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class="section__heading" id="auteur"> <span>Author Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-apercu" class="definition-section-title">Definition</h3> <div class="crayon article-chapo-99951 apercu surlignable"><p>The concept of predatory pricing comes into play when a dominant undertaking deliberately reduces its prices to a loss-making level for a short-term to discipline its existing competitors or foreclose the market to new entrants with a view to strengthening or maintaining its market power later on by way of the foreclosing effect of such predation. To that end, in broad terms, predatory pricing could be defined as the setting of prices at an unreasonably low level (below a cost parameter) to induce a competitor to exit the market or to deter its entry or expansion.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-texte" class="definition-section-title">Commentary</h3> <div class="crayon article-texte-99951 texte surlignable"><p>In general, the starting point of the analysis is to assess whether the dominant undertaking incurred or is incurring avoidable losses for the relevant time period (i.e. whether the conduct entails a deliberate sacrifice). For such analysis, various cost parameters (in line with the competitive landscape/characteristics of the relevant market) could be taken into account in conjunction with direct evidence (e.g. documents that show a predatory strategy), if any. If sufficient reliable data are available, the equally efficient competitor analysis could also be applied to determine whether the conduct is capable of harming consumers. In general, it is considered unlikely that predatory conduct will create efficiencies.</p> <p>From EU perspective, predatory pricing falls within the scope of Article 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (“TFEU”). The Guidance on the Commission’s enforcement priorities in applying Article 82 of the EC Treaty to abusive exclusionary conduct by dominant undertakings (“Commission’s Guidelines”) provides two elements for predatory pricing: (i) sacrifice and (ii) anti-competitive foreclosure. In terms of the sacrifice element, European Commission (“Commission”) will assess whether by charging a lower price for its output or by expanding its output over the relevant time period, the dominant undertaking incurred or is incurring losses that could have been avoided. Average avoidable cost (“AAC”) is taken into account as a starting point in determining whether sacrifice occurred and if a dominant undertaking charges a price below AAC, this is viewed in most cases as a clear indication of sacrifice. However, if the Commission establishes that an alleged conduct led to net revenues lower than could have been expected from a reasonable alternative in the short term, or in other words, that the dominant undertaking incurred a loss that could have avoided, this may also indicate predatory strategy. Accordingly, predatory intent should be proven to establish the existence of predatory conduct if the dominant undertaking sets prices higher than AAC.</p> <p>In terms of anti-competitive foreclosure, the Commission will apply the equally efficient competitor analysis to determine whether the conduct is capable of harming consumers. The Commission acknowledges that, normally, only pricing below long-run average incremental cost (“LRAIC”) is capable of foreclosing as efficient competitors from the market. The Commission is not required to demonstrate that competitors have exited the market in order to prove anti-competitive foreclosure. The Commission’s Guidelines indicate that consumers are likely to be harmed if the dominant undertaking - after the predatory conduct comes to an end - can reasonably expect its market power to be greater than it would have been had the undertaking not engaged in that conduct in the first place. That being said, it also clarifies that this does not mean that the Commission would only intervene if the dominant undertaking would be likely to be able to increase its prices above the level existing before the conduct and proof of overall profits is not required for identifying consumer harm.</p> <p>The European Court of Justice (“ECJ”) assessed predatory pricing for the first time in AKZO case. According to the ECJ, prices below average variable cost (“AVC”) by a dominant undertaking will be presumed abusive; while prices below average total cost (“ATC”) but above AVC will be regarded as abusive if they are part of a plan to eliminate competitors. The ECJ further developed its case law in Tetra Pak II and France Télécom v Commission. In Tetra Pak II, where anti-competitive intention of Tetra Pak was particularly clear, as manifested in a series of abusive acts, the ECJ indicated that “in circumstances of the present case” it is not required to show the dominant undertaking had a “realistic chance of recouping its losses”. Additionally, in France Télécom v Commission, the ECJ held that the case law of the Court did not require proving the possibility of recoupment of losses as a necessary precondition to establishing that such a pricing policy is abusive. It further noted that the Commission could still consider the possibility of recoupment a relevant factor for predatory pricing analysis.</p> <p>In the US, a predatory pricing case may be brought under Section 2 of the Sherman Act of 1890 or the Robinson-Patman Act of 1936. While the essence of the predatory pricing claim is the same under either statute, the standard of proof differs. Sherman Act requires proof of a “dangerous probability” of monopolization, while the Robinson-Patman Act requires only a “reasonable possibility” of substantial injury to competition. One of the most important differences between the EU and US approaches regarding predatory pricing is the recoupment requirement. US competition law condemns prices below cost, but only where there is a showing of potential recoupment of those costs in the future. Meanwhile, the EU has a stricter test that condemns below-cost prices without a showing of potential recoupment. The US Supreme Court established a new framework for predatory pricing analysis in the <i>Brooke</i> decision. First, predatory pricing required proof of below-cost pricing, second, predatory pricing required proof of recoupment. Proof of recoupment requires not only that the below-cost price exclude or discipline the predatory victim, but also proof that the predator will be able to raise prices above the competitive level sufficient to compensate the predator for its predatory investment.</p> <p>Under Turkish competition law, given that Article 6 of Law No. 4054 on the Protection of Competition (“Law No. 4054”) and the Turkish Competition Authority’s (“Authority”) Guidelines on the Assessment of Exclusionary Abusive Conduct by Dominant Undertakings (“Authority’s Guidelines”) are closely modelled after Article 102 of TFEU and the Commission’s Guidelines, the Turkish Competition Board’s (“Board”) analysis in terms of predatory pricing is generally in line with the EU approach. In fact, there are numerous cases where the Board applied the test utilized in AKZO case. In its U.N. RO-RO decision, the Board based its analysis upon three elements; (i) the proof of below-cost pricing, (ii) the existence of intention of elimination and (iii) anti-competitive foreclosure. Although U.N. RO-RO’s prices were below its AAC, the Board nevertheless focused on the existence of predatory intention in order to demonstrate that the only plausible explanation of the undertaking’s pricing strategy was to eliminate its competitor. To that end, the Board also highlighted that U.N. RO-RO also had the possibility to recoup its losses, while indicating that this was not a precondition for finding predatory pricing.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-jurisprudence" class="definition-section-title">Case references</h3> <div class="crayon article-reference-99951 reference"><p>The Board’s U.N. RO-RO decision dated 01.10.2012 and numbered 12-47/1413-474</p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/review/issues/no-2-2009/case-comments/Predation-The-ECJ-rules-that">Case C-202/07, France Télécom SA v Commission, [2009] ECR I-2369</a></p> <p>Case C-333/94 P, Tetra Pak International SA v Commission, [1996] ECR I-5951</p> <p><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/june-1993/the-us-supreme-court-establishes-a-test-for-proving-the-existence-of-predatory" class="spip_in">Brooke Group v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco, 509 U.S. 209 (1993)</a></p> <p>Case C-62/86, AKZO Chemie BV v Commission [1991] ECR I-3359</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-biblio" class="definition-section-title">Bibliography</h3> <div class="crayon article-ps-99951 jurisprudence"><p>Alison Jones and Brenda Sufrin; (2016), <i>EU Competition Law, Text, Cases and Materials</i> Oxford University Press, 6th Edition</p> <p>Barry E. Hawk, (2020), <i>Antitrust and Competition Laws</i>, Juris Publishing, Inc.