva" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabenuva">Cabenuva</a> is approved by FDA as <a href="/wiki/Cabotegravir" title="Cabotegravir">cabotegravir</a> extended-release injectable nano-suspension, plus <a href="/wiki/Rilpivirine" title="Rilpivirine">rilpivirine</a> extended-release injectable nano-suspension. It is indicated as a complete regimen for the treatment of HIV-1 infection in adults to replace the current antiretroviral regimen in those who are virologically suppressed (HIV-1 RNA less than 50 copies per mL) on a stable antiretroviral regimen with no history of treatment failure and with no known or suspected resistance to either <a href="/wiki/Cabotegravir" title="Cabotegravir">cabotegravir</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rilpivirine" title="Rilpivirine">rilpivirine</a>. This is the first FDA-approved injectable, complete regimen for HIV-1 infected adults that is administered once a month.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imaging">Imaging</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>In vivo</i> imaging is another area where tools and devices are being developed.<sup id="cite_ref-stendahl_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stendahl-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using nanoparticle <a href="/wiki/Contrast_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrast agents">contrast agents</a>, images such as ultrasound and MRI have a favorable distribution and improved contrast. In cardiovascular imaging, nanoparticles have potential to aid visualization of blood pooling, ischemia, <a href="/wiki/Angiogenesis" title="Angiogenesis">angiogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, and focal areas where inflammation is present.<sup id="cite_ref-stendahl_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stendahl-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The small size of nanoparticles endows them with properties that can be very useful in <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">oncology</a>, particularly in imaging.<sup id="cite_ref-ijn2012_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ijn2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quantum dots (nanoparticles with quantum confinement properties, such as size-tunable light emission), when used in conjunction with MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), can produce exceptional images of tumor sites. <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">Nanoparticles</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_selenide" title="Cadmium selenide">cadmium selenide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Quantum_dots" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum dots">quantum dots</a>) glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. When injected, they seep into cancer <a href="/wiki/Tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumors">tumors</a>. The surgeon can see the glowing tumor, and use it as a guide for more accurate tumor removal. These nanoparticles are much brighter than organic dyes and only need one light source for excitation. This means that the use of fluorescent quantum dots could produce a higher contrast image and at a lower cost than today's organic dyes used as <a href="/wiki/Contrast_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrast media">contrast media</a>. The downside, however, is that quantum dots are usually made of quite toxic elements, but this concern may be addressed by use of fluorescent dopants.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tracking movement can help determine how well drugs are being distributed or how substances are metabolized. It is difficult to track a small group of cells throughout the body, so scientists used to dye the cells. These dyes needed to be excited by light of a certain wavelength in order for them to light up. While different color dyes absorb different frequencies of light, there was a need for as many light sources as cells. A way around this problem is with luminescent tags. These tags are <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dots" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum dots">quantum dots</a> attached to proteins that penetrate cell membranes.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dots can be random in size, can be made of bio-inert material, and they demonstrate the nanoscale property that color is size-dependent. As a result, sizes are selected so that the frequency of light used to make a group of quantum dots fluoresce is an even multiple of the frequency required to make another group incandesce. Then both groups can be lit with a single light source. They have also found a way to insert <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid24085009_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24085009-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> into the affected parts of the body so that those parts of the body will glow showing the tumor growth or shrinkage or also organ trouble.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sensing">Sensing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sensing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanosensor" title="Nanosensor">Nanosensor</a></div><p>Nanotechnology-on-a-chip is one more dimension of <a href="/wiki/Lab-on-a-chip" title="Lab-on-a-chip">lab-on-a-chip</a> technology. Magnetic nanoparticles, bound to a suitable antibody, are used to label specific molecules, structures or microorganisms. Silica nanoparticles, in particular, are inert from a photophysical perspective and can accumulate a large number of dye(s) within their shells.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanoparticles_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanoparticles-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gold nanoparticles tagged with short <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> segments can be used to detect genetic sequences in a sample. Multicolor optical coding for biological assays has been achieved by embedding different-sized <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">quantum dots</a> into polymeric <a href="/wiki/Microbead" title="Microbead">microbeads</a>. Nanopore technology for analysis of nucleic acids converts strings of nucleotides directly into electronic signatures.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and diagnosis of cancer in the early stages from a few drops of a patient's blood.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a> is helping to advance the use of <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">arthroscopes</a>, which are pencil-sized devices that are used in surgeries with lights and cameras so surgeons can do the surgeries with smaller incisions. The smaller the incisions the faster the healing time which is better for the patients. It is also helping to find a way to make an arthroscope smaller than a strand of hair.