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</div> </div> </header> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="auteur"> <span>Author Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-apercu" class="definition-section-title">Definition</h3> <div class="crayon article-chapo-117839 apercu surlignable"><p>People or companies experience switching costs when they must incur a specific expense – monetary or not – to change from one supplier to another. This happens when, for instance, individuals face learning costs, must pay a penalty or need to invest in a new equipment to change supplier. Similarly, customers also experience switching costs when they lose benefits due to loyalty programs by migrating to another provider. Also, when individuals must forego an investment (previously) made in the currnt supplier or once having built a relationship with a supplier, individuals may find it harder to change, which entails switching costs. For a company, switching costs may arise when it is costly to change the methods of production.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-texte" class="definition-section-title">Commentary</h3> <div class="crayon article-texte-117839 texte surlignable"><p>The concept of switching costs is very important in economics and competition policy because it helps characterizing how intense competition is in a market. In antitrust analysis, it is usually applied to access the level of rivalry between competitors in the event of a merger or to evaluate a dominant position. When individuals face high switching costs to change from one supplier to another, incumbent suppliers retain significant market power over their customer base, which, in turn, allows them to charge a higher price or decrease the (costly) quality of services. One important corollary is that profits increase with the magnitude of people’s switching costs.</p> <p>The analysis of switching costs implies that there are <i>repeated purchases</i> of (identical or not) goods or services from one initial supplier, usually referred to as the incumbent. The framework of analysis, then, is essentially <i>dynamic</i> as companies consider this feature when designing their competitive strategies. Typically, companies will compete aggressively to be the first in the market, expanding the client base in the first period, to price higher afterwards, a behavior referred in the academic literature as “bargains-then-ripoffs”. When switching costs are prevalent, the competition for market share instead of profits makes sense.</p> <p>In equilibrium, this aggressive competitive behavior compromises overall (intertemporal) profits, as bargains in the first period eat up the second period profits. Therefore, the analyses of a company’s competitive behavior must consider whether below cost pricing in one period may be an anticipation to higher prices in the future. In a dynamic perspective, such strategy does not necessarily harm consumers, depending on the pace of innovation in the market.</p> <p>Switching costs may differ across individuals as some consumers may find easier (or cheaper) than others to switch to a different supplier. In these cases, competition for consumers may be less aggressive because, while consumers that have low migration costs are happy to accept introductory bargain offers, they are also happy to leave before profits are extracted from them. In such cases, the entrant companies start offering freebies and engaging many customers, but lose when they start raising prices.</p> <p>In merger analysis, determining the customers’ switching costs is a necessary step to understand how competition would take place after a transaction. If switching costs are low, it is possible that customers would easily change supplier if market prices (quality) increased (decreased) post operation. However, high switching costs limit the ability of customers to change suppliers, which, in turn, makes price increases more profitable post-merger.</p> <p>In the context of conduct, as high switching costs leverage companies’ <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/market-power">market power</a>, it is expected that companies will be incentivized to develop instruments or contracts to ‘artificially’ elevate customers’ switching costs. Cashbacks, frequent-flyer programs, and loyalty contracts are examples of commercial offers that create pecuniary switching costs since they emulate quantity discounts or bundling as past purchases enable discounts on future transactions. Having already bought at a high price, these arrangements allow individuals to buy cheaper units subsequently (as in non-linear pricing).</p> <p>In a less subtle strategy, long term contracts that lock in customers to one supplier for a long (exclusive) period create switching costs. It is important to consider that none of such strategies is anticompetitive <i>per se</i>. Such practices are usually analyzed according to the specificities of the case, where the rule of reason is applied.</p> <p>Digital platforms present features that may impose switching costs on users. For example, in platforms with recommendation systems, sellers are rated by purchasers when selling their goods or services. This is the case of a property owner renting his home through Airbnb or a driver offering rides through Uber. It is expected that a property owner would prefer changing to a new platform if, for instance, Airbnb raises its fee or degrades the quality of its services. However, if this seller has a well-stablished reputation in Airbnb, this means that he will have to start all over again building its reputation in a new platform. If this is a costly endeavor, then the user will face a cost to migrate to the new platform.</p> <p>Borrowers experience a similar problem in the credit market as their incumbent bank has better information about their credit risks than other banks unrelated to the borrowers. In such cases, a customer may find it harder to shop around for credit with competitive interest rates since alternative financial institutions would have little knowledge of his credit worthiness. In such instances, the incumbent bank will hold an important market power over its customer base. In the credit market, the recommended public policy prescription to mitigate this asymmetry is the adoption of data portability between rivals, under the consent of the ‘data subject’.</p> <p>The 2023 U.S. Merger Guidelines highlight that labor markets are marked by significant switching costs, attributed to the challenges involved in searching for, applying to, interviewing for, and adjusting to new employment. Furthermore, the guidelines note that numerous jobs necessitate specific investments, whether in terms of scope or geographic location. This situation potentially grants companies a dominant position over their employees.</p> <p>The European guidelines for defining the relevant market consider switching costs as an element to help delineate the frontiers of the product market on the demand side analysis. According to these guidelines, when customers encounter considerable difficulties in switching from product A to product B, it suggests that these products may not be part of the same relevant market.</p> <p>The Horizontal Merger Guidelines of both Chile and Brazil take into account switching costs as a factor in defining the relevant market when examining cases.