</p> <p>Christopher R. Leslie, (2013), <i>Predatory Pricing And Recoupment</i>, Columbia Law Review, Vol. 113, No. 7 (November 2013), pp. 1695-1771</p> <p>David Bailey and Laura Elizabeth John (eds.), <i>Bellamy and Child: European Union Law of Competition</i> (8th edn, Oxford University Press 2018)</p> <p>Patrick Bolton, Joseph F. Brodley and Michael H. Riordan; (2000), <i>Predatory Policy: Strategic Theory and Legal Policy</i>, The Georgetown Law Journal, pp:2239-2330</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_definition sticky-top" id="definition-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#part-apercu" data-target="#part-apercu">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#part-texte" data-target="#part-texte">Commentary</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#part-jurisprudence" data-target="#part-jurisprudence">Case references</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#part-biblio" data-target="#part-biblio">Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>Authors</h2> <div class="auteurs"> <ul class="liste-items liste-items-well"> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/authors/gonenc-gurkaynak" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH100/auton2912-10dc2.png?1711359189) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">Gönenç Gürkaynak</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">ELIG Gürkaynak Attorneys-at-Law (Istanbul)</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="pays">Turkey</span> <span class="articles"><em>192</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>120583</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/auteurs/onur-ozgumus-elig-com" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH100/auton84007-fc43c.jpg?1712048605) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">Onur Özgümüş</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">ELIG Gürkaynak Attorneys-at-Law (Istanbul)</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="pays">Turkey</span> <span class="articles"><em>24</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>27159</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="well citation"> <h2>Quotation</h2> <article class="entry article article-dictionary hentry"> <span class="authors">Gönenç Gürkaynak, Onur Özgümüş, </span> <span class="entry-title">Predatory pricing</span><span class="rubrique"><span class="sep">, </span> Global Dictionary of Competition Law, Concurrences, Art. N° 12336</span> </article> </div> <div class="well stats"> <p><i class="picto picto-eye"></i> <b>Visits</b> <em class="number">32459</em></p> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="institution"> <span>Institution Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="crayon article-texte-12336 texte surlignable"><p>A (deliberate) strategy, usually by a dominant firm, of driving competitors out of the market by setting prices below production costs. If the predator succeeds in driving existing competitors out of the market and in deterring future entry of new firms, he can subsequently raise prices and earn higher profits. Predatory pricing by dominant firms is prohibited by EU competition law as abuse of a dominant position. Prices set below average variable costs can be presumed to be predatory, because they have no other economic rationale than to eliminate competitors, since it would otherwise be more rational not to produce and sell a product that cannot be priced above average variable cost. Where prices are set below average total (but above variable) costs, some additional elements proving the predator’s intention need to be established in order to qualify them as predatory, given that other commercial considerations, like a need to clear stocks, may lie at the heart of the pricing policy. <strong><a href="IMG/pdf/european_commission_glossary_of_terms_used_in_eu_competition_policy_-_antitrust_and_control_of_concentrations.pdf?40143/c3774ee64935572d46552d77051b73fee53aeda168348c3575d30d9dabcc7a34" class="spip_in" type='application/pdf'>European Commission</a></strong></p> <p>A deliberate strategy, usually by a dominant firm, of driving competitors out of the market by setting very low prices or selling below the firm’s incremental costs of producing the output (often equated for practical purposes with average variable costs). Once the predator has successfully driven out existing competitors and deterred entry of new firms, it can raise prices and earn higher profits. The economic literature on the rationality and effectiveness of predatory pricing is in a state of flux. Many economists have questioned the rationality of predatory pricing on grounds that: it can be at least as costly to the predator as to the victim; targets of predation are not easily driven out, assuming relatively efficient capital markets; and entry or re-entry of firms in the absence of barriers reduces the predator’s chances of recouping losses incurred during the period of predation. However, other economists have suggested that price predation might be feasible if it is undertaken to "soften" up rivals for future acquisition, or if potential targets of predation or their sources of capital have less information about costs and market demand than the predator. (...) <strong>© <a href="IMG/pdf/oecd_-_glossary_of_industrial_organisation_economics_and_competition_law.pdf?39924/61543ab059ef02f25a5b58d7b8b4636a8fe2232efa57c3b86700b24cdb1da9ca" class="spip_in" type='application/pdf'>OECD</a></strong></p></div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"></aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_references scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <section class="subsection subsection_jurisprudence related-section related-jurisprudence scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-jurisprudence"> <span id="references">Case Comments</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yX1QhW9uy/Ro79t3vRU89JmOl04uKZ1GVDPQXkAAuvJNg8gDgCl/RW2LHjjUu5yRZQdg1L7Hv4ROTeX3TsComrDs37L/eSPITMjnr1ECt4jWV+BPtbPDcISYeYk3V5s5Wk+rFI6IGTLo5d6P9zHWcaLCzfmRRUPOGpsgZ2tkuQpZ9dXpVhxA4YXbNPcsR8ihDopl1OPknjOVnGhdP1K3wKNrHF6Fs9L13oOj5vRJ9MdRmXe1IZCR+ZB1+8PNpKEBbWi8no62ll6mz00GzU0ZejcOpmpz27j0XyHM+c87Bmv2tPpNgZ0jXgpoGQVBOKZLZkUTAvHyLEe+4Xz7qkgHqIENZejBn7Ki30=' data-origin="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/ilicak">Ali Ilicak</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/preview/the-turkish-competition-authority-investigates-two-global-payment-technology" rel="bookmark">The Turkish Competition Authority investigates two global payment technology companies for exclusionary practices in the card scheme and digital wallet services markets</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-11-20T23:00:00Z">21 November 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121991 introduction entry-content"> <p>The Turkish Competition Authority investigates Visa and Mastercard for exclusionary practices in the card scheme and digital wallet services markets <br class='autobr' /> The Turkish Competition Authority (Rekabet Kurumu, “TCA”) has launched an investigation into Visa and Mastercard to determine whether the (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/sabri-siraj">Sabri Siraj</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/september-2024/the-us-district-court-for-the-western-district-of-washington-denies-a-motion-to" rel="bookmark">The US District Court for the Western District of Washington denies a motion to dismiss an antitrust investigation against a Big Tech firm for online marketplace competition <em>(Amazon)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-29T22:00:00Z">30 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121302 introduction entry-content"> <p>Unpacking the Implications of the FTC’s Antitrust Case Against Amazon for Online Marketplace Competition* <br class='autobr' /> The