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</button> <ul id="toc-Stadial_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sociocultural_evolutionism_and_the_idea_of_progress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociocultural_evolutionism_and_the_idea_of_progress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Sociocultural evolutionism and the idea of progress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociocultural_evolutionism_and_the_idea_of_progress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critique_and_impact_on_modern_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_and_impact_on_modern_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Critique and impact on modern theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_and_impact_on_modern_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Max_Weber,_disenchantment,_and_critical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Max_Weber,_disenchantment,_and_critical_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Max Weber, disenchantment, and critical theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Max_Weber,_disenchantment,_and_critical_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Modern theories </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern theories subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neoevolutionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoevolutionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Neoevolutionism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoevolutionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociobiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociobiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Sociobiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociobiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_modernization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_modernization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Theory of modernization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_modernization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Contemporary perspectives </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_perspectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary perspectives subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Political perspectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technological_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technological_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Technological perspectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technological_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropological_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropological_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Anthropological perspectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropological_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_war_in_the_development_of_states_and_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_war_in_the_development_of_states_and_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 The role of war in the development of states and societies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_war_in_the_development_of_states_and_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Cited sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Readings_from_an_evolutionary_anthropological_perspective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Readings_from_an_evolutionary_anthropological_perspective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Readings from an evolutionary anthropological perspective </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Readings_from_an_evolutionary_anthropological_perspective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" > 28 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تطور ثقافي-اجتماعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تطور ثقافي-اجتماعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социална еволюция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Социална еволюция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3_cultural" title="Evolució cultural – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Evolució cultural" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturel_evolution" title="Kulturel evolution – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kulturel evolution" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziokulturelle_Evolution" title="Soziokulturelle Evolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Soziokulturelle Evolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_cultural" title="Evolución cultural – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evolución cultural" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura_evoluo" title="Kultura evoluo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kultura evoluo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="تکامل اجتماعی-فرهنگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تکامل اجتماعی-فرهنگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volution_socioculturelle" title="Évolution socioculturelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Évolution socioculturelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94%EC%A0%81_%EC%A7%84%ED%99%94" title="사회문화적 진화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회문화적 진화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengembangan_budaya" title="Pengembangan budaya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengembangan budaya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzione_sociale" title="Evoluzione sociale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Evoluzione sociale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אבולוציה חברתית ותרבותית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבולוציה חברתית ותרבותית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoliucionizmas" title="Evoliucionizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Evoliucionizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturele_evolutie" title="Culturele evolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Culturele evolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="社会文化的進化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会文化的進化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturell_evolusjon" title="Kulturell evolusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kulturell evolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewolucjonizm_(nauki_spo%C5%82eczne)" title="Ewolucjonizm (nauki społeczne) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ewolucjonizm (nauki społeczne)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_sociocultural" title="Evolução sociocultural – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evolução sociocultural" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социокультурная эволюция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Социокультурная эволюция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulttuurievoluutio" title="Kulttuurievoluutio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kulttuurievoluutio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturell_evolution" title="Kulturell evolution – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kulturell evolution" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பண்பாட்டுப் பரிணாமம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்பாட்டுப் பரிணாமம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyok%C3%BClt%C3%BCrel_evrim" title="Sosyokültürel evrim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sosyokültürel evrim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Соціальна еволюція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Соціальна еволюція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFn_h%C3%B3a_v%C4%83n_minh" title="Tiến hóa văn minh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiến hóa văn