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-jurisprudence" class="definition-section-title">Case references</h3> <div class="crayon article-reference-117839 reference"><p><a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/253/34/576095/" class="spip_out" rel="external">United States v. Microsoft Corp. Court of Appeals, D.C. Circuit. 2001</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.gov.br/cade/en/matters/news/cadehsbc2019s" class="spip_out" rel="external">Brazilian merger case Bradesco/HSBC (2015) Process 08700.010790/2015-41</a></p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-biblio" class="definition-section-title">Bibliography</h3> <div class="crayon article-ps-117839 jurisprudence"><p>Farrell, Joseph, and Paul Klemperer. "Coordination and lock-in: Competition with switching costs and network effects." Handbook of industrial organization 3 (2007): 1967-2072.</p> <p>Klemperer, Paul. "Competition when consumers have switching costs: An overview with applications to industrial organization, macroeconomics, and international trade." The review of economic studies 62.4 (1995): 515-539.</p> <p>European Commission. (2018). Guidelines on market analysis and the assessment of significant market power under the EU regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services.</p> <p>Chile, Fiscalia Nacional Economica (2021), Guía para el Análisis de Operaciones de Concentración Horizontales.</p> <p>Brazil, Conselho Administrativo de Defesa da Concorrência (2016), Guide for Horizontal Merger Review.</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_definition sticky-top" id="definition-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#part-apercu" data-target="#part-apercu">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#part-texte" data-target="#part-texte">Commentary</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#part-jurisprudence" data-target="#part-jurisprudence">Case references</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#part-biblio" data-target="#part-biblio">Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>Authors</h2> <div class="auteurs"> <ul class="liste-items liste-items-well"> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/auteurs/adriana-hernandez-perez" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH100/adriana_hernandez_perez_edited-ddf63.jpg?1711362222) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">Adriana Hernandez Perez</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">Fundação Getúlio Vargas</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="pays">Brazil</span> <span class="articles"><em>6</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>51705</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/auteurs/aldo-gonzalez" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH100/ficha_d8e5b07aacdd7fefb012a120dbd35481ddae87ed-5f731.png?1711362222) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">Aldo Gonzalez</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">University of Chile</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="articles"><em>3</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>50084</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="well citation"> <h2>Quotation</h2> <article class="entry article article-dictionary hentry"> <span class="authors">Adriana Hernandez Perez, Aldo Gonzalez, </span> <span class="entry-title">Switching Costs</span><span class="rubrique"><span class="sep">, </span> Global Dictionary of Competition Law, Concurrences, Art. N° 117837</span> </article> </div> <div class="well stats"> <p><i class="picto picto-eye"></i> <b>Visits</b> <em class="number">406</em></p> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <div class="index-overlay collapse" id="index"> <span class="arrow-top"></span> <button class="close">×</button> <div class="glossaire-index"> <div class="main"> <div class="index"> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#a" data-anchor="#a">a</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#b" data-anchor="#b">b</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#c" data-anchor="#c">c</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#d" data-anchor="#d">d</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#e" data-anchor="#e">e</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#f" data-anchor="#f">f</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#g" data-anchor="#g">g</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#h" data-anchor="#h">h</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#i" data-anchor="#i">i</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#j" data-anchor="#j">j</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#k" data-anchor="#k">k</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#l" data-anchor="#l">l</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#m" data-anchor="#m">m</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#n" data-anchor="#n">n</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#o" data-anchor="#o">o</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#p" data-anchor="#p">p</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#r" data-anchor="#r">r</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#s" data-anchor="#s">s</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#t" data-anchor="#t">t</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#u" data-anchor="#u">u</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#v" data-anchor="#v">v</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/switching-costs#w" data-anchor="#w">w</a> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="a"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">a</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/absolute-territorial-protection">Absolute territorial protection </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-dominant-position-en">Abuse of dominant position</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/abuse-of-economic-dependence">Abuse of economic dependence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/access-to-the-file-en">Access to the file</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/actual-competitor">Actual competitor </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/administered-prices">Administered prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/advisory-committee-118302">Advisory committee</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agent-en">Agent</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/agreement-notion-en">Agreement (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ai-collusion-algorithm">AI Collusion (Algorithm)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/AKZO-Procedure">AKZO Procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/amicus-curiae">Amicus curiae</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ancillary-restraints">Ancillary restraints </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/annulment">Annulment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-market-distortions">Anticompetitive Market Distortions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-object-or-effect-en">Anticompetitive object or effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/anticompetitive-practices">Anticompetitive practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Antitrust">Antitrust</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/applicable-law">Applicable law</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/arbitration">Arbitration</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/article-11-letter">Article 11 letter </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/artificial-intelligence">Artificial