Federal Trade Commission has survived a motion to dismiss in a high-stakes lawsuit against Amazon, igniting critical discussions about competition in the online marketplace. As a (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/european-court-of-justice">European Court of Justice</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/september-2024/the-eu-general-court-largely-upholds-the-fine-imposed-by-the-commission-on-a" rel="bookmark">The EU General Court largely upholds the fine imposed by the Commission on a tech company for predatory pricing in the market for 3G baseband chipsets <em>(Qualcomm)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-17T22:00:00Z">18 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120664 introduction entry-content"> <p>Abuse of a dominant position: the General Court largely upholds the fine imposed on Qualcomm* <br class='autobr' /> The General Court sets the amount of the fine at approximately € 238.7 million as opposed to the € 242 million imposed by the Commission <br class='autobr' /> Qualcomm is a US company established in 1985 operating in the (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/alain-ronzano">Alain Ronzano</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2024/alertes/eviction-practice-the-general-court-of-the-european-union-confirms-the-abuse-of" rel="bookmark"><strong>Eviction practice</strong>: The General Court of the European Union confirms the abuse of a dominant position in the UMTS chip market through below-cost pricing to drive out a competitor, clarifies that the “as efficient competitor” test is unnecessary under <em>Akzo</em> case law, and slightly reduces the €242 million fine imposed by the Commission due to an error in calculating the duration of the infringement <em>(Qualcomm)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-17T22:00:00Z">18 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120901 introduction entry-content"> <p>On September 18, 2024, the General Court of the EU handed down its judgment in case T-671/19 (Qualcomm Inc. v. European Commission).. <br class='autobr' /> While it confirms that Qualcomm abused its dominant position on the UMTS chip market by selectively applying below-cost prices to a few key customers in order (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/vassilena-karadakova">Vassilena Karadakova</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/alex-rickets">Alexander Rickets</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/kristien-geeurickx">Kristien Geeurickx</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/september-2024/the-eu-general-court-upholds-the-commission-s-decision-to-fine-a-chipmaker-for" rel="bookmark">The EU General Court upholds the Commission’s decision to fine a chipmaker for predatory pricing <em>(Qualcomm)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-17T22:00:00Z">18 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-120935 introduction entry-content"> <p>In its judgment of 18 September 2024, the General Court has largely rejected Qualcomm’s application to annul the European Commission’s 2019 predatory pricing decision. The Court did however slightly reduce the fine, from € 242 million to € 238.7 million, due to methodology errors. Qualcomm had (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/niharika-parshurampuria">Niharika Parshurampuria</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/daniel-asensio-guasch">Daniel Asensio Guasch</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/kris-van-hove">Kris Van Hove</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/september-2024/the-eu-general-court-upholds-the-commission-s-decision-to-fine-a-semiconductor" rel="bookmark">The EU General Court upholds the Commission’s decision to fine a semiconductor manufacturer for predatory pricing <em>(Qualcomm)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-17T22:00:00Z">18 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121056 introduction entry-content"> <p>On 18 September 2024, the General Court delivered a judgement in Case-671/19 Qualcomm v Commission, upholding the Commission’s decision to impose a fine on Qualcomm for abuse of a dominant position in the UMTScompliant baseband chipset market in violation of Article 102 TFEU. The Court did, (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/marie-cartapanis">Marie Cartapanis</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2024/chroniques/pratique-d-eviction-the-general-court-of-the-european-union-largely-upholds-the" rel="bookmark"><strong> Eviction Practice</strong>: The General Court of the European Union largely upholds the Commission’s decision to sanction a search engine for predatory practices, but reforms the fine imposed <em>(Qualcomm)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-09-17T22:00:00Z">18 September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121718 introduction entry-content"> <p>On September 18, 2024, the General Court of the European Union largely confirmed the European Commission’s decision against Qualcomm in 2019 (Comm. UE., July 18, 2019, AT.39711, Qualcomm), but slightly reduced the amount of the fine. <br class='autobr' /> In essence, the company was accused of abusing its dominant (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/marie-cartapanis">Marie Cartapanis</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2024/chroniques/121713" rel="bookmark"><strong>Public consultation</strong> : The European Commission launches a public consultation on its draft guidelines on abusive predatory conduct by dominant companies</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-07-31T22:00:00Z">1 August 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-121713 introduction entry-content"> <p>Following the reform of the Notice on the definition of the relevant market (Comm. eur., Feb. 8, 2024, C/2024/1645, Notice on the definition of the relevant market for the purposes of EU competition law), the European Commission is now turning its attention to its guidelines on the priorities (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/mexican-competition-authority">Mexican Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/june-2024/the-mexican-competition-authority-sanctions-a-service-station-along-with-3" rel="bookmark">The Mexican Competition Authority sanctions a service station along with 3 individuals for manipulating the sale price of marine diesel <em>(Combustibles Puerto de Abrigo Dzilam de Bravo)</em> </a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-06-11T22:00:00Z">12 June 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-119135 introduction entry-content"> <p>Cofece sanctions a company and 3 individuals for manipulating the price of marine diesel* <br class='autobr' /> • The price manipulation directly affected consumers of marine diesel for a period of almost 4 years. <br class='autobr' /> México City, June 12, 2024. The Federal Economic Competition Commission (Cofece or Commission) (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/us-department-of-justice-antitrust-division">US Department of Justice Antitrust Division</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/may-2024/the-us-doj-alongside-30-state-and-district-ags-files-a-civil-antitrust-lawsuit" rel="bookmark">The US DoJ, alongside 30 State and District AGs, files a civil antitrust lawsuit against an entertainment company for monopolisation and other unlawful conduct that thwarts competition in the live entertainment industry <em>(Live Nation-Ticketmaster)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-05-22T22:00:00Z">23 May 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-118905 introduction entry-content"> <p>Justice Department Sues Live Nation-Ticketmaster for Monopolizing Markets Across the Live Concert Industry* <br class='autobr' /> Live Nation-Ticketmaster’s Exclusionary Conduct and Dominance Across the Live Concert Ecosystem Harms Fans, Innovation, Artists, and Venues <br class='autobr' /> The Justice Department, along with 30 state (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/alain-ronzano">Alain Ronzano</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2024/alertes/practice-of-eviction-the-paris-court-of-appeal-adopts-the-delimitation-of-the" rel="bookmark"><strong>Eviction practice</strong>: The Paris Court of Appeal adopts the delimitation of the relevant market of the French Competition Authority and confirms the absence of a practice