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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Stages of stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stages_of_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress_and_brain_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress_and_brain_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Stress and brain development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress_and_brain_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress_response_pathway_in_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress_response_pathway_in_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Stress response pathway in humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress_response_pathway_in_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infancy,_early_childhood,_and_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infancy,_early_childhood,_and_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Infancy, early childhood, and stress</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Infancy,_early_childhood,_and_stress-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Infancy, early childhood, and stress subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Infancy,_early_childhood,_and_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Toxic_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxic_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Toxic stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_symptoms_and_effects_of_stress_on_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_symptoms_and_effects_of_stress_on_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other symptoms and effects of stress on children</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_symptoms_and_effects_of_stress_on_children-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other symptoms and effects of stress on children subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_symptoms_and_effects_of_stress_on_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Physical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Emotional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Psychological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behavioral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Behavioral</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavioral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_effects_of_stress_on_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_effects_of_stress_on_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Long-term effects of stress on children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_effects_of_stress_on_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Psychological phenomenon</div> <p><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood" title="Early childhood">Early childhood</a> is a critical period in a child's life that includes ages from birth to five years old.<sup id="cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoulsenFinello-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="Psychological stress">Psychological stress</a> is an inevitable part of life. Human beings can experience stress from an early age. Although stress is a factor for the average human being, it can be a positive or negative molding aspect in a young child's life.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A certain amount of stress is normal and necessary for survival. A few stressors can be manageable for young children; stress can be beneficial by helping children develop skills needed to adapt to a new set of circumstances and deal with dangerous and intimidating situations. Some experts have theorized that there is a point where prolonged or excessive stress becomes harmful and can lead to serious health effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When stress builds up in early childhood, neurobiological factors are affected.<sup id="cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoulsenFinello-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, levels of the stress hormone <a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a> exceed normal ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoulsenFinello-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory however is based on animal studies and cross-sectional studies in humans, and the proposed impacts on brain centers have not been found in a landmark twin study<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and studies where neurobiological factors were measured in humans prior to stress or trauma exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-DiGangi_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DiGangi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers have proposed three distinct types of responses to stress in young children: <i>positive</i>, <i>tolerable</i>, and <i>toxic</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Key_Concepts_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Key_Concepts-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These labels are based on theorized differences in lasting physiological changes occurring as a result of the intensity and duration of the stress response.<sup id="cite_ref-Lifelong_Effects_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lifelong_Effects-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stress is caused by internal or external influences that disrupt an individual's normal state of well-being.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These influences are capable of affecting health by causing emotional distress and leading to a variety of physiological changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internal stressors include physiological conditions such as hunger, pain, illness or fatigue. Other internal sources of stress consist of shyness in a child, emotions, gender, age and intellectual capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Childhood_trauma" title="Childhood trauma">Childhood trauma</a> has lifelong impact. </p><p>Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">adverse childhood experiences</a> can include separation from family, home violence, racial/ethnic disparities, income disparities, neighborhood violence, mental illness or substance use disorder of caregiver, physical/sexual abuse, neglect, divorce, a new home or school, illness and hospitalization, death of a loved one, poverty, natural disasters, and adults' negative discipline techniques (e.g. spanking).<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional external stressors include <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_drug_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenatal drug exposure">prenatal drug exposure</a>, such as maternal methamphetamine use, other maternal and paternal substance abuse, maternal depression, posttraumatic stress and psychosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Levels_of_stress"><span class="anchor" id="Toxic_stress"></span> Levels of stress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Levels of stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researchers have proposed three different levels of stress seen in children during early childhood; <i>positive</i>, <i>tolerable</i> and <i>toxic</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoulsenFinello-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lifelong_Effects_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lifelong_Effects-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eustress" title="Eustress">Positive stress</a> is necessary and promotes resilience, or the ability to function competently under threat.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such stress arises from brief, mild to moderate stressful experiences, buffered by the presence of a caring adult who can help the child cope with the stressor.<sup id="cite_ref-Lifelong_Effects_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lifelong_Effects-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of stress causes minor physiological and hormonal changes to the young child; these changes include an increase in heart rate and a change in hormone cortisol levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first day of school, a family wedding or making new friends are all examples of positive stressors.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such experiences can promote healthy development within an environment of supportive relationships, giving children the chance to observe and practice healthy responses to stressful events.<sup id="cite_ref-Lifelong_Effects_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lifelong_Effects-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)#Coping" title="Stress (biology)">Tolerable stress</a> comes from adverse experiences that are more intense in nature but short-lived and can usually be overcome.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The body's stress response is more intensely activated due to severe stressors.<sup id="cite_ref-Facts_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of tolerable stressors are family disruptions, accidents or a death of a loved one. It is important though to realize that such stressors are only tolerable when managed the correct way. Tolerable stress can turn into positive stress.