Intelligence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/aec-as-efficient-competitor-principle-and-test">As-Efficient Competitor (AEC)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="b"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">b</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/barriers-to-entry-en">Barriers to entry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bertrand-nash-equilibrium">Bertrand (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bid-rigging">Bid rigging</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/block-exemption-regulation">Block exemption (Regulation) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/boycott">Boycott</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/brand-competition-en">Brand competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/bundling">Bundling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/burden-of-proof">Burden of proof</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/buyer-power">Buyer power </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="c"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">c</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/cartel">Cartel </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/clearance-phase-ii-merger">Clearance phase II (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collecting-society">Collecting society </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-dominance">Collective dominance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-redress-class-action">Collective redress (class action)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/comity">Comity </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/commission-communication">Commission communication</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competence">Competence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competition-policy-89181">Competition policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/complaint">Complaint </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Compliance-programme">Compliance programme </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/compulsory-license">Compulsory license</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concentration-indexes-en">Concentration indexes</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concerted-practices-en">Concerted practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concession-86056">Concession</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concurrent-jurisdiction">Concurrent jurisdiction</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Consortium-12192">Consortium </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumer-protection">Consumer protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumers-associations-en">Consumers’ associations</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-change">Control (change)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-notion">Control (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cooperation-between-competition-authorities-en">Cooperation between competition authorities</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/coordinated-effects">Coordinated effects</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/copyright">Copyright</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corruption">Corruption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cost-based-access">Cost-based access</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cournot-nash-equilibrium">Cournot (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/criminal-sanctions">Criminal sanctions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cross-subsidisation">Cross subsidisation </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="d"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">d</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/damages">Damages</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/de-minimis-notice">De minimis notice</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/digital-markets-act">Digital Markets Act</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/direct-effect">Direct effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/discriminatory-practices">Discriminatory practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/distribution-agreement">Distribution agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/divestiture">Divestiture</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/dominance-notion">Dominance (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/downstream-market-117440">Downstream market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="e"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">e</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/echr">ECHR</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-analysis">Economic analysis</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-efficiency">Economic efficiency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economies-of-scale">Economies of scale </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ecosystem-failures">Ecosystem Failures</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effect-on-trade-between-member-states">Effect on trade between Member States</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effective-judicial-protection">Effective judicial protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effects-doctrine-118100">Effects doctrine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/efta-surveillance-authority-esa-court">EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) & Court </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/environmental-protection-en">Environmental protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/error-costs-108946">Error costs</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/essential-facility">Essential facility</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/european-competition-network-ecn-en">European Competition Network (ECN)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/excessive-prices-en">Excessive prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exchange-of-information">Exchanges of information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusionary-practice">Exclusionary practice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exclusive-distribution-12218">Exclusive distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en">Exclusive purchasing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-right-art-106-tfeu">Exclusive right (Art. 106 TFEU)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause">Exclusivity clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exhaustion">Exhaustion </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Extra-territoriality">Extra-territoriality</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="f"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">f</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Failing-firm-defence">Failing firm defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fidelity-rebates">Fidelity rebates</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Fine">Fine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fintech">Fintech</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreclosure-117887">Foreclosure</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-direct-investment-fdi">Foreign direct investment (FDI)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-subsidies">Foreign Subsidies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/form-co">Form CO (EU) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/frand">FRAND</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Free-riding">Free riding </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="g"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">g</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/geographic-market">Geographic market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corporate-group">Group of undertakings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/group-purchasing-organization">Group purchasing organization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/guidelines-119080">Guidelines</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/gun-jumping">Gun jumping</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="h"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">h</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/hard-core-restrictions">Hard core restrictions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Hearing-officer">Hearing officer </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/horizontal-agreement">Horizontal cooperation agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/hsr-filing-us-108854">HSR Filing (US)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="i"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">i</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/independence-and-impartiality">Independence and impartiality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/individual-exemption-86377">Individual exemption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/industrial-policy">Industrial policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/intellectual-property-right-en">Intellectual property right</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/inter-brand-competition">Inter-brand competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Interim-measures">Interim measures </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-co-operation">International co-operation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-competition-network-icn">International competition network (ICN) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/investigations-inquiries-en">Investigations / inquiries</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="j"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">j</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/judicial-review">Judicial review</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="k"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">k</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Know-how">Know-how </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="l"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">l</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/legal-privilege">Legal privilege</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Leniency-programme">Leniency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/lerner-index">Lerner index</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/letter-of-formal-notice-118055">Letter of formal notice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/licensing">Licensing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/limitation-period-119083">Limitation Period </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="m"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">m</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/margin-squeeze">Margin squeeze</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/marginal-costs">Marginal costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-economy-investor">Market economy investor</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-power">Market power</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-share">Market share </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/media-pluralism">Media pluralism</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-notion-12318-en">Merger (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-prohibition">Merger (prohibition)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-withdrawal-118046">Merger (withdrawal)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Merger-control-procedure">Merger control procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-remedies-100323">Merger remedies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/minority-shareholdings-89176">Minority shareholdings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/misinformation">Misinformation</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/mobility-barriers-117741">Mobility Barriers</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Monopoly">Monopoly </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="n"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">n</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/ne-bis-in-idem-86490">Ne bis in idem</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/negative-clearance-118047">Negative clearance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Network-effect">Network effect </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-compete-obligation-12156-en">Non-compete obligation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-horizontal-mergers">Non-Horizontal Mergers </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/notification-12310">Notification</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/nullity">Nullity </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="o"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">o</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/oligopoly">Oligopoly </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/online-platforms">Online Platforms</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="p"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">p</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/parallel-imports-parallel-trade-en">Parallel imports (parallel trade)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/passing-on-en">Passing-on</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Passive-sales">Passive sales </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/patents">Patents</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/pay-for-delay">Pay-for-delay</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/periodic-penalty-payment">Periodic penalty payment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/potential-competition">Potential competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/predatory-pricing">Predatory pricing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/preliminary-rulings-art-267-tfue">Preliminary ruling (Art. 267 TFUE) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-discrimination-en">Price discrimination </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-leadership">Price leadership</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-signaling">Price signalling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-fixing-agreement">Price-fixing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/prices-en">Prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equal-treatment">Principle of equal treatment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equivalence">Principle of equivalence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-proportionality">Principle of proportionality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privacy-and-data-protection">Privacy