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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theoretical_and_practical_needs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_and_practical_needs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Theoretical and practical needs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_and_practical_needs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signature_and_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signature_and_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Signature and consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signature_and_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Betrayal_trauma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Betrayal_trauma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Betrayal trauma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Betrayal_trauma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_romantic_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_romantic_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In romantic relationships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_romantic_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Double_cross" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double_cross"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Double cross</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Double_cross-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Double cross subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Double_cross-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Betrayal_blindness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Betrayal_blindness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Betrayal blindness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Betrayal_blindness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography_for_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography_for_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Bibliography for references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography_for_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9" title="خيانة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خيانة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Хыянат – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Хыянат" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Предателство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Предателство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tra%C3%AFci%C3%B3" title="Traïció – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Traïció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zrada" title="Zrada – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zrada" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verrat" title="Verrat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verrat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reetmine" title="Reetmine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Reetmine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deslealtad" title="Deslealtad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Deslealtad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfido" title="Perfido – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Perfido" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saldukeria" title="Saldukeria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Saldukeria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trahison" title="Trahison – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Trahison" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrie" title="Ferrie – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ferrie" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%B0%EC%8B%A0" title="배신 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="배신" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izdaja" title="Izdaja – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Izdaja" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengkhianatan" title="Pengkhianatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengkhianatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%92%D7%99%D7%93%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F)" title="בגידה (מעילה באמון) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בגידה (מעילה באמון)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B9" title="ದ್ರೋಹ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ದ್ರೋಹ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trayi" title="Trayi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Trayi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proditio" title="Proditio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Proditio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Урвалт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Урвалт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A3%8F%E5%88%87%E3%82%8A" title="裏切り – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="裏切り" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdrada" title="Zdrada – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zdrada" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Предательство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Предательство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradhtia" title="Tradhtia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tradhtia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betrayal" title="Betrayal – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Betrayal" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%A3%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%94%D0%BB%D2%84%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Прѣдатєл҄ьство – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Прѣдатєл҄ьство" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Издаја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Издаја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izdaja" title="Izdaja – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Izdaja" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6rr%C3%A4deri" title="Förräderi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Förräderi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0hanet" title="İhanet – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İhanet" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Зрада – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Зрада" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A3n_b%E1%BB%99i" title="Phản bội – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phản bội" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%98" title="פארראט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פארראט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E9%AA%A8" title="反骨 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="反骨" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%8C%E5%8F%9B" title="背叛 