<sup id="cite_ref-Facts_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With appropriate care from adults, young children can easily cope with tolerable stress and turn it into positive stress. However, if adult support is deficient in a child's coping stages, then tolerable stress can become detrimental.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Toxic stress can occur when experiences are long in duration and intensity.<sup id="cite_ref-Facts_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children need caring and supportive adults to help them because it is difficult for children to handle this type of stress on their own.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the stress response may be activated from weeks to months or even years.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prolonged stress leads to adverse effects such as permanent emotional or developmental damage.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If sufficient support is not available, this type of stress can result in permanent changes in brain development.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has found that children experiencing severe and long-term abuse have smaller brain sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-Excessive_Stress_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Excessive_Stress-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the situation is not as severe, toxic stress will still alter the stress response system; these changes will cause children to react to a wider variety of stressors.<sup id="cite_ref-Excessive_Stress_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Excessive_Stress-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, with sufficient care and support from adults, children can return their stress levels to tolerable or good.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of toxic stress are abuse, neglect, violence and overall hardship without adult support.<sup id="cite_ref-Facts_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toxic stress can have a cumulative effect on physical and mental health. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Allostatic_load" title="Allostatic load">Allostatic load</a> is "the wear and tear on the body" that accumulates as an individual is exposed to repeated or chronic stress.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It represents the <a href="/wiki/Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">physiological</a> consequences of chronic exposure to fluctuating or heightened <a href="/wiki/Neural" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural">neural</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> <a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">response</a> that results from repeated or chronic toxic <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physiology)">stress</a>. The term was coined by <a href="/wiki/Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a> and E. Stellar in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-McEwen_&_Stellar_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McEwen_&_Stellar-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stages_of_stress">Stages of stress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Stages of stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress is encountered in four different stages in early childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first stage, stress usually causes alarm.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next, in the second or appraisal stage, the child attempts to find meaning from the event.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stage three consists of children seeking out coping strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, in stage four, children execute one or more of the coping strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, children with lower tolerance for stressors are more susceptible to alarm and find a broader array of events to be stressful.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These children often experience <a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_trauma" title="Early childhood trauma">chronic or toxic stress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewett_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewett-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">Adverse childhood experiences</a></div> <p>In the US, non-white children from a lower socioeconomic status are more prone to exposure to <a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">adverse childhood experiences</a>. Black children from a lower socioeconomic status in particular are most at risk for exposure to adverse childhood experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socioeconomic status can be measured by education and income level.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A chronic exposure to stress will lead to the decline of physical health and increase susceptibility to diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Situations that may promote stress in childhood include:<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Facts_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tennant_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tennant-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Loss of caregiver attachment: Divorce/separation, foster care, parental incarceration</li> <li>Lack of attention</li> <li>Racism <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Separation from parents</li> <li>Exposure to violence: <a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">mental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li>Being <a href="/wiki/Helicopter_parent" title="Helicopter parent">over-scheduled</a></li> <li>Feeling pressured to perform or behave beyond their ability</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglect" title="Neglect">Neglect</a>: emotional and physical neglect</li> <li>Meeting new people</li> <li>Starting a new school</li> <li>Death of a loved one</li> <li>Illness: mental and physical</li> <li>Difficulty with school work</li> <li>Increased pressure/responsibility at home</li> <li>Being <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullied</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stress_and_brain_development">Stress and brain development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stress and brain development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brain circuits and testosterone's systems are formed and activated in early life.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These neurobiological systems of the body help maintain viability and are necessary for survival in early childhood and along the course of life.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a child or adult experiences a stressor, the body will attempt to regulate the stress through releasing hormones that pass through the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, effects of the prolonged or frequent biological stress response may increase the risk for future physical and mental health problems in early childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since brain circuits are vulnerable in early childhood, early stressors may impact the development of necessary brain connections.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the theory of toxic stress is that stress might alter or impair brain circuit formation and essentially result in a small brain size in young children.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are however no studies yet that have measured these brain circuits or volumes of brain centers prospectively in young children to prove this theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stress_response_pathway_in_humans">Stress response pathway in humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Stress response pathway in humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In humans, the stress response pathway consists of the sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system and the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis">hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis</a> (HPA).<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SAM system is a part of the sympathetic component of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These systems are responsible for releasing <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> (NE), also known as the <a href="/wiki/Flight_or_fight_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight or fight response">flight or fight response</a> hormones.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When epinephrine is released it will bind to various receptors in various target organs; this will exhibit multiple roles in the fight or flight mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The HPA system is responsible for producing glucocorticoids from the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal cortex">adrenal cortex</a>; the main <a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">glucocorticoid</a> in humans is the steroid hormone cortisol.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to epinephrine, which takes a short amount of time for production, cortisol takes up to 25 minutes to reach peak levels.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, cortisol is able to penetrate the brain through the blood–brain barrier, unlike epinephrine.