and data protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/private-enforcement">Private enforcement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privatization-en">Privatization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/procedural-autonomy">Procedural autonomy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/professional-association-86373-en">Professional association</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/public-procurement">Public procurement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Public-undertaking">Public undertaking</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="r"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">r</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/r-d-agreement">R&D agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/case-referral-system-mergers">Referral (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/refusal-to-deal">Refusal to deal</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/the-registry-of-the-general-court-of-the-european-union">Registry of the General Court of the European Union</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Relevant-market">Relevant market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/remedies-antitrust-en">Remedies (antitrust)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/request-for-information">Request for information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-below-cost-en">Resale below cost </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-price-maintenance-rpm">Resale price maintenance (RPM)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/restriction-on-exportation">Restriction on exportation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/rule-of-reason">Rule of reason</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="s"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">s</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/sunk-costs-117836"> Sunk Costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sector-inquiry">Sector inquiry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/selective-distribution">Selective distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/self-preference-111802">Self-Preference</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Services-of-general-economic">Services of general economic interest </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Single-branding">Single branding </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sole-control">Sole control</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/specialization-agreements">Specialization agreements </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Spill-over-effects">Spill-over effects </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/standard-essential-patent-sep">Standard-Essential Patent (SEP)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-action-defense">State action defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-compatibility">State aid (compatibility)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-existing-aid">State aid (existing aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-notification-en">State aid (notification)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid">State aid (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-recovery">State aid (recovery) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-unlawful-aid">State aid (unlawful aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/State-measure">State measure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Statement-of-objections-SO">Statement of objections (SO) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Substitutability">Substitutability </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sustainability">Sustainability</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/switching-costs">Switching Costs</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="t"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">t</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/technology-transfer">Technology transfer</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/test-siec-merger-en">Test SIEC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-slc-src-sdc-tests">Test SLC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/tipping">Tipping</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/business-secrets">Trade Secrets</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trademark">Trademark</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trustee-mergers-en">Trustee (mergers)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/turnover-threshold-merger">Turnover threshold (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/two-sided-market">Two-sided market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="u"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">u</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/undertaking-notion">Undertaking (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/unfair-competition">Unfair competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/universal-service-118054">Universal Service</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/upstream-market">Upstream market </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="v"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">v</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/variable-costs">Variable costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Vertical-agreement">Vertical agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/vertical-restraints-or-restrictions">Vertical restraints (or restrictions)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="w"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">w</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/White-clause">White clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/withdrawal-of-the-benefit-of-a-block-exemption">Withdrawal (of the benefit of a block exemption)</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> <script type="text/javascript"> jQuery(function(){ // hack on appelle 1 scrollspy sur body et 1 sur window pour pas les melanger jQuery(window).scrollspy({ target: '#menu-definition', offset: 130 }); jQuery('body').scrollspy({ target: '#definition-index', offset: 130 }); jQuery(document).scrollspy({ target: '#related-index', offset: 130 }); // Affichage de l'index var $btn_index 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srcset="local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732269721 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732270930 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266627 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266747 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266189 3000w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/webp"> <img src='local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629' alt='Présentation Filigranes Les 5 Travaux d'Europe' width='3000' height='160' class='adapt-img' srcset='local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732272327 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266627 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732274538 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732269360 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629 3000w' sizes='(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw' /></picture></a> </div> <div class="item "> <a 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