of eviction on the part of a French daily sports newspaper in relation to the conditions of the termination of the contract for the distribution of its titles on a digital newsstand (<em>Lekiosque.fr / L’Equipe</em>)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-05-14T22:00:00Z">15 May 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-119909 introduction entry-content"> <p>It will be recalled that, in a ruling handed down on December 14, 2022 in a dispute with the daily L’Équipe between SAS lekiosque.frwhich distributes press titles digitally under the trade name Cafeyn, concerning the conditions under which the distribution contract for L’Équipe group titles was (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/usman-sheikh">Usman Sheikh</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/arlan-w-gates">Arlan W. Gates</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/justine-johnston">Justine Johnston</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/march-2024/the-canadian-competition-authority-publishes-a-discussion-paper-to-explore-the" rel="bookmark">The Canadian Competition Authority publishes a discussion paper to explore the impacts of artificial intelligence on competition</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-03-19T23:00:00Z">20 March 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-118536 introduction entry-content"> <p>In brief <br class='autobr' /> The Canadian Competition Bureau ("Bureau") has announced a significant initiative to explore the impacts of artificial intelligence ("AI") on competition in Canada. On 20 March 2024, the Bureau published a discussion paper, entitled "Artificial intelligence and competition" (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/canadian-competition-bureau-84000">Canadian Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/february-2024/the-canadian-competition-authority-expands-its-investigation-into-a-big-tech" rel="bookmark">The Canadian Competition Authority expands its investigation into a Big Tech company’s online advertising practices <em>(Google)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-02-28T23:00:00Z">29 February 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-117454 introduction entry-content"> <p>Competition Bureau expands its investigation into Google’s advertising practices* <br class='autobr' /> The Competition Bureau has obtained a court order to gather information and advance an ongoing investigation into Google’s online advertising practices in Canada. <br class='autobr' /> The Bureau is investigating whether Google has (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/european-commission-363">European Commission</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/february-2024/the-eu-commission-sends-a-statement-of-objections-to-an-electricity-provider" rel="bookmark">The EU Commission sends a Statement of Objections to an electricity provider over predatory pricing in the Greek wholesale electricity market <em>(Public Power Corporation)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-02-06T23:00:00Z">7 February 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-117123 introduction entry-content"> <p>Commission sends Statement of Objections to PPC over predatory pricing in the Greek wholesale electricity market* <br class='autobr' /> The European Commission has informed the Greek electricity provider Public Power Corporation (‘PPC’) of its preliminary view that it has breached EU antitrust rules by selling (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/may-lyn-yuen">May Lyn Yuen</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/wallace-wright">Alice Wallace-Wright</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/ashley-howlett">Ashley Howlett</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/fabien-roy">Fabien Roy</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/january-2024/the-eu-commission-publishes-a-report-on-competition-enforcement-in-the" rel="bookmark">The EU Commission publishes a report on competition enforcement in the pharmaceutical sector which highlights the role of EU competition law in safeguarding market participants and consumers</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-01-25T23:00:00Z">26 January 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-117035 introduction entry-content"> <p>On 26 January 2024, the European Commission published a report on competition enforcement in the pharmaceutical sector, highlighting the role of EU competition law in safeguarding market participants and consumers, particularly amid the challenges posed by the Covid-19 crisis. The report looks (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="pagination more"><a id='pagination_articles_related' class='pagination_ancre'></a> <ul class="pager"> <li class="next"><a href='//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing?debut_articles_related=15#pagination_articles_related' class='lien_pagination more' rel='next'>More…</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection subsection_articles related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-articles"> <span>Articles</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXnRhW9pyjRwD9eVd5dpWkuxrR0nPUdctu0s4FNneICf0P+vOrBoiOebKQZpJo3NhvJ91NoVPo7SuP+suXRVETYvQt5FQNIDV4COPo52Zc7KJYBtPpHMGNhgwxP/nWt/TJ/JHZtma1zWzTgtgDiECq5lWd4s9u7xpZtV3rmnCL/devDG4Isin5ESLB5s+H3xQXS5iQVQLnbCnxCEP9s/Tby1qeg/El+szqZYcj0SCuRUTxoCXt1pbccon5tQ9IbncoyGiG7amIQIEVkdTX+YTuI2GuxqrlFAMa5+uThfpV5SpD8yncxJ7eO7qIhHe6x2H6XIIyWtKx57+mWqVHCknGc2SM=' data-origin="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/leen-de-vreese">Leen De Vreese</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2024/legal-practice/ecn-pharma-report-update-on-competition-enforcement-in-the-pharmaceutical" rel="bookmark">ECN Pharma Report: Update on competition enforcement in the pharmaceutical sector</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-08-31T22:00:00Z">September 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-119240 introduction entry-content"> <p>The European Commission has published a report providing an overview of the enforcement of EU antitrust and merger rules by the Commission and the national competition authorities in the pharmaceutical sector between 2018 and 2022. 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This compilation does not attempt to be exhaustive but rather a survey of themes important in the area. The survey usually covers publication over the last three months after publication of the latest issue of (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/nicola-giocoli">Nicola Giocoli</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2014/livres/predatory-pricing-in-antitrust-law-and-economics-a-historical-perspective" rel="bookmark">Predatory Pricing in Antitrust Law and Economics: A Historical Perspective, Nicola GIOCOLI</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2014-04-30T22:00:00Z">May 2014</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-104545 introduction entry-content"> <p>This section selects books on themes related to competition laws and economics. 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The survey usually covers publication over the last three months after publication of the latest issue of (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/alain-ronzano">Alain Ronzano</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/bastien-thomas">Bastien Thomas</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/christelle-adjemian">Christelle Adjémian</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/emmanuel-frot">Emmanuel Frot</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/mathilde-brabant">Mathilde Brabant</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2014/revues/revue-of-competition-journals-european-competition-law-review-journal-of" rel="bookmark">Competition journals: Jan. - March 2014</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2014-04-30T22:00:00Z">May 2014</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-65460 introduction entry-content"> <p>This section of the review Concurrences selects articles and working papers on themes related to competition laws and economics, mainly, but not only, in the English and French languages. 