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research on <a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">nanoelectronics</a>-based cancer diagnostics could lead to tests that can be done in <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacies</a>. The results promise to be highly accurate and the product promises to be inexpensive. They could take a very small amount of blood and detect cancer anywhere in the body in about five minutes, with a sensitivity that is a thousand times better a conventional laboratory test. These devices are built with <a href="/wiki/Nanowire" title="Nanowire">nanowires</a> to detect cancer proteins; each nanowire detector is primed to be sensitive to a different cancer marker.<sup id="cite_ref-pubs.rsc.org_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pubs.rsc.org-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biggest advantage of the nanowire detectors is that they could test for anywhere from ten to one hundred similar medical conditions without adding cost to the testing device.<sup id="cite_ref-dstorectest_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dstorectest-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nanotechnology has also helped to personalize oncology for the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. It is now able to be tailored to each individual's tumor for better performance. They have found ways that they will be able to target a specific part of the body that is being affected by cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sepsis_treatment">Sepsis treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sepsis treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to dialysis, which works on the principle of the size related <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> of solutes and <a href="/wiki/Ultrafiltration" title="Ultrafiltration">ultrafiltration</a> of fluid across a <a href="/wiki/Semi-permeable_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-permeable membrane">semi-permeable membrane</a>, the purification with nanoparticles allows specific targeting of substances.<sup id="cite_ref-Kang(2014)_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kang(2014)-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, larger compounds which are commonly not dialyzable can be removed.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The purification process is based on functionalized iron oxide or carbon coated metal nanoparticles with <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferromagnetic">ferromagnetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Superparamagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Superparamagnetic">superparamagnetic</a> properties.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binding agents such as <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kang(2014)_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kang(2014)-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Herrmann(2013)2_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrmann(2013)2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or synthetic <a href="/wiki/Ligands" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligands">ligands</a><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are <a href="/wiki/Covalently" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalently">covalently</a> linked to the particle surface. These binding agents are able to interact with target species forming an agglomerate. Applying an external <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> gradient allows exerting a force on the nanoparticles. Hence the particles can be separated from the bulk fluid, thereby cleaning it from the contaminants.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The small size (< 100 nm) and large surface area of functionalized nanomagnets leads to advantageous properties compared to <a href="/wiki/Hemoperfusion" title="Hemoperfusion">hemoperfusion</a>, which is a clinically used technique for the purification of blood and is based on surface <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a>. These advantages are high loading and accessible for binding agents, high selectivity towards the target compound, fast diffusion, small hydrodynamic resistance, and low dosage.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19839814_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19839814-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tissue_engineering">Tissue engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tissue engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nanotechnology may be used as part of <a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">tissue engineering</a> to help reproduce or repair or reshape damaged tissue using suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds and growth factors. Tissue engineering if successful may replace conventional treatments like organ transplants or artificial implants. Nanoparticles such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are being used as reinforcing agents to fabricate mechanically strong biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for bone tissue engineering applications. The addition of these nanoparticles in the polymer matrix at low concentrations (~0.2 weight %) leads to significant improvements in the compressive and flexural mechanical properties of polymeric nanocomposites.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potentially, these nanocomposites may be used as a novel, mechanically strong, light weight composite as bone implants.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For example, a flesh welder was demonstrated to fuse two pieces of chicken meat into a single piece using a suspension of gold-coated <a href="/wiki/Nanoshells" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoshells">nanoshells</a> activated by an infrared laser. This could be used to weld arteries during surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is <a href="/wiki/Nanonephrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanonephrology">nanonephrology</a>, the use of nanomedicine on the kidney. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vaccine_development">Vaccine development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vaccine development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Today, a significant part of vaccines against <a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">viral diseases</a> are created using nanotechnology. <a href="/wiki/Solid_lipid_nanoparticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid lipid nanoparticle">Solid lipid nanoparticles</a> are a novel delivery system for some <a href="/wiki/MRNA_vaccine" title="MRNA vaccine">vaccines against SARS-CoV-2</a> (the virus that causes COVID-19). In recent decades, nanosized <a href="/wiki/Immunologic_adjuvant" title="Immunologic adjuvant">adjuvants</a> have been widely used to enhance immune responses to targeted vaccine antigens. Inorganic nanoparticles of alum,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>, as well as  organic nanoparticles based on polymers and lipids, are very popular adjuvants within modern vaccine formulations.