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, cortisol takes more time to form, but impacts the brain for a longer period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In conjunction, the SAM and HPA systems work to regulate stress and unite at the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, which in turn regulates behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infancy,_early_childhood,_and_stress"><span id="Infancy.2C_early_childhood.2C_and_stress"></span>Infancy, early childhood, and stress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Infancy, early childhood, and stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the body undergoes a stressful situation, the stress hormone <a href="/wiki/Cortisol#Factors_generally_increasing_cortisol_le" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a> is released. Cortisol helps the body prepare for stressful and dangerous situations. It gives a quick burst of energy, heightened memory and lower sensitivity to pain, among other things.<sup id="cite_ref-Cortisol_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cortisol-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When cortisol is present in the body at high levels and for extended periods of time, however, the body's immune response may be suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This leaves the developing bodies of children extremely vulnerable to damage and illness. Cortisol is usually bound to proteins in adults. The protein is called the <a href="/wiki/Transcortin" title="Transcortin">corticosteroid-binding globulin</a> (CBG).<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In newborn babies, CBGs remain low and increase during the first six months after birth.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, as the amount of CBGs increase, more cortisol becomes bound to the CBGs. Due to this occurrence, plasma and total cortisol levels increase.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there are low levels of cortisol at birth, the levels are sufficient to have serious physiological effects.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Newborns do not manifest typical adult circadian rhythms in cortisol production. Usually, newborns have peak cortisol levels every 12 hours and this does not depend on the time of day.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After three months of life, babies begin to experience the adult cortisol production patterns, an early morning cortisol peak and low evening levels of cortisol.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cortisol rhythmic changes occur throughout infancy and early childhood, along with changes in sleep patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The activity of the HPA stress system adapts by repeated exposure to stressful stimulation.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As newborns progress through the early months of life, babies experience increased cortisol levels during medical examinations. This is physically characterized by the fussing and crying of babies.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After three months of life, babies do not respond to physical examinations with the HPA stress response system. However, babies can still respond to behavioral distress.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As another example, if blood is drawn from a baby, the baby experiences an increased cortisol level.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When this process is repeated 24 hours later, the same increase in cortisol is observed.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, during the first year of life, it becomes difficult to induce cortisol level increases to some mild stressors. These stressors include the approach of a stranger, strange events, few-minute separations from parents, and more.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decreased sensitivity of the HPA stress response may be due to physiological changes that occur in the system during early ages. The physiological changes that may occur include improved negative feedback regulation of the HPA system, and decreased sensitivity of the adrenal cortex to ACTH.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the availability of adult support for young children helps safeguard the activity of the HPA stress system.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarQuevedo_23-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarQuevedo-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effects of repeated increases in cortisol levels have been researched in many animal studies, but these types of controlled studies are not ethical to conduct in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been determined that when glucocorticoids, including cortisol, are placed into various parts of rats' brains for many days, CRH is produced in increased quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, this causes fear behaviors, increased caution, and activation of competing regulatory systems. The hypothesized mechanism of action that causes permanent damage in the toxic stress theory is that excessive levels of cortisol may cause neuronal cell death, particularly in the hippocampus, which has relatively high levels of glucocorticoid receptors. Because children's brains are developing relatively more compared to later in life, there is concern that their brains might be relatively more vulnerable to stressors compared to adults.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has shown that children who have experienced extended periods of extreme stress have smaller brains. Children who had experienced more intense and lasting stressful events in their lives posted lower scores on tests of spatial working memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had more trouble navigating tests of short-term memory as well. The region of the brain that is most affected by increased levels of cortisol and other glucocorticoids is the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research has found that infants and young children with higher cortisol levels produce smaller electrical changes in their brain when they are forming memories.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This impairs new memory formation.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, children who have increased levels of cortisol, during daycare or nursery school time, experience extreme hardship upholding attention.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maintaining attention is a part of self-regulation, and these children are not able to regulate their behaviors due to the high cortisol levels.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, memory, attention-span, and self-regulation are influenced by cortisol production.<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the concerns about the impact of stress and cortisol on developing brains, the existing data are inconsistent. Some children manifest low levels of cortisol production under stress, and some experience high cortisol levels. While one concern is that children with higher levels of glucocorticoids may be prone to have the most problems with physical, social, mental, and motor development,<sup id="cite_ref-GunnarBarr_25-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GunnarBarr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> research has neither determined whether these effects are permanent, nor whether these associations would hold up under more rigorous prospective studies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxic_stress">Toxic stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Toxic stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Toxic stress is a term coined by pediatrician Jack P. Shonkoff of the Center on the Developing Child at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> to refer to chronic, excessive stress that exceeds a child's ability to cope, especially in the absence of supportive caregiving from adults.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Shonkoff, extreme, long-lasting stress in the absence of supportive relationships to buffer the effects of a heightened <a href="/wiki/Stress_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress response">stress response</a> can produce damage and weakening of bodily and brain systems, which can lead to diminished physical and mental health throughout a person's lifetime. Extreme exposure to such toxic stress can result in the stress response system becoming more highly sensitized to stressful events, producing increased wear and tear on physical systems through over-activation of the body's stress response. This wear and tear increases the later risk of various physical and mental illnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-Excessive_Stress_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Excessive_Stress-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_symptoms_and_effects_of_stress_on_children">Other symptoms and effects of stress on children</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other symptoms and effects of stress on children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical">Physical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress may make the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress#Stress_and_health" title="Psychological stress">body</a> more susceptible to infections, cardiovascular problems such as <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">heart disease</a> and high blood pressure, <a href="/wiki/Childhood_obesity#Psychological_factors" title="Childhood obesity">obesity</a>, slower healing, viruses and gastrointestinal problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stress can affect children's growth and development, including the onset of <a href="/wiki/Puberty#Stress_and_social_factors" title="Puberty">puberty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the physical cues that may be indicative of stress in children are rashes on skin and skin diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Atopic_dermatitis" title="Atopic dermatitis">eczema</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acne_vulgaris#Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Acne vulgaris">acne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baldness" class="mw-redirect" title="Baldness">hair loss</a>, worsening <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, insomnia or hypersomnia, frequent headaches, muscle aches, vomiting, constipation and diarrhea.