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Certain concepts and economic tools developped in the antitrust framework could be used by (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/daniel-a-crane">Daniel A. Crane</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2013/Doctrines-1492/Legal-rules-for-predatory" rel="bookmark">Legal rules for predatory innovation</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2013-11-30T23:00:00Z">December 2013</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-58811 introduction entry-content"> <p>Predatory innovation theories claim that firms sometimes obtain or retain dominance by modifying products or introducing new technologies to foreclose rivals. 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Contributions of this "Trends" present this test in various areas of competition law. 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href="en/events/innovation-economics-conference-for-antitrust-lawyers-4-platforms-the" rel="bookmark">Innovation Economics Conference for Antitrust Lawyers #4 "Platforms: The Envelopment Strategy" & Closing speech</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2020-07-06T13:30:00Z">6 July 2020</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-95036 introduction entry-content"><p>4th Webinar and Closing Speech of the « 4th Innovation Economics Conference » organised by Concurrences, in partnership with Compass Lexecon, with <a href="en/authors/daniele-condorelli" class="spip_in">Daniele Condorelli</a> (Associate Professor, University of Warwick, Academic Affiliate at Compass Lexecon), <a href="en/authors/alexandre-de-corniere" class="spip_in">Alexandre de Cornière</a> (Assistant Professor, Toulouse School of Economic), <a href="en/authors/amelia-fletcher" class="spip_in">Amelia Fletcher</a> (Professor, University of East Anglia), <a href="en/authors/andreas-mundt" class="spip_in">Andreas Mundt</a> (President, Bundeskartellamt), <a href="en/authors/peter-roth" class="spip_in">Sir Peter Roth</a> (President, Competition Appeal Tribunal), <a href="en/authors/mike-walker" class="spip_in">Mike Walker</a> (Chief Economic Adviser, Competition and Markets Authority) and <a href="en/authors/richard-whish" class="spip_in">Richard Whish QC (Hon)</a> (Emeritus Professor, King’s College London).</p></div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/david-spector">David Spector</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/frederic-marty">Frédéric Marty</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/hans-zenger">Hans Zenger</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/olivier-freget">Olivier Fréget</a></span></span> <strong 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class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/edouard-sarrazin">Edouard Sarrazin</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/events/personal-data-online-platforms-and-competition-law-enforcement" rel="bookmark">Personal data, online platforms and competition law enforcement</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2015-11-03T11:00:00Z">3 November 2015</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-82994 introduction entry-content"><p>Workshop organized by Concurrences Review in partnership with DLA Piper and MAPP.</p></div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/gildas-de-muizon">Gildas de Muizon</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/juliette-thery-1437">Juliette Théry</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/ombline-ancelin">Ombline Ancelin</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/events/pricing-policy-limiting-the-risks-82964" rel="bookmark">Pricing policy: limiting the risks?</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2015-06-25T10:00:00Z">25 June 2015</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-82964 introduction entry-content"><p>Law & Economics Workshop organized by Concurrences in partnership with Simmons & Simmons, Microeconomix, AFJE & EFB.</p></div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/fabien-curto-millet">Fabien Curto Millet</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/joseph-vogel">Joseph Vogel</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/events/upcoming-events/complex-tarif-strategies-abusive-tying-discriminations" 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class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/charles-pommies">Charles Pommies</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/giulio-federico">Giulio Federico</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/justin-coombs-182">Justin Coombs</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/events/the-most-favored-customer-clause-after-the-e-book-case" rel="bookmark">The Most Favored Customer Clause: After the e-book case </a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2013-06-19T10:00:00Z">19 June 2013</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-82792 introduction entry-content"><p>Law & Economics workshop organized by Concurrences in partnership with Allen & Overy and Compass Lexecon.</p></div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/charles-pommies">Charles Pommies</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/giulio-federico">Giulio Federico</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/justin-coombs-182">Justin Coombs</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/events/upcoming-events/the-most-favoured-customer-clause-the-ebook-saga-and-other-recent-cases" rel="bookmark">The Most Favoured Customer Clause: The eBook saga and other recent cases</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2013-06-02T16:19:02Z">2 June 2013</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-52495 introduction entry-content"><p>Giulio Federico</br>Charles Pommiès </br>Justin Coombs</p></div> </article></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection subsections_books related-section related-articles 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Kovacic: An Antitrust Tribute Liber Amicorum Vol. II <small>Comparative Antitrust Federalism and the Error-Cost Framework or: Rhetoric and Reality: You Protect Competitors, We Protect Competition - Except When We Protect Competitors</small></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2014-09-08T22:00:00Z"><span class="dm"><span class="d">9 </span><span class="m">Sep</span></span><span class="y"> 2014</span></time></p> <div class="introduction entry-content">23William E. 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Bogaert</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/livre/eu-law-and-life-sciences#id=43535" rel="bookmark">EU Law and Life Sciences <small>Pricing of Pharmaceutical Products and Competition Law</small></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2014-01-30T23:00:00Z"><span class="dm"><span class="d">31 </span><span class="m">Jan</span></span><span class="y"> 2014</span></time></p> <div class="introduction entry-content">9 PRICING OF PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS AND COMPETITION LAW A.ABUSIVE PRICING PRACTICES 9.02 B.EXCLUSIONARY PRICING PRACTICES 9.03 Predatory price-cutting 9.04 a) Overview of the case law and the decisional practice 9.05 b) The Commission's enforcement priorities as set out in its Guidance Paper on (…)</div> </article> </div> <div class='item short'>  <article class="entry article article-doc-livre hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/eleanor-m-fox">Eleanor M. Fox</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/livre/competition-law-on-the-global-stage-david-gerber-s-global-competition-law-in#id=43486" rel="bookmark">Competition Law on the Global Stage: David Gerber’s Global Competition Law in Perspective <small>The "Alternative World-Antitrust Framework" in the Light of the Twenty-First Century</small></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2013-11-10T23:00:00Z"><span class="dm"><span class="d">11 </span><span class="m">Nov</span></span><span class="y"> 2013</span></time></p> <div class="introduction entry-content">COMPETITION LAWON THE GLOBAL STAGE: DAVID GERBER'S GLOBAL COMPETITION LAWINPERSPECTIVE COMPETITION LAW ON THE GLOBAL STAGE: DAVID GERBER'S GLOBAL COMPETITION LAW IN PERSPECTIVE 23 The “Alternative WorldAntitrust Framework” in the Light of the Twenty-First Century Eleanor M. FOX (…)</div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_related sticky-top" id="related-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#related-jurisprudence" data-target="#related-jurisprudence">Case