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nanoparticles of natural polymers such as <a href="/wiki/Chitosan" title="Chitosan">chitosan</a> are useful for vaccine development due to their biocompatibility and biodegradability.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cerium(IV)_oxide" title="Cerium(IV) oxide">Ceria</a> nanoparticles appear very promising for both enhancing vaccine response and mitigating inflammation, since their adjuvanticity can be adjusted by changing nanoparticle parameters (size, crystallinity, surface state, stoichiometry, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_devices">Medical devices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Medical devices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neuro-electronic interfacing is a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nanodevices that will permit computers to be joined and linked to the nervous system. This idea requires the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses by an external computer. A refuelable strategy implies energy is refilled continuously or periodically with external sonic, chemical, tethered, magnetic, or biological electrical sources, while a non-refuelable strategy implies that all power is drawn from internal energy storage which would stop when all energy is drained. A nanoscale <a href="/wiki/Enzymatic_biofuel_cell" title="Enzymatic biofuel cell">enzymatic biofuel cell</a> for self-powered nanodevices have been developed that uses glucose from biofluids including human <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> and watermelons.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One limitation to this innovation is the fact that electrical interference or leakage or overheating from power consumption is possible. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned precisely in the nervous system. The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body's immune system.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanomed2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanomed2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_repair_machines">Cell repair machines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cell repair machines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology" title="Molecular nanotechnology">Molecular nanotechnology</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">speculative</a> subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering <a href="/wiki/Molecular_assembler" title="Molecular assembler">molecular assemblers</a>, machines which could re-order matter at a molecular or atomic scale.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Nanomedicine would make use of these <a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">nanorobots</a>, introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nanotechnology, such as molecular assemblers and <a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">nanorobots</a> are far beyond current capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanomed1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanomed1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nanomed2_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanomed2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nanofactory_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nanofactory-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Future advances in nanomedicine could give rise to <a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">life extension</a> through the repair of many processes thought to be responsible for aging. <a href="/wiki/K._Eric_Drexler" title="K. Eric Drexler">K. Eric Drexler</a>, one of the founders of nanotechnology, postulated cell repair machines, including ones operating within cells and utilizing as yet hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Molecular_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular machines">molecular machines</a>, in his 1986 book <i><a href="/wiki/Engines_of_Creation" title="Engines of Creation">Engines of Creation</a></i>, with the first technical discussion of medical nanorobots by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Freitas" title="Robert Freitas">Robert Freitas</a> appearing in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanomed1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanomed1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Kurzweil" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Kurzweil">Raymond Kurzweil</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Futurist" title="Futurist">futurist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transhumanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Transhumanist">transhumanist</a>, stated in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Singularity_Is_Near" title="The Singularity Is Near">The Singularity Is Near</a></i> that he believes that advanced medical <a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">nanorobotics</a> could completely remedy the effects of aging by 2030.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, it was his former graduate student and collaborator <a href="/wiki/Albert_Hibbs" title="Albert Hibbs">Albert Hibbs</a> who originally suggested to him (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1959</span>) the idea of a <i>medical</i> use for Feynman's theoretical micromachines (see <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>). Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as Feynman put it) "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine#Biological" title="Molecular machine">swallow the doctor</a>". The idea was incorporated into Feynman's 1959 essay <i><a href="/wiki/There%27s_Plenty_of_Room_at_the_Bottom" title="There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom">There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Society_for_Nanomedicine" title="British Society for Nanomedicine">British Society for Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colloidal_gold" title="Colloidal gold">Colloidal gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_nanotechnology" title="Heart nanotechnology">Heart nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_P1906.1" title="IEEE P1906.1">IEEE P1906.1</a> – Recommended Practice for Nanoscale and Molecular Communication Framework</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impalefection" title="Impalefection">Impalefection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monitoring_(medicine)" title="Monitoring (medicine)">Monitoring (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle%E2%80%93biomolecule_conjugate" title="Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate">Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanozymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanozymes">Nanozymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology_in_fiction" title="Nanotechnology in fiction">Nanotechnology in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodynamic_therapy" title="Photodynamic therapy">Photodynamic therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Top-down