minh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolusyono_sosyokulturel" title="Evolusyono sosyokulturel – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Evolusyono sosyokulturel" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96" title="社會文化進化論 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="社會文化進化論" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div 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class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sociocultural evolution, sociocultural evolutionism or social evolution are theories of <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">cultural evolution</a> that describe how <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> change over time. Whereas sociocultural development traces processes that tend to increase the <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity</a> of a society or culture, sociocultural evolution also considers process that can lead to decreases in complexity (<a href="/wiki/Social_degeneration" title="Social degeneration">degeneration</a>) or that can produce variation or proliferation without any seemingly significant changes in complexity (<a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">cladogenesis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-World_Religions_and_Social_Evolution_of_the_Old_World_Oikumene_Civilizations:_A_Cross-cultural_Perspective-1">[1]</a> Sociocultural evolution is "the process by which structural reorganization is affected through time, eventually producing a form or structure that is qualitatively different from the ancestral form".<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Most of the 19th-century and some 20th-century approaches to socioculture aimed to provide models for the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Humankind" class="mw-redirect" title="Humankind">humankind</a> as a whole, arguing that different societies have reached different stages of <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social development</a>. The most comprehensive attempt to develop a general theory of social evolution centering on the development of sociocultural systems, the work of <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> (1902–1979), operated on a scale which included a theory of <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">world history</a>. Another attempt, on a less systematic scale, originated from the 1970s with the <a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">world-systems</a> approach of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a> (1930-2019) and his followers. More recent approaches focus on changes specific to individual societies and reject the idea that cultures differ primarily according to how far each one has moved along some presumed linear scale of <a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">social progress</a>. Most[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] modern <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropologists</a> work within the frameworks of <a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">neoevolutionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">modernization theory</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologists</a> often assume that human beings have <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Social animal">social tendencies</a> but that particular human <a href="/wiki/Social_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Social behaviour">social behaviours</a> have non-<a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> causes and dynamics (i.e. people learn them in a <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">social environment</a> and through <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">social interaction</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Societies exist in complex social environments (for example: with differing natural resources and constraints) and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapt</a> themselves to these environments. It is thus inevitable that all societies change. Specific theories of social or cultural evolution often attempt to explain differences between <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coeval" class="extiw" title="wikt:coeval">coeval</a> societies by positing that different societies have reached different stages of development. Although such theories typically provide models for understanding the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> or the values of a society, they vary as to the extent to which they describe specific mechanisms of variation and change. While the history of evolutionary thinking with regard to humans can be traced back at least to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and other Greek philosophers, early sociocultural-evolution theories  – the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> (1798–1857), <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> (1820–1903) and <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a> (1818–1881)  – developed simultaneously with, but independently of, the work of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (1809-1882) and were popular from late in the 19th century to the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">unilineal evolution</a> theories claimed that societies start out in a <a href="/wiki/Primitive_(phylogenetics)" title="Primitive (phylogenetics)">primitive</a> state and gradually become more <a href="/wiki/Civilized" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilized">civilized</a> over time; they equated the culture and technology of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a> with <a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">progress</a>. Some forms of early sociocultural-evolution theories (mainly unilineal ones) have led to much-criticised theories like <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">social Darwinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>, sometimes used in the past by European <a href="/wiki/Imperial_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial power">imperial powers</a> to justify existing policies of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and to justify new policies such as <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Most 19th-century and some 20th-century approaches aimed to provide models for the evolution of humankind as a single entity. However, most 20th-century approaches, such as <a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">multilineal evolution</a>, focused on changes specific to individual societies. Moreover, they rejected directional change (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Orthogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthogenetic">orthogenetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> or progressive change). Most archaeologists work within the framework of multilineal evolution.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Other contemporary approaches to social change include <a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">neoevolutionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">dual inheritance theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">modernisation theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postindustrial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postindustrial">postindustrial</a> theory.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In his seminal 1976 book <a href="/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" title="The Selfish Gene">The Selfish Gene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> wrote that "there are some examples of cultural evolution in birds and monkeys, but ... it is our own species that really shows what cultural evolution can do".