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="背叛" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2166722#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Betrayal_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Betrayal (disambiguation)">Betrayal (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Backstabbing" redirects here. For the concept in group psychology, see <a href="/wiki/Workplace_deviance#Coworker_backstabbing" title="Workplace deviance">Workplace deviance § Coworker backstabbing</a>. For the religious term, see <a href="/wiki/Backbiting" title="Backbiting">Backbiting</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Betrayer" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Betrayer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Betrayer (disambiguation)">Betrayer (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg/220px-Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg/330px-Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg/440px-Giotto_-_Scrovegni_-_-31-_-_Kiss_of_Judas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3371" data-file-height="3287" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Kiss_of_Judas" title="Kiss of Judas">Kiss of Judas</a></i>, 1304-06 by <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a> shows <a href="/wiki/Judas_Iscariot" title="Judas Iscariot">Judas</a> betraying <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Betrayal</b> is the breaking or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/violation" class="extiw" title="wikt:violation">violation</a> of a presumptive <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_(emotion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (emotion)">trust</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Confidence" title="Confidence">confidence</a> that produces <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> and psychological conflict within a relationship amongst individuals, between organizations or between individuals and organizations. Often betrayal is the act of supporting a rival group, or it is a complete break from previously decided upon or presumed <a href="/wiki/Norms_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norms (sociology)">norms</a> by one party from the others. Someone who betrays others is commonly known as a <b>traitor</b> or <b>betrayer</b>. </p><p>Betrayal is a commonly used story element in fiction, sometimes used as a <a href="/wiki/Plot_twist" title="Plot twist">plot twist</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophers <a href="/wiki/Judith_Shklar" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith Shklar">Judith Shklar</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Johnson_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Johnson (philosopher) (page does not exist)">Peter Johnson</a>, authors of <i>The Ambiguities of Betrayal</i> and <i>Frames of Deceit</i>, respectively, contend that while no clear definition of betrayal is available, betrayal is more effectively understood through <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson2000_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2000-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_and_practical_needs">Theoretical and practical needs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theoretical and practical needs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Rodger L. Jackson explains why a clear definition is needed: </p><blockquote><p>Betrayal is both a "people" problem and a philosopher's problem. Philosophers should be able to clarify the concept of betrayal, compare and contrast it with other moral concepts, and critically assess betrayal situations. At the practical level people should be able to make honest sense of betrayal and also to temper its consequences: to handle it, not be assaulted by it. What we need is a conceptually clear account of betrayal that differentiates between genuine and merely perceived betrayal, and which also provides systematic guidance for the assessment of alleged betrayal in real life.</p></blockquote> <p>Ben-Yehuda's 2001 work ("Betrayals and Treason Violations of Trust and Loyalty" Westview Press) framed all forms of betrayals and <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> under a unifying analytical framework using <a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">loyalty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_(emotion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (emotion)">trust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Morals">moral</a> boundaries as explanatory tools. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signature_and_consequences">Signature and consequences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Signature and consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An act of betrayal creates a constellation of negative behaviours, thoughts, and feelings in both its victims and its perpetrators. The interactions are complex. The victims exhibit <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confusion" title="Confusion">confusion</a>, and demand <a href="/wiki/Atonement" title="Atonement">atonement</a> from the perpetrator, who in turn may experience <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">shame</a>, and exhibit <a href="/wiki/Remorse" title="Remorse">remorse</a>. If, after the perpetrator has exhibited remorse or apologized, the victim continues to express anger, this may in turn cause the perpetrator to become <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/defensive" class="extiw" title="wikt:defensive">defensive</a>, and angry in turn. Acceptance of betrayal can be exhibited if victims forgo the demands of atonement and <a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">retribution</a>; but is only demonstrated if the victims do not continue to demand apologies, repeatedly remind the perpetrator or perpetrators of the original act, or ceaselessly review the incident over and over again. </p><p>If no true apology, atonement, real remorse and plan to change one's behaviors are present, then the one who was betrayed can accept that it happened, and that the perpetrator is unwilling or unable to change. No real change means they can do it again. Lack of validation from the perpetrator can be been described as a "second assault," which can exacerbate the effects of the initial trauma incurred. Accepting the betrayal and going no contact is the best route forward. The alternative is to stay in connection and realize the trespass can happen again, and may choose to avoid doing certain things to decrease severity. For example, if a person gossips, do not tell them your secrets.