and bottom-up design">Top-down and bottom-up design</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanomedicine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nanomed1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nanomed1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nanomed1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nanomed1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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(August 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nanofactory-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nanofactory_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreitas_JrMerkle2006" class="citation web cs1">Freitas Jr RA, Merkle RC (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/Nanofactory">"Nanofactory Collaboration"</a>. <i>Molecular Assembler</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Assembler&rft.atitle=Nanofactory+Collaboration&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Freitas+Jr&rft.aufirst=RA&rft.au=Merkle%2C+RC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.MolecularAssembler.com%2FNanofactory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanomedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurzweil2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Kurzweil" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Kurzweil">Kurzweil R</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/The_Singularity_Is_Near" title="The Singularity Is Near"><i>The Singularity Is Near</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03384-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-03384-3"><bdi>978-0-670-03384-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57201348">57201348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Singularity+Is+Near&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57201348&rft.isbn=978-0-670-03384-3&rft.aulast=Kurzweil&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanomedicine" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman1959" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman RP</a> (December 1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100211190050/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~feynman/plenty.html">"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.its.caltech.edu/~feynman/plenty.html">the original</a> on 11 February 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=There%27s+Plenty+of+Room+at+the+Bottom&rft.date=1959-12&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=RP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.its.caltech.edu%2F~feynman%2Fplenty.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanomedicine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Longevity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Longevity" title="Template:Longevity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Longevity" title="Template talk:Longevity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Longevity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Longevity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Longevity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">Longevity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">Ageing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_age" title="Old age">Old age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longevity_myths" title="Longevity myths">Longevity myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senescence" title="Senescence">Senescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging-associated_diseases" title="Aging-associated diseases">aging-associated diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerative_disease" title="Degenerative disease">degenerative diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negligible_senescence" title="Negligible senescence">negligible senescence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogerontology" title="Biogerontology">biogerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">cognitive epidemiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centenarian" title="Centenarian">Centenarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercentenarian" title="Supercentenarian">supercentenarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_into_centenarians" title="Research into centenarians">research into centenarians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">Life expectancy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_life_expectancy" title="LGBT life expectancy">LGBT life expectancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_life_span" title="Maximum life span">Maximum life span</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomarkers_of_aging" title="Biomarkers of aging">Biomarkers of aging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_life_extension" title="Outline of life extension">Topic outline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_topics_related_to_life_extension" title="Index of topics related to life extension">index</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aging_movement" title="Anti-aging movement">Anti-aging movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodemography_of_human_longevity" title="Biodemography of human longevity">Biodemography of human longevity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Indefinite lifespan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longevity_escape_velocity" title="Longevity escape velocity">Longevity escape velocity</a></li> <li>Methods <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calorie_restriction" title="Calorie restriction">calorie restriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_and_longevity" title="Diet and longevity">Diet and longevity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_printing" title="Organ printing">organ printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejuvenation" title="Rejuvenation">rejuvenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem-cell_therapy" title="Stem-cell therapy">stem-cell therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence" title="Strategies for engineered negligible senescence">SENS</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists of<br /><a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of countries by life expectancy">World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of African countries by life expectancy">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_in_the_Americas_by_life_expectancy" title="List of countries in the Americas by life expectancy">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of North American countries by life expectancy">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_American_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of South American countries by life expectancy">South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Asian countries by life expectancy">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of European countries by life