<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stadial_theory">Stadial theory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Stadial theory">edit</a>]</div> Enlightenment and later thinkers often speculated that societies progressed through stages: in other words, they saw history as <a href="/wiki/Stadial_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadial history">stadial</a>. While expecting humankind to show increasing development, theorists looked for what determined the course of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>. <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> (1770–1831), for example, saw social development as an inevitable process.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It was assumed that societies start out primitive, perhaps in a <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a>, and could progress toward something resembling industrial Europe. While earlier authors such as <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a> (1533–1592) had discussed how societies change through time, the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a> of the 18th century proved key in the development of the idea of sociocultural evolution.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In relation to Scotland's <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1707" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1707">union with England in 1707</a>, several Scottish thinkers pondered the relationship between progress and the affluence brought about by increased trade with England. They understood the changes Scotland was undergoing as involving transition from an agricultural to a <a href="/wiki/Mercantile" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercantile">mercantile</a> society. In <a href="/wiki/Conjectural_history" title="Conjectural history">"conjectural histories"</a>, authors such as <a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Adam Ferguson</a> (1723–1816), <a href="/wiki/John_Millar_(philosopher)" title="John Millar (philosopher)">John Millar</a> (1735–1801) and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> (1723–1790) argued that societies all pass through a series of four stages: hunting and gathering, pastoralism and nomadism, agriculture, and finally a stage of <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commerce</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Auguste_Comte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Auguste_Comte.jpg/200px-Auguste_Comte.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Auguste_Comte.jpg/300px-Auguste_Comte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Auguste_Comte.jpg/400px-Auguste_Comte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> (1798–1857)</figcaption></figure> Philosophical concepts of <a href="/wiki/Progress_(history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress (history)">progress</a>, such as that of Hegel, developed as well during this period. In <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, authors such as <a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Claude Adrien Helvétius</a> (1715–1771) and other <a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</a> were influenced by the Scottish tradition. Later thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Claude_Henri_de_Rouvroy,_Comte_de_Saint-Simon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon">Comte de Saint-Simon</a> (1760–1825) developed these ideas.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Auguste Comte (1798–1857) in particular presented a coherent view of social progress and a new discipline to study it: sociology. These developments took place in a context of wider processes. The first process was colonialism. Although <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperial powers</a> settled most differences of opinion with their colonial subjects through force, increased awareness of non-Western peoples raised new questions for European scholars about the nature of society and of culture. Similarly, effective colonial <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">administration</a> required some degree of understanding of other cultures. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution allowed Europeans to organise their new knowledge in a way that reflected and justified their increasing political and economic domination of others: such systems saw colonised people as less evolved, and colonising people as more evolved. Modern civilization (understood as the Western civilization), appeared the result of steady progress from a state of barbarism, and such a notion was common to many thinkers of the Enlightenment, including <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> (1694–1778). The second process was the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, which together allowed and promoted continual revolutions in the <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a>. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution reflected a belief that the changes in Europe brought by the Industrial Revolution and capitalism were improvements. Industrialisation, combined with the intense political change brought about by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789 and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a>, which paved the way for the <a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy" title="History of democracy">dominance of democracy</a>, forced European thinkers to reconsider some of their assumptions about how society was organised. Eventually, in the 19th century three major classical theories of social and historical change emerged: <ul><li>sociocultural evolutionism</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Social_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cycle">social cycle</a> theory</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>.</li></ul> These theories had a common factor: they all agreed that the history of humanity is pursuing a certain fixed path, most likely that of social progress. Thus, each past event is not only chronologically, but causally tied to present and future events. The theories postulated that by recreating the sequence of those events, sociology could discover the "laws" of history.<a href="#cite_note-psz491-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociocultural_evolutionism_and_the_idea_of_progress">Sociocultural evolutionism and the idea of progress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sociocultural evolutionism and the idea of progress">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></div> While sociocultural evolutionists agree that an evolution-like process leads to social progress, classical social evolutionists have developed many different theories, known as theories of unilineal evolution. Sociocultural evolutionism became the prevailing theory of early sociocultural anthropology and <a href="/wiki/Social_commentary" title="Social commentary">social commentary</a>, and is associated with scholars like <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Kidd" title="Benjamin Kidd">Benjamin Kidd</a>, <a href="/wiki/L._T._Hobhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="L. T. Hobhouse">L. T. Hobhouse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>. Such stage models and ideas of linear models of progress had a great influence not only on future evolutionary approaches in the social sciences and humanities,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> but also shaped public, scholarly, and scientific discourse surrounding the rising individualism and population thinking.