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extreme fatigue, chest pain, racing heartbeat, shaking, cold and clammy hands and feet, frequently ill, and even <a href="/wiki/Stress_ulcer" title="Stress ulcer">ulcers</a> are some other physical symptoms manifested due to stress.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotional">Emotional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Emotional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When children cannot handle stress they may begin to develop emotional problems. They may become severely <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)#Depression" title="Stress (biology)">depressed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)#Causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">lacking in energy</a> and motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may develop strange personality traits such as violence and disobedience.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personality disorders may arise as well. Posttraumatic stress disorder may come about in children who have experienced stressors that are traumatic such as abuse or neglect.<sup id="cite_ref-PTSD_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTSD-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological">Psychological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Psychological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress#Psychological_stress_and_disease" title="Psychological stress">Psychological stress § Psychological stress and disease</a></div> <p>Changes in mood or personality, increased irritability or aggressiveness are some psychological symptoms indicative of stress in children. Frustration, feelings of guilt or confusion, isolating themselves from family and friends. Children may also exhibit symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>. They may begin to have new fears and nightmares or even paranoia.[19] They may lie to others to avoid situations to cover up their feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD2010_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD2010-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most often anxiety in children stems from academic stressors and being overwhelmed with responsibilities with workload.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD2010_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD2010-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_stress" title="Social stress">Social stress</a></div> <p>Children under extreme stress tend to withdraw from their family and friends.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They spend more time alone and lack motivation. Children may begin to struggle in school and on their assignments.<sup id="cite_ref-ChildrenStress_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChildrenStress-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may have difficulties in paying attention and act with anger and irritability towards others.<sup id="cite_ref-Middlebrooks_4-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Middlebrooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavioral">Behavioral</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Behavioral"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children may exhibit behavioral symptoms such as over-activity, disobedience to parental or caretaker's instructions. New <a href="/wiki/Habit_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habit (psychology)">habits</a> or habits of regression may appear, such as thumb-sucking, wetting the bed and teeth grinding. Children may exhibit changes in eating habits or other habits such as biting nails or picking at skin due to stress.<sup id="cite_ref-WebMD_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebMD-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may become more accident-prone, cry more often, stutter, or get into fights.<sup id="cite_ref-ChildrenStress_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChildrenStress-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Long-term_effects_of_stress_on_children">Long-term effects of stress on children</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Long-term effects of stress on children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Adverse_Childhood_Experiences_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse Childhood Experiences Study">Adverse Childhood Experiences Study</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_ACE_Pyramid.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Pyramid with horizontal layers representing, in ascending order, Adverse Childhood Experiences; Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Impairment; Adoption of Health-risk Behaviors; Disease, Disability, and Social Problems; and Early Death. A vertical arrow represents the course of life beginning at the base and moving upward. Smaller arrows depict gaps in scientific knowledge about the links between Adverse Childhood Experiences and latter risk factors." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/The_ACE_Pyramid.gif/330px-The_ACE_Pyramid.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/The_ACE_Pyramid.gif/495px-The_ACE_Pyramid.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/The_ACE_Pyramid.gif/660px-The_ACE_Pyramid.gif 2x" data-file-width="1328" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The ACE Pyramid represents the conceptual framework for the ACE Study, which has uncovered how adverse childhood experiences are strongly related to various risk factors for disease throughout the lifespan, according to the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ACE_Pyramid_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACE_Pyramid-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-About_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-About-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The landmark <a href="/wiki/Adverse_Childhood_Experiences_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse Childhood Experiences Study">Adverse Childhood Experiences Study</a> (<b>ACE Study</b>) conducted between 1995 and 1997 on 17,337 participants by Dr. Vincent Felitti from the <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Permanente" title="Kaiser Permanente">Kaiser Permanente</a> <a href="/wiki/Health_maintenance_organization" title="Health maintenance organization">health maintenance organization</a> and Dr. Robert Anda from the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> demonstrated the association of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) with health and social problems as an adult. </p><p>Participants were asked about the following types of <a href="/wiki/Childhood_trauma" title="Childhood trauma">childhood trauma</a>: </p> <ul><li>Physical abuse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional abuse">Emotional abuse</a></li> <li>Physical neglect</li> <li>Emotional neglect</li> <li>Violent treatment from mother</li> <li>Household <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a></li> <li>Household <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a></li> <li>Parental <a href="/wiki/Marital_separation" title="Marital separation">separation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">Incarcerated</a> household member</li></ul> <p>The ACE study found that ACEs have a <a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">dose–response relationship</a> with many health problems. As researchers followed participants over time, they discovered that a person's cumulative ACEs score has a strong, graded relationship to numerous health, <a href="/wiki/Social_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Social problem">social</a>, and behavioral problems throughout their lifespan, including substance use disorders. 