expectancy">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Oceanian_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Oceanian countries by life expectancy">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of world regions by life expectancy">World macroregions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">regions of countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Argentine_provinces_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Argentine provinces and territories by life expectancy">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Australian states by life expectancy">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Belgian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Belgian provinces by life expectancy">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Brazilian_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Brazilian states by life expectancy">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_provinces_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Canadian provinces and territories by life expectancy">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China_by_life_expectancy" title="List of cities in China by life expectancy">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_departments_by_life_expectancy" title="List of French departments by life expectancy">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Finnish_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Finnish regions by life expectancy">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of German states by life expectancy">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Greek regions by life expectancy">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_by_life_expectancy_at_birth" title="List of Indian states by life expectancy at birth">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Israel_and_Palestine_by_life_expectancy" title="List of regions of Israel and Palestine by life expectancy">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_prefectures_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Japanese prefectures by life expectancy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Kazakhstan_by_life_expectancy" title="List of regions of Kazakhstan by life expectancy">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Mexican states by life expectancy">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Israel_and_Palestine_by_life_expectancy" title="List of regions of Israel and Palestine by life expectancy">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_subjects_of_Russia_by_life_expectancy" title="List of federal subjects of Russia by life expectancy">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_African_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of South African provinces by life expectancy">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Spanish provinces by life expectancy">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swedish_counties_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Swedish counties by life expectancy">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tajikistani_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Tajikistani regions by life expectancy">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Turkish provinces by life expectancy">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of British regions by life expectancy">UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">USA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._counties_with_shortest_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. counties with shortest life expectancy">shortest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._counties_with_longest_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. counties with longest life expectancy">longest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">regions by continents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of African regions by life expectancy">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Asian regions by life expectancy">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of European regions by life expectancy">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Oceanian_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Oceanian regions by life expectancy">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_American_regions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of South American regions by life expectancy">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Records</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longevity_claims" title="Longevity claims">Longevity claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oldest_people" title="Oldest people">Oldest people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_verified_oldest_people" title="List of the verified oldest people">verified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_people_by_country" title="List of the oldest people by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_living_people" title="List of oldest living people">living</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">Immortality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_immortality" title="Biological immortality">Biological immortality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">Regeneration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_immortality" title="Digital immortality">Digital immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_youth" title="Eternal youth">Eternal youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immortality_in_fiction" title="Immortality in fiction">Immortality in fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Longevity genes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FOXO3" title="FOXO3">FOXO3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apolipoprotein_E" title="Apolipoprotein E">APOE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholesteryl_ester_transfer_protein" title="Cholesteryl ester transfer protein">CETP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin-converting_enzyme" title="Angiotensin-converting enzyme">ACE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interleukin_6" title="Interleukin 6">IL6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klotho_(biology)" title="Klotho (biology)">Klotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirtuin_1" title="Sirtuin 1">SIRT1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor" title="Tumor necrosis factor">TNF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_zone" title="Blue zone">Blue zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longevity_insurance" title="Longevity insurance">Longevity insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longevity_risk" title="Longevity risk">Longevity risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanist_politics" title="Transhumanist politics">Transhumanist politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms" title="List of longest-living organisms">Longest-living organisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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