Comments</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#related-articles" data-target="#related-articles">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#related-events" data-target="#related-events">Events</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#related-books" data-target="#related-books">Books</a></li> </ul> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <div class="index-overlay collapse" id="index"> <span class="arrow-top"></span> <button class="close">×</button> <div class="glossaire-index"> <div class="main"> <div class="index"> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#a" data-anchor="#a">a</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#b" data-anchor="#b">b</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#c" data-anchor="#c">c</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#d" data-anchor="#d">d</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#e" data-anchor="#e">e</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#f" data-anchor="#f">f</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#g" data-anchor="#g">g</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#h" data-anchor="#h">h</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#i" data-anchor="#i">i</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#j" data-anchor="#j">j</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#k" data-anchor="#k">k</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#l" data-anchor="#l">l</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#m" data-anchor="#m">m</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#n" data-anchor="#n">n</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#o" data-anchor="#o">o</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#p" data-anchor="#p">p</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#r" data-anchor="#r">r</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#s" data-anchor="#s">s</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#t" data-anchor="#t">t</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#u" data-anchor="#u">u</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#v" data-anchor="#v">v</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/predatory-pricing#w" data-anchor="#w">w</a> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="a"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">a</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/absolute-territorial-protection">Absolute territorial protection </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-dominant-position-en">Abuse of dominant position</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-economic-dependence">Abuse of economic dependence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/access-to-the-file-en">Access to the file</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/actual-competitor">Actual competitor </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/administered-prices">Administered prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/advisory-committee-118302">Advisory committee</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agent-en">Agent</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agreement-notion-en">Agreement (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ai-collusion-algorithm">AI Collusion (Algorithm)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/AKZO-Procedure">AKZO Procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/amicus-curiae">Amicus curiae</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ancillary-restraints">Ancillary restraints </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/annulment">Annulment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-market-distortions">Anticompetitive Market Distortions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-object-or-effect-en">Anticompetitive object or effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-practices">Anticompetitive practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Antitrust">Antitrust</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/applicable-law">Applicable law</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/arbitration">Arbitration</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/article-11-letter">Article 11 letter </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/artificial-intelligence">Artificial Intelligence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/aec-as-efficient-competitor-principle-and-test">As-Efficient Competitor (AEC)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="b"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">b</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/barriers-to-entry-en">Barriers to entry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bertrand-nash-equilibrium">Bertrand (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bid-rigging">Bid rigging</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/block-exemption-regulation">Block exemption (Regulation) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/boycott">Boycott</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/brand-competition-en">Brand competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bundling">Bundling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/burden-of-proof">Burden of proof</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/buyer-power">Buyer power </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="c"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">c</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/cartel">Cartel </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/clearance-phase-ii-merger">Clearance phase II (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collecting-society">Collecting society </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-dominance">Collective dominance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-redress-class-action">Collective redress (class action)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/comity">Comity </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/commission-communication">Commission communication</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competence">Competence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competition-policy-89181">Competition policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/complaint">Complaint </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Compliance-programme">Compliance programme </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/compulsory-license">Compulsory license</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concentration-indexes-en">Concentration indexes</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concerted-practices-en">Concerted practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concession-86056">Concession</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concurrent-jurisdiction">Concurrent jurisdiction</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Consortium-12192">Consortium </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumer-protection">Consumer protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumers-associations-en">Consumers’ associations</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-change">Control (change)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-notion">Control (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cooperation-between-competition-authorities-en">Cooperation between competition authorities</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/coordinated-effects">Coordinated effects</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/copyright">Copyright</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corruption">Corruption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cost-based-access">Cost-based access</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cournot-nash-equilibrium">Cournot (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/criminal-sanctions">Criminal sanctions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cross-subsidisation">Cross subsidisation </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="d"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">d</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/damages">Damages</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/de-minimis-notice">De minimis notice</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/digital-markets-act">Digital Markets