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.mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Domestic_violence" title="Template:Domestic violence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Domestic_violence" title="Template talk:Domestic violence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Domestic_violence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Domestic violence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Domestic_violence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_domestic_violence" title="Outline of domestic violence">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abuse" title="Abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlling_behavior_in_relationships" title="Controlling behavior in relationships">Controlling behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_tactics_scale" title="Conflict tactics scale">Conflict tactics scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_abuse" title="Cycle of abuse">Cycle of abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_violence" title="Cycle of violence">Cycle of violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_domestic_violence" title="Epidemiology of domestic violence">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_bonding" title="Traumatic bonding">Traumatic bonding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marital_rape" title="Marital rape">Marital rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_coercion#Birth_control_sabotage" title="Reproductive coercion">Birth control sabotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_coercion" title="Reproductive coercion">Reproductive coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence_by_intimate_partners" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual violence by intimate partners">Sexual violence by intimate partners</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_attack" title="Acid attack">Acid attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_burning" title="Bride burning">Bride burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_and_pregnancy" title="Domestic violence and pregnancy">Domestic violence and pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry_death" title="Dowry death">Dowry death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_pregnant_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Murder of pregnant women">Murder of pregnant women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_couple_violence#Situational_couple_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Common couple violence">Situational couple violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">Psychological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DARVO" title="DARVO">Deny, attack, and reverse victim and offender (DARVO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_abuse" title="Economic abuse">Economic abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embarrassment" title="Embarrassment">Embarrassment</a>/<a href="/wiki/Humiliation" title="Humiliation">Humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_blackmail" title="Emotional blackmail">Emotional blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">Intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_to_facilitate_abuse" title="Isolation to facilitate abuse">Isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind_games" title="Mind games">Mind games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagging" title="Nagging">Nagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult-to-adult_narcissistic_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Adult-to-adult narcissistic abuse">Narcissistic abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Setting_up_to_fail" title="Setting up to fail">Setting up to fail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_treatment" title="Silent treatment">Silent treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalking" title="Stalking">Stalking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_abuse" title="Verbal abuse">Verbal abuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Victims</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adults</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride-buying" class="mw-redirect" title="Bride-buying">Bride-buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_against_men" title="Domestic violence against men">Domestic violence against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_and_pregnancy" title="Domestic violence and pregnancy">Domestic violence and pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_abuse" title="Elder abuse">Elder abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_partner_violence" title="Intimate partner violence">Intimate partner violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_lesbian_relationships" title="Domestic violence in lesbian relationships">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_abuse_by_children" title="Parental abuse by children">Parental abuse by children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_same-sex_relationships" title="Domestic violence in same-sex relationships">Same-sex relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotional_development" title="Social emotional development">Social emotional development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Children</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">Adverse childhood experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_domestic_violence_on_children" title="Effects of domestic violence on children">Effects of domestic violence on children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_parent" title="Narcissistic parent">Narcissistic parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_bullying_of_children" class="mw-redirect" title="Parental bullying of children">Parental bullying of children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling_abuse" title="Sibling abuse">Sibling abuse</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stress in early childhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_domestic_violence_hotlines" title="List of domestic violence hotlines">Domestic violence hotlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_model" title="Duluth model">Duluth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_domestic_violence" title="Management of domestic violence">Management of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_shelter" title="Women's shelter">Women's shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiatives_to_prevent_sexual_violence" title="Initiatives to prevent sexual violence">Prevention initiatives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Argentina" title="Domestic violence in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Armenia#Domestic_violence" title="Crime in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic violence in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Australia" title="Domestic violence in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic violence in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Bolivia" title="Domestic violence in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Brazil" title="Domestic violence in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Chile" title="Domestic violence in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_China" title="Domestic violence in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Colombia" title="Domestic violence in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Ecuador" title="Domestic violence in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Ghana" title="Domestic violence in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Guyana" title="Domestic violence in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_India" title="Domestic violence in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Iran" title="Domestic violence in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic violence in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Kenya" title="Domestic violence in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Lithuania" title="Domestic violence in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_New_Zealand" title="Domestic violence in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Norway" title="Domestic violence in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Domestic violence in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Norway" title="Domestic violence in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Pakistan" title="Domestic violence in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Panama" title="Domestic violence in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Paraguay" title="Domestic violence in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic violence in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic violence in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Romania" title="Domestic violence in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Russia" title="Domestic violence in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Samoa#Domestic_violence" title="Human rights in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Domestic violence in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_South_Africa" title="Domestic violence in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_South_Korea" title="Domestic violence in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Tajikistan" title="Domestic violence in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic violence in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Turkey" title="Domestic violence in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Uganda" title="Domestic violence in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Domestic violence in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Domestic violence in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_domestic_violence" title="Christianity and domestic violence">Domestic violence in Christian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence in Islamic culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacquelyn_Campbell" title="Jacquelyn