<sup id="cite_ref-ReisRusbult2004_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReisRusbult2004-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Betrayal_trauma">Betrayal trauma</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Betrayal trauma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Betrayal_trauma" title="Betrayal trauma">Betrayal trauma</a></div> <p>Betrayal trauma has symptoms similar to <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-freydwhatisbt_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-freydwhatisbt-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the element of <a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">dissociation</a> is likely to be greater. </p><p>The key difference between traditional <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD) and betrayal trauma is that the former is historically seen as being caused primarily by <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>, whereas betrayal trauma is a response to extreme <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>. Another key difference is that betrayal trauma involves an individual experiencing a violation of trust between a trusted individual or institution, whereas posttraumatic stress disorder does not involve a violation from a trusted source.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_romantic_relationships">In romantic relationships</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In romantic relationships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Gottman" title="John Gottman">John Gottman</a>'s <i>What Makes Love Last?</i> describes betrayal as "a noxious invader, arriving with great stealth" that undermines seemingly stable romances and lies at the heart of every failing relationship, even if the couple is unaware of it. Gottman computed a betrayal metric by calculating how unwilling each partner was to sacrifice for the other and the relationship. A consistently elevated betrayal metric served as an indicator that the couple was at risk for infidelity or another serious disloyalty. Some types of betrayal in romantic relationships include sexual infidelity, conditional commitment, a nonsexual affair, lying, forming a coalition against the partner, absenteeism, disrespect, unfairness, selfishness, and breaking promises.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Double_cross">Double cross</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Double cross"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Double cross</b> is a phrase meaning to deceive by double-dealing.<sup id="cite_ref-MW1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phrase originates from the use of the word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cross" class="extiw" title="wikt:cross">cross</a> in the sense of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">foul play</a>: deliberate collusion to cause someone to lose a contest of some kind. </p><p>It has also been suggested that the term was inspired by the practice of 18th-century British thief taker and criminal <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Wild" title="Jonathan Wild">Jonathan Wild</a>, who kept a ledger of his transactions and is said to have placed two crosses by the names of persons who had cheated him in some way. This <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">folk etymology</a> is almost certainly incorrect, but there is documentary evidence that the term did exist in the 19th century. </p><p>More recently, the phrase was used to refer to either of two possible situations: </p> <ol><li>A competitor participating in the fix who has agreed to throw their game instead competes as usual, against the original intention of their collaborators – one "cross" against another.</li> <li>Two opposing parties are approached, urging them to throw the game and back the other. Both parties lose out, and the perpetrators benefit by backing a third, winning party.</li></ol> <p>This use has passed into common parlance, so that, for example, in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">British</a> Military Intelligence used the <a href="/wiki/Double_Cross_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Double Cross System">Double Cross System</a> to release captured <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> and have them transmit to Germany false information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Betrayal_blindness">Betrayal blindness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Betrayal blindness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Betrayal blindness is the unawareness, not-knowing, and forgetting exhibited by people towards betrayal.<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "betrayal blindness" was introduced in 1996 by Freyd, and expanded in 1999 by Freyd and then again in 2013 by Freyd and Birrell through the <a href="/wiki/Betrayal_Trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Betrayal Trauma">Betrayal Trauma</a> Theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This betrayal blindness may extend to betrayals that are not considered traditional traumas, such as adultery, and inequities. Betrayal blindness is not exclusive to victims. Perpetrators, and witnesses may also display betrayal blindness in order to preserve personal relationships, their relationships with institutions, and social systems upon which they depend.<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "Institutional Betrayal" refers to wrongdoings perpetrated by an institution upon individuals dependent on that institution. This includes failure to prevent or respond supportively to wrongdoings by individuals (e.g. sexual assault) committed within the context of the institution.<sup id="cite_ref-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Definition_of_Betrayal_Trauma_Theory-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betrayal_trauma" title="Betrayal trauma">Betrayal trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creonte" title="Creonte">Creonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defection" title="Defection">Defection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infidelity" title="Infidelity">Infidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">Lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunism" title="Opportunism">Opportunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalm_54" title="Psalm 54">Psalm 54</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">Psychological abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splitting_(psychology)" title="Splitting (psychology)">Splitting (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Stab-in-the-back legend">Stab-in-the-back legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">Treason</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Jackson2000-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson2000_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2000">Jackson 2000</a>, pp. 72–73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReisRusbult2004-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReisRusbult2004_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReisRusbult2004">Reis & Rusbult 2004</a>, pp. 296</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-freydwhatisbt-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-freydwhatisbt_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFreyd" class="citation web cs1">Freyd, Jennifer J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231018/http://dynamic.uoregon.edu/~jjf/defineBT.html">"What is a Betrayal Trauma? What is Betrayal Trauma Theory?"