Act</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/direct-effect">Direct effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/discriminatory-practices">Discriminatory practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/distribution-agreement">Distribution agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/divestiture">Divestiture</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/dominance-notion">Dominance (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/downstream-market-117440">Downstream market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="e"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">e</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/echr">ECHR</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-analysis">Economic analysis</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-efficiency">Economic efficiency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economies-of-scale">Economies of scale </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ecosystem-failures">Ecosystem Failures</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effect-on-trade-between-member-states">Effect on trade between Member States</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effective-judicial-protection">Effective judicial protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effects-doctrine-118100">Effects doctrine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/efta-surveillance-authority-esa-court">EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) & Court </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/environmental-protection-en">Environmental protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/error-costs-108946">Error costs</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/essential-facility">Essential facility</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/european-competition-network-ecn-en">European Competition Network (ECN)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/excessive-prices-en">Excessive prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exchange-of-information">Exchanges of information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusionary-practice">Exclusionary practice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exclusive-distribution-12218">Exclusive distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en">Exclusive purchasing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-right-art-106-tfeu">Exclusive right (Art. 106 TFEU)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause">Exclusivity clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exhaustion">Exhaustion </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Extra-territoriality">Extra-territoriality</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="f"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">f</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Failing-firm-defence">Failing firm defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fidelity-rebates">Fidelity rebates</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Fine">Fine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fintech">Fintech</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreclosure-117887">Foreclosure</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-direct-investment-fdi">Foreign direct investment (FDI)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-subsidies">Foreign Subsidies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/form-co">Form CO (EU) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/frand">FRAND</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Free-riding">Free riding </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="g"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">g</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/geographic-market">Geographic market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corporate-group">Group of undertakings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/group-purchasing-organization">Group purchasing organization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/guidelines-119080">Guidelines</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/gun-jumping">Gun jumping</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="h"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">h</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/hard-core-restrictions">Hard core restrictions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Hearing-officer">Hearing officer </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/horizontal-agreement">Horizontal cooperation agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/hsr-filing-us-108854">HSR Filing (US)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="i"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">i</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/independence-and-impartiality">Independence and impartiality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/individual-exemption-86377">Individual exemption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/industrial-policy">Industrial policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/intellectual-property-right-en">Intellectual property right</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/inter-brand-competition">Inter-brand competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Interim-measures">Interim measures </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-co-operation">International co-operation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-competition-network-icn">International competition network (ICN) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/investigations-inquiries-en">Investigations / inquiries</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="j"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">j</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/judicial-review">Judicial review</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="k"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">k</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Know-how">Know-how </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="l"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">l</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/legal-privilege">Legal privilege</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Leniency-programme">Leniency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/lerner-index">Lerner index</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/letter-of-formal-notice-118055">Letter of formal notice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/licensing">Licensing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/limitation-period-119083">Limitation Period </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="m"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">m</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/margin-squeeze">Margin squeeze</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/marginal-costs">Marginal costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-economy-investor">Market economy investor</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-power">Market power</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-share">Market share </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/media-pluralism">Media pluralism</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-notion-12318-en">Merger (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-prohibition">Merger (prohibition)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-withdrawal-118046">Merger (withdrawal)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Merger-control-procedure">Merger control procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-remedies-100323">Merger remedies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/minority-shareholdings-89176">Minority shareholdings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/misinformation">Misinformation</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/mobility-barriers-117741">Mobility Barriers</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Monopoly">Monopoly </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="n"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">n</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/ne-bis-in-idem-86490">Ne bis in idem</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/negative-clearance-118047">Negative