Campbell">Jacquelyn Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_A._Dodge" title="Kenneth A. Dodge">Kenneth Dodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_M._Douglas" title="Emily M. Douglas">Emily Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellsberg" title="Mary Ellsberg">Mary Ellsberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Finkelhor" title="David Finkelhor">David Finkelhor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Graham-Kevan" title="Nicola Graham-Kevan">Nicola Graham-Kevan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denise_Hines" title="Denise Hines">Denise Hines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Saltzman" title="Linda Saltzman">Linda Saltzman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_A._Straus" title="Murray A. Straus">Murray Straus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruahine_Albert" title="Ruahine Albert">Ruahine Albert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Barker" title="Angela Barker">Angela Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Buel" title="Sarah Buel">Sarah Buel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Celi" title="Elizabeth Celi">Elizabeth Celi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Cools" title="Anne Cools">Anne Cools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Ferrato" title="Donna Ferrato">Donna Ferrato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Pence" title="Ellen Pence">Ellen Pence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erin_Pizzey" title="Erin Pizzey">Erin Pizzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tucker_(executive)" title="Deborah Tucker (executive)">Deborah Tucker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Better_Man_(film)" title="A Better Man (film)">A Better Man</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conspiracy_of_Silence" title="The Conspiracy of Silence">The Conspiracy of Silence</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Defending_Our_Lives" title="Defending Our Lives">Defending Our Lives</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Power_and_Control:_Domestic_Violence_in_America" title="Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America">Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silent_Voices_(2005_film)" title="Silent Voices (2005 film)">Silent Voices</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sin_by_Silence" title="Sin by Silence">Sin by Silence</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Tragedy_(film)" title="American Tragedy (film)">American Tragedy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_and_Blue_(1999_film)" title="Black and Blue (1999 film)">Black and Blue</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blinded_(2006_film)" title="Blinded (2006 film)">Blinded</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bordertown_(2007_film)" title="Bordertown (2007 film)">Bordertown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Burning_Bed" title="The Burning Bed">The Burning Bed</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daughters_(1997_TV_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daughters (1997 TV film)">Daughters</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enough_(film)" title="Enough (film)">Enough</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Looking_for_Angelina" title="Looking for Angelina">Looking for Angelina</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Once_Were_Warriors_(film)" title="Once Were Warriors (film)">Once Were Warriors</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Minute_to_Nine" title="One Minute to Nine">One Minute to Nine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Provoked_(film)" title="Provoked (film)">Provoked</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sleeping_with_the_Enemy" title="Sleeping with the Enemy">Sleeping with the Enemy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Submission_(2004_film)" title="Submission (2004 film)">Submission</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/What%27s_Love_Got_to_Do_with_It_(1993_film)" title="What's Love Got to Do with It (1993 film)">What's Love Got to Do with It</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Life_with_Billy_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Life with Billy (book)">Life with Billy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mommie_Dearest" title="Mommie Dearest">Mommie Dearest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_War_on_Women_(book)" title="The War on Women (book)">The War on Women</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodicals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Family_Therapy" title="Contemporary Family Therapy">Contemporary Family Therapy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Family_Process_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family Process (journal)">Family Process</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Family_Relations_(journal)" title="Family Relations (journal)">Family Relations</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Family_Issues" title="Journal of Family Issues">Journal of Family Issues</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Interpersonal_Violence" title="Journal of Interpersonal Violence">Journal of Interpersonal Violence</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Signs_(journal)" title="Signs (journal)">Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trauma,_Violence,_%26_Abuse" title="Trauma, Violence, & Abuse">Trauma, Violence, & Abuse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Violence_Against_Women_(journal)" title="Violence Against Women (journal)">Violence Against Women</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulabi_Gang" title="Gulabi Gang">Gulabi Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ManKind_Initiative" title="ManKind Initiative">ManKind Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Coalition_Against_Domestic_Violence" title="National Coalition Against Domestic Violence">National Coalition Against Domestic Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Domestic_Violence_Hotline" title="National Domestic Violence Hotline">National Domestic Violence Hotline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_(United_Kingdom_charity)" title="Refuge (United Kingdom charity)">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect_(charity)" title="Respect (charity)">Respect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battered_woman_syndrome" title="Battered woman syndrome">Battered woman defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_court" title="Domestic violence court">Domestic violence court</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bullying" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bullying" title="Template:Bullying"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bullying" title="Template talk:Bullying"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bullying" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bullying"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bullying" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abusive_supervision" title="Abusive supervision">Abusive supervision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberbullying" title="Cyberbullying">Cyberbullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_abuse" title="Disability abuse">Disability bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displaced_aggression" title="Displaced aggression">Displaced aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxing" title="Doxing">Doxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_bullying" title="LGBTQ bullying">LGBTQ bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazing" title="Hazing">Hazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_in_the_military" title="Bullying in the military">Military bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_bullying_of_children" class="mw-redirect" title="Parental bullying of children">Parental bullying of children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_victimization" title="Peer victimization">Peer victimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying#Prison_bullying" title="Bullying">Prison bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_aggression" title="Relational aggression">Relational aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_bullying" title="School bullying">School bullying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_of_students_in_higher_education" title="Bullying of students in higher education">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_bullying" title="Sexual bullying">Sexual bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_harassment" title="Workplace harassment">Workplace harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_bullying" title="Workplace bullying">Workplace bullying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_bullying_in_academia" title="Workplace bullying in academia">Academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_in_information_technology" title="Bullying in information technology">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_workplace_bullying" title="Legal aspects of workplace bullying">Legal aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_in_the_legal_profession" title="Bullying in the legal profession">Legal profession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_in_medicine" title="Bullying in medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_in_nursing" title="Bullying in nursing">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_in_teaching" title="Bullying in teaching">Teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_leader" title="Toxic leader">Toxic leader</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_workplace" title="Toxic workplace">Toxic workplace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betrayal" title="Betrayal">Betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blacklisting" title="Blacklisting">Blacklisting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_and_emotional_intelligence" title="Bullying and emotional intelligence">Bullying and emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_assassination" title="Character assassination">Character assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">Coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_fear" title="Culture of fear">Culture of fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destabilisation" title="Destabilisation">Destabilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Discrediting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embarrassment" title="Embarrassment">Embarrassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossip" title="Gossip">Gossip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humiliation" title="Humiliation">Humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incivility" title="Incivility">Incivility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">Intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_to_facilitate_abuse" title="Isolation to facilitate abuse">Isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiss_up_kick_down" title="Kiss up kick down">Kiss up kick down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind_games" title="Mind games">Mind games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagging" title="Nagging">Nagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_calling" title="Name calling">Name calling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Personal attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">Physical abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">Psychological abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudeness" title="Rudeness">Rudeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcasm" title="Sarcasm">Sarcasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screaming" title="Screaming">Screaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">Shame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smear campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_undermining" title="Social undermining">Social undermining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swatting" title="Swatting">Swatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taunting" title="Taunting">Taunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_incivility" title="Workplace incivility">Workplace incivility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_abuse" title="Verbal abuse">Verbal abuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Act_Against_Bullying" title="Act Against Bullying">Act Against Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Bossy" title="Ban Bossy">Ban Bossy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_UK" title="Bullying UK">Bullying UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bystander_Revolution" title="Bystander Revolution">Bystander Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Centre_for_Gender_and_Sexual_Diversity" title="Canadian Centre for Gender and Sexual Diversity">Canadian Centre for Gender and Sexual Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch_the_Label" title="Ditch the Label">Ditch the Label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRIN_Campaign" title="GRIN Campaign">GRIN Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/It_Gets_Better_Project" title="It Gets Better Project">It Gets Better Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidscape" title="Kidscape">Kidscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_Against_Violence_in_Education" title="Society Against Violence in Education">Society Against Violence in Education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Costanza_Baldry" title="Anna Costanza Baldry">Anna Costanza Baldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Craig_(psychologist)" title="Wendy Craig (psychologist)">Wendy Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Espelage" title="Dorothy Espelage">Dorothy Espelage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_P._Farrington" title="David P. Farrington">David P. Farrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelley_Hymel" title="Shelley Hymel">Shelley Hymel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Leymann" title="Heinz Leymann">Heinz Leymann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Namie" title="Gary Namie">Gary Namie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Higgins_Norman" title="James O'Higgins Norman">James O'Higgins Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Olweus" title="Dan Olweus">Dan Olweus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debra_Pepler" title="Debra Pepler">Debra Pepler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christina_Salmivalli" title="Christina Salmivalli">Christina Salmivalli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Westhues" title="Kenneth Westhues">Kenneth Westhues</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Adams" title="Andrea Adams">Andrea Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Burfitt-Dons" title="Louise Burfitt-Dons">Louise Burfitt-Dons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Field" title="Tim Field">Tim Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SuEllen_Fried" title="SuEllen Fried">SuEllen Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liam_Hackett" title="Liam Hackett">Liam Hackett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzie_Vel%C3%A1squez" title="Lizzie Velásquez">Lizzie Velásquez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Actions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bullying_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bullying Day">Anti-Bullying Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bullying_Week" title="Anti-Bullying Week">Anti-Bullying Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bullying_legislation" title="Anti-bullying legislation">Anti-bullying legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Pink" title="International Day of Pink">International Day of Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Stand_Up_to_Bullying_Day" title="International Stand Up to Bullying Day">International Stand Up to Bullying Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Think_Before_You_Speak_(campaign)" title="Think Before You Speak (campaign)">Think Before You Speak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable <a href="/wiki/Bullying_and_suicide" title="Bullying and suicide">suicides</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_suicides_that_have_been_attributed_to_bullying" class="mw-redirect" title="List of suicides that have been attributed to bullying">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_William_Arthur_Gibbs" title="Suicide of William Arthur Gibbs">William Arthur Gibbs</a> (1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Kelly_Yeomans" title="Suicide of Kelly Yeomans">Kelly Yeomans</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Hamed_Nastoh" title="Suicide of Hamed Nastoh">Hamed Nastoh</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Dawn-Marie_Wesley" title="Suicide of Dawn-Marie Wesley">Dawn-Marie Wesley</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Nicola_Ann_Raphael" title="Suicide of Nicola Ann Raphael">Nicola Ann Raphael</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Ryan_Halligan" title="Suicide of Ryan Halligan">Ryan Halligan</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Megan_Meier" title="Suicide of Megan Meier">Megan Meier</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Sladjana_Vidovic" title="Suicide of Sladjana Vidovic">Sladjana Vidovic</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Phoebe_Prince" title="Suicide of Phoebe Prince">Phoebe Prince</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Tyler_Clementi" title="Suicide of Tyler Clementi">Tyler Clementi</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Jamey_Rodemeyer" title="Suicide of Jamey Rodemeyer">Jamey Rodemeyer</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Hubley#Family" title="Allan Hubley">Jamie Hubley</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Kenneth_Weishuhn" title="Suicide of Kenneth Weishuhn">Kenneth Weishuhn</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Audrie_Pott" title="Suicide of Audrie Pott">Audrie Pott</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Amanda_Todd" title="Suicide of Amanda Todd">Amanda Todd</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Jadin_Bell" title="Suicide of Jadin Bell">Jadin Bell</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Rehtaeh_Parsons" title="Suicide of Rehtaeh Parsons">Rehtaeh Parsons</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Rebecca_Sedwick" title="Suicide of Rebecca Sedwick">Rebecca Sedwick</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leelah_Alcorn" title="Leelah Alcorn">Leelah