</a>. University of Oregon. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dynamic.uoregon.edu/~jjf/defineBT.html">the original</a> on July 6, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-09-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+a+Betrayal+Trauma%3F+What+is+Betrayal+Trauma+Theory%3F&rft.pub=University+of+Oregon&rft.aulast=Freyd&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdynamic.uoregon.edu%2F~jjf%2FdefineBT.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span> [Link is now: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://pages.uoregon.edu/dynamic/jjf/defineBT.html">http://pages.uoregon.edu/dynamic/jjf/defineBT.html</a> Retrieved 2014-03-08]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelleyWeathersMasonPruneau2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kelley, Lance P.; Weathers, Frank W.; Mason, Elizabeth A.; Pruneau, Genevieve M. (2012-07-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jts.21727">"Association of life threat and betrayal with posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity"</a>. <i>Journal of Traumatic Stress</i>. <b>25</b> (4): 408–415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjts.21727">10.1002/jts.21727</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0894-9867">0894-9867</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22821682">22821682</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Traumatic+Stress&rft.atitle=Association+of+life+threat+and+betrayal+with+posttraumatic+stress+disorder+symptom+severity&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=408-415&rft.date=2012-07-20&rft.issn=0894-9867&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22821682&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjts.21727&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=Lance+P.&rft.au=Weathers%2C+Frank+W.&rft.au=Mason%2C+Elizabeth+A.&rft.au=Pruneau%2C+Genevieve+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2Fjts.21727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottman,_John2012" class="citation book cs1">Gottman, John (2012). <i>What Makes Love Last</i>. pp. xvii, 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Makes+Love+Last&rft.pages=xvii%2C+14&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Gottman%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MW1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MW1_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/double-cross">"double-cross"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pages.uoregon.edu&rft.atitle=Definition+of+Betrayal+Trauma+Theory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.uoregon.edu%2Fdynamic%2Fjjf%2FdefineBT.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography_for_references">Bibliography for references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography for references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. <i>American Psychologist, 55,</i>5, 469–480.</li> <li>Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.</li> <li>Freyd, J. J. (1994). Betrayal-trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse. <i>Ethics & Behavior, 4,</i> 307–329.</li> <li>Freyd, J. J. (1996). Betrayal trauma: The logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</li> <li>Freyd, J. J., & Birrell, P. J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/betrayalbook/the-book">Blind to Betrayal: Why we fool ourselves we aren't being fooled</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507041750/https://sites.google.com/site/betrayalbook/the-book">Archived</a> 2015-05-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Somerset, NJ: Wiley.</li> <li>Freyd, J. J ., Klest, B., & Allard, C. B. (2005) Betrayal trauma: Relationship to physical health, psychological distress, and a written disclosure intervention. <i>Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 6</i>(3), 83-104.</li> <li>Hensley, A. L. (2004). <i>Why good people go bad: A psychoanalytic and behavioral assessment of the Abu Ghraib Detention Facility staff.</i> An unpublished courts-martial defense strategy presented to the Area Defense Counsel in Washington DC on December 10, 2004.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHensley2006" class="citation web cs1">Hensley, A. L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101124234507/http://www.aaets.org/article170.htm">"Contracts don't always begin on the dotted line: Psychological contracts and PTSD in female service members in Iraq"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaets.org/article170.htm">the original</a> on November 24, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 10,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contracts+don%27t+always+begin+on+the+dotted+line%3A+Psychological+contracts+and+PTSD+in+female+service+members+in+Iraq&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Hensley&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaets.org%2Farticle170.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hensley, A. L. (2007). Why good people go bad: A case study of the Abu Ghraib Courts-Martials. In G. W. Dougherty, <i>Proceedings of the 5th annual proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference.</i> Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press.</li> <li>Hensley, A. L. (2009a). Gender, personality, and coping: Unraveling gender in military post-deployment wellbeing (preliminary results). In G. Dougherty (Ed.). <i>Return to equilibrium: Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference</i> (pp. 105–148). Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press.</li> <li>Hensley, A. L. (2009b). <i>Gender, personality and coping: Unraveling gender in military post-deployment physical and mental wellness.</i> Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest UMI.</li> <li>Hensley, A. L. (2009c). Betrayal trauma: Insidious purveyor of PTSD. In G. Dougherty (Ed.). <i>Return to equilibrium: Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference</i> (pp. 105–148). Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press.</li> <li>Hersey, B. & Buhl, M.(January/February 1990). The Betrayal of Date Rape. <i>InView.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, R. L. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210508183013/http://www.nhinet.org/jackson13-2.pdf">"The Sense and Sensibility of Betrayal: Discovering the Meaning of Treachery through Jane Austen"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Humanitas</i>. <b>XIII</b> (2). National Humanities Institute: 72–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fhumanitas200013211">10.5840/humanitas200013211</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhinet.org/jackson13-2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-05-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2005-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanitas&rft.atitle=The+Sense+and+Sensibility+of+Betrayal%3A+Discovering+the+Meaning+of+Treachery+through+Jane+Austen&rft.volume=XIII&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=72-89&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fhumanitas200013211&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhinet.org%2Fjackson13-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). <i>Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness. Cambridge</i>: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Maslow, A. (1954). <i>Motivation and personality.</i> New York: Harper.</li> <li>McNulty, F. (1980). The burning bed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.</li> <li>Musen, K. & Zimbardo, P. G. (1991). <i>Quiet rage: The Stanford prison study.</i> Videorecording. Stanford, CA: Psychology Dept., Stanford University.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReisRusbult2004" class="citation book cs1">Reis, H. T.; Rusbult, C. E. (2004). <i><span></span></i>Close relationships: key readings<i><span></span></i>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86377-596-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86377-596-3"><bdi>978-0-86377-596-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Close+relationships%3A+key+readings&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-86377-596-3&rft.aulast=Reis&rft.aufirst=H.+T.&rft.au=Rusbult%2C+C.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betrayal&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/betrayal" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:betrayal">betrayal</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobin_Marie_Kowalski2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robin Marie Kowalski (2009). "Betrayal". In Harry T. Reis; Susan Sprecher; Susan K. Sprecher (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Human Relationships</i>. Vol. 1. SAGE. pp. 174–176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5846-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5846-2"><bdi>978-1-4129-5846-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Betrayal&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Human+Relationships&rft.pages=174-176&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-5846-2&rft.au=Robin+Marie+Kowalski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Allen_Grady2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">James Allen Grady (2008). "Betrayal". In Yudit Kornberg Greenberg (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of love in world religions</i>. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 74–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851099801" title="Special:BookSources/9781851099801"><bdi>9781851099801</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Betrayal&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+love+in+world+religions&rft.pages=74-76&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781851099801&rft.au=James+Allen+Grady&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreyd2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Freyd, Jennifer J. (2008). "Betrayal trauma". In G. Reyes; J.D. Elhai; J.D.Ford (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma</i>. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Betrayal+trauma&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Psychological+Trauma&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Freyd&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNachman_Ben-Yehuda2001" class="citation book cs1">Nachman Ben-Yehuda (2001). <i>Betrayal and treason: violations of trust and loyalty</i>. Crime & society. Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-9776-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-9776-4"><bdi>978-0-8133-9776-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Betrayal+and+treason%3A+violations+of+trust+and+loyalty&rft.series=Crime+%26+society&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-9776-4&rft.au=Nachman+Ben-Yehuda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert_ReyesJon_D._ElhaiJulian_D._Ford2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gilbert Reyes; Jon D. Elhai & Julian D. Ford (2008). "Betrayal trauma". <i>The Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma</i>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-44748-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-44748-2"><bdi>978-0-470-44748-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Betrayal+trauma&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Psychological+Trauma&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-470-44748-2&rft.au=Gilbert+Reyes&rft.au=Jon+D.+Elhai&rft.au=Julian+D.+Ford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_L._Hensley2009" class="citation conference cs1">Alan L. Hensley (2009). "Betrayal Trauma: Insidious Purveyor of PTSD". In George W. Doherty (ed.). <i>Return to Equilibrium: The Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference</i>. Loving Healing Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932690-86-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932690-86-6"><bdi>978-1-932690-86-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Betrayal+Trauma%3A+Insidious+Purveyor+of+PTSD&rft.btitle=Return+to+Equilibrium%3A+The+Proceedings+of+the+7th+Rocky+Mountain+Region+Disaster+Mental+Health+Conference&rft.pub=Loving+Healing+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-932690-86-6&rft.au=Alan+L.+Hensley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalin_Åkerström1991" class="citation book cs1">Malin Åkerström (1991). <i>Betrayal and betrayers: the sociology of treachery</i>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-358-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-358-8"><bdi>978-0-88738-358-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Betrayal+and+betrayers%3A+the+sociology+of+treachery&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-88738-358-8&rft.au=Malin+%C3%85kerstr%C3%B6m&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren_H._JonesLaurie_CouchSusan_Scott1997" class="citation book cs1">Warren H. Jones; Laurie Couch & Susan Scott (1997). "Trust and Betrayal". In Robert Hogan; John A. Johnson & Stephen R. Briggs (eds.). <i>Handbook of personality psychology</i>. Gulf Professional Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-134646-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-134646-1"><bdi>978-0-12-134646-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trust+and+Betrayal&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+personality+psychology&rft.pub=Gulf+Professional+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-12-134646-1&rft.au=Warren+H.+Jones&rft.au=Laurie+Couch&rft.au=Susan+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABetrayal" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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