clearance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Network-effect">Network effect </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-compete-obligation-12156-en">Non-compete obligation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-horizontal-mergers">Non-Horizontal Mergers </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/notification-12310">Notification</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/nullity">Nullity </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="o"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">o</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/oligopoly">Oligopoly </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/online-platforms">Online Platforms</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="p"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">p</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/parallel-imports-parallel-trade-en">Parallel imports (parallel trade)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/passing-on-en">Passing-on</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Passive-sales">Passive sales </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/patents">Patents</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/pay-for-delay">Pay-for-delay</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/periodic-penalty-payment">Periodic penalty payment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/potential-competition">Potential competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/predatory-pricing">Predatory pricing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/preliminary-rulings-art-267-tfue">Preliminary ruling (Art. 267 TFUE) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-discrimination-en">Price discrimination </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-leadership">Price leadership</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-signaling">Price signalling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-fixing-agreement">Price-fixing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/prices-en">Prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equal-treatment">Principle of equal treatment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equivalence">Principle of equivalence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-proportionality">Principle of proportionality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privacy-and-data-protection">Privacy and data protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/private-enforcement">Private enforcement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privatization-en">Privatization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/procedural-autonomy">Procedural autonomy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/professional-association-86373-en">Professional association</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/public-procurement">Public procurement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Public-undertaking">Public undertaking</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="r"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">r</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/r-d-agreement">R&D agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/case-referral-system-mergers">Referral (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/refusal-to-deal">Refusal to deal</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/the-registry-of-the-general-court-of-the-european-union">Registry of the General Court of the European Union</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Relevant-market">Relevant market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/remedies-antitrust-en">Remedies (antitrust)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/request-for-information">Request for information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-below-cost-en">Resale below cost </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-price-maintenance-rpm">Resale price maintenance (RPM)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/restriction-on-exportation">Restriction on exportation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/rule-of-reason">Rule of reason</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="s"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">s</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/sunk-costs-117836"> Sunk Costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sector-inquiry">Sector inquiry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/selective-distribution">Selective distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/self-preference-111802">Self-Preference</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Services-of-general-economic">Services of general economic interest </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Single-branding">Single branding </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sole-control">Sole control</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/specialization-agreements">Specialization agreements </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Spill-over-effects">Spill-over effects </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/standard-essential-patent-sep">Standard-Essential Patent (SEP)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-action-defense">State action defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-compatibility">State aid (compatibility)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-existing-aid">State aid (existing aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-notification-en">State aid (notification)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid">State aid (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-recovery">State aid (recovery) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-unlawful-aid">State aid (unlawful aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/State-measure">State measure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Statement-of-objections-SO">Statement of objections (SO) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Substitutability">Substitutability </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sustainability">Sustainability</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/switching-costs">Switching Costs</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="t"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">t</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/technology-transfer">Technology transfer</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/test-siec-merger-en">Test SIEC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-slc-src-sdc-tests">Test SLC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/tipping">Tipping</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/business-secrets">Trade Secrets</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trademark">Trademark</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trustee-mergers-en">Trustee (mergers)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/turnover-threshold-merger">Turnover threshold (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/two-sided-market">Two-sided market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="u"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">u</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/undertaking-notion">Undertaking (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/unfair-competition">Unfair competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/universal-service-118054">Universal Service</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/upstream-market">Upstream market </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="v"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">v</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/variable-costs">Variable costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Vertical-agreement">Vertical agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/vertical-restraints-or-restrictions">Vertical restraints (or restrictions)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="w"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">w</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/White-clause">White clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a 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