Alcorn</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Conrad_Roy" title="Death of Conrad Roy">Conrad Roy</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Tyrone_Unsworth" title="Suicide of Tyrone Unsworth">Tyrone Unsworth</a> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Murder%E2%80%93suicide" title="Murder–suicide">Murder–suicides</a><br />(incidents)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Harris_and_Dylan_Klebold" title="Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold">Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a>, 1999</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Weise" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeff Weise">Jeff Weise</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lake_shootings" title="Red Lake shootings">Red Lake</a>, 2005</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seung-Hui_Cho" title="Seung-Hui Cho">Seung-Hui Cho</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech</a>, 2007</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jokela_school_shooting#Perpetrator" title="Jokela school shooting">Pekka-Eric Auvinen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jokela_school_shooting" title="Jokela school shooting">Jokela High School</a>, 2007</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauhajoki_school_shooting#Perpetrator" title="Kauhajoki school shooting">Matti Juhani Saari</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kauhajoki_school_shooting" title="Kauhajoki school shooting">Kauhajoki School of Hospitality</a>, 2008</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Sparks_Middle_School_shooting#Perpetrator" title="2013 Sparks Middle School shooting">Jose Horacio Reyes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2013_Sparks_Middle_School_shooting" title="2013 Sparks Middle School shooting">Sparks Middle School</a>, 2013</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Rodger" title="Elliot Rodger">Elliot Rodger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2014_Isla_Vista_killings" title="2014 Isla Vista killings">Isla Vista</a>, 2014</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_blackmail" title="Emotional blackmail">Emotional blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just-world_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Just-world hypothesis">Just-world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBT-related_suicides" class="mw-redirect" title="List of LGBT-related suicides">List of LGBT-related suicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_in_the_workplace" title="Machiavellianism in the workplace">Machiavellianism in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">Narcissism in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_boundaries" title="Personal boundaries">Personal boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">Personality disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playing_the_victim" title="Playing the victim">Playing the victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy_in_the_workplace" title="Psychopathy in the workplace">Psychopathy in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">Self-esteem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dominance_orientation" title="Social dominance orientation">Social dominance orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_youth" title="Suicide among LGBTQ youth">Suicide among LGBTQ youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abuse" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abuse" title="Template:Abuse"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abuse" title="Template talk:Abuse"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abuse" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abuse"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abuse" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abuse" title="Abuse">Abuse</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abuse#Types_and_contexts_of_abuse" title="Abuse">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">Adverse childhood experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">Anti-social behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_neglect" title="Child neglect">neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">marriage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_abuse" title="Disability abuse">Disability abuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_draft" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability draft">military draft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_abuse" title="Elder abuse">Elder abuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elder_financial_abuse" title="Elder financial abuse">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predatory_marriage" title="Predatory marriage">Marriage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humiliation" title="Humiliation">Humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incivility" title="Incivility">Incivility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_abuse" title="Institutional abuse">Institutional abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">Intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglect" title="Neglect">Neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_abuse" title="Professional abuse">Professional abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">Psychological abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">Physical abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_abuse" title="Social abuse">Social abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umpire_abuse" title="Umpire abuse">Referee and umpire abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_abuse" title="Religious abuse">Religious abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">Sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalking" title="Stalking">Stalking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">Structural abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveillance_abuse" title="Surveillance abuse">Surveillance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_abuse" title="Verbal abuse">Verbal abuse</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abuse#Types_and_contexts_of_abuse" title="Abuse">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abusive_supervision" title="Abusive supervision">Abusive supervision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abuse_of_power" title="Abuse of power">Abuse of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlling_behavior_in_relationships" title="Controlling behavior in relationships">Controlling behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_grooming" class="mw-redirect" title="Child grooming">Child grooming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Complex post-traumatic stress disorder">Complex post-traumatic stress disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial" title="Denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destabilisation" title="Destabilisation">Destabilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaggeration" title="Exaggeration">Exaggeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_to_facilitate_abuse" title="Isolation to facilitate abuse">Isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just-world_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Just-world hypothesis">Just-world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">Lying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">Manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimisation_(psychology)" title="Minimisation (psychology)">Minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playing_the_victim" title="Playing the victim">Playing the victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">Psychological trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_bonding" title="Traumatic bonding">Traumatic bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics_of_anxiety_and_stress%E2%80%93related_disorders" title="Epigenetics of anxiety and stress–related disorders">Epigenetics of anxiety and stress–related disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">Insomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_domestic_violence" title="Management of domestic violence">Management of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightmare" title="Nightmare">Nightmare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightmare_disorder" title="Nightmare disorder">Nightmare disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_in_early_childhood&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-PoulsenFinello-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PoulsenFinello_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/acestudy/pyramid.html">the original</a> on 16 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+ACE+Pyramid&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention%2C+National+Center+for+Injury+Prevention+and+Control%2C+Division+of+Violence+Prevention&rft.date=2014-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fviolenceprevention%2Facestudy%2Fpyramid.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+in+early+childhood" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-About-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-About_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/acestudy/about.html">"About the CDC-Kaiser ACE Study"</a>. 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