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Sociocultural evolutionism attempted to formalise social thinking along scientific lines, with the added influence from the biological theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. If organisms could develop over time according to discernible, deterministic laws, then it seemed reasonable that societies could as well. Human society was compared to a biological organism, and social science equivalents of concepts like <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">variation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritance</a> were introduced as factors resulting in the progress of societies. The idea of progress led to that of a fixed "stages" through which human societies progress, usually numbering three – savagery, barbarism, and civilization – but sometimes many more. At that time, anthropology was rising as a new scientific discipline, separating from the traditional views of "primitive" cultures that was usually based on religious views.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Already in the 18th century, some authors began to theorize on the evolution of humans. <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> (1689–1755) wrote about the relationship laws have with climate in particular and the environment in general, specifically how different climatic conditions cause certain characteristics to be common among different people.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> He likens the development of laws, the presence or absence of civil liberty, differences in morality, and the whole development of different cultures to the climate of the respective people,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> concluding that the environment determines whether and how a people farms the land, which determines the way their society is built and their culture is constituted, or, in Montesquieu's words, the "general spirit of a nation".<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Also <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> (1712–1778) presents a conjectural stage-model of human sociocultural evolution:<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> first, humans lived solitarily and only grouped when mating or raising children. Later, men and women lived together and shared childcare, thus building families, followed by tribes as the result of inter-family interactions, which lived in "the happiest and the most lasting epoch" of human history, before the corruption of civil society degenerated the species again in a developmental stage-process.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In the late 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a> (1743–1794) listed ten stages, or "epochs", each advancing the rights of man and perfecting the human race. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Charles Darwin's grandfather, was an enormously influential natural philosopher, physiologist and poet whose remarkably insightful ideas included a statement of transformism and the interconnectedness of all forms of life. His works, which are enormously wide-ranging, also advance a theory of cultural transformation: his famous The Temple of Nature is subtitled 'the Origin of Society'.<a href="#cite_note-Priestman_2013_184-14">[14]</a> This work, rather than proposing in detail a strict transformation of humanity between different stages, instead dwells on Erasmus Darwin's evolutionary mechanism: Erasmus Darwin does not explain each stage one-by-one, trusting his theory of universal organic development, as articulated in the Zoonomia, to illustrate cultural development as well.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Erasmus Darwin therefore flits with abandon through his chronology: Priestman notes that it jumps from the emergence of life onto land, the development of opposable thumbs, and the origin of sexual reproduction directly to modern historical events.<a href="#cite_note-Priestman_2013_184-14">[14]</a> Another more complex theorist was Richard Payne Knight (1751-1824), an influential amateur archeologist and universal theologian. Knight's The Progress of Civil Society: A Didactic Poem in Six Books (1796) fits precisely into the tradition of triumphant historical stages, beginning with Lucretius and reaching Adam Smith––but just for the first four books.<a href="#cite_note-Priestman_2013_188-16">[16]</a> In his final books, Knight then grapples with the French revolution and wealthy decadence. Confronted with these twin issues, Knight's theory ascribes progress to conflict: 'partial discord lends its aid, to tie the complex knots of general harmony'.<a href="#cite_note-Priestman_2013_188-16">[16]</a> Competition in Knight's mechanism spurs development from any one stage to the next: the dialectic of class, land and gender creates growth.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Thus, Knight conceptualised a theory of history founded in inevitable racial conflict, with Greece representing 'freedom' and Egypt 'cold inactive stupor'.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Buffon, Linnaeus, Camper and Monboddo variously forward diverse arguments about racial hierarchy, grounded in early theories of species change––though many thought that environmental changes could create dramatic changes in form without permanently altering the species or causing species transformation. However, their arguments still bear on race: Rousseau, Buffon and Monboddo cite orangutans as evidence of an earlier prelinguistic human type, and Monboddo even insisted Orangutans and certain African and South Asian races were identical. Other than Erasmus Darwin, the other pre-eminent scientific text with a theory of cultural transformation was advanced by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(publisher,_born_1802)" title="Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)">Robert Chambers</a> (1802-1871). Chambers was a Scottish evolutionary thinker and philosopher who, though he was then and now perceived as scientifically inadequate and criticized by prominent contemporaries, is important because he was so widely read. There are records of everyone from Queen Victoria to individual dockworkers enjoying his Robert Chambers' Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844), including future generations of scientists. That The Vestiges did not establish itself as the scientific cutting edge is precisely the point, since the Vestiges's influence means it was both the concept of evolution the Victorian public was most likely to experience, and the scientific presupposition laid earliest in the minds of bright young scholars.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Chambers propounded a 'principle of development' whereby everything evolved by the same mechanism and towards higher order structure or meaning. In his theory, life advanced through different 'classes', and within each class animals began at the lowest form and then advanced to more complex forms in the same class.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In short, the progress of animals was like the development of a foetus. More than just an indistinct analogy, this parallel between embryology and species development had the status of a genuine causal mechanism in Chambers' theory: more advanced species developed longer as embryos into all their complexity.<a href="#cite_note-Bowler_2009_136-21">[21]</a> Motivated by this comparison, Chambers ascribed development to the 'laws of creation', though he also supposed that the whole development of species was in some way preordained: it was just that the preordination of the creator acted through establishing those laws.<a href="#cite_note-Bowler_2009_136-21">[21]</a> This, as discussed above, is similar to Spencer's later concept of development. Thus Chambers believed in a sophisticated theory of progress driven by a developmental analogy. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herbert_Spencer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Herbert_Spencer.jpg/200px-Herbert_Spencer.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Herbert_Spencer.jpg/300px-Herbert_Spencer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Herbert_Spencer.jpg/400px-Herbert_Spencer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1541" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></figcaption></figure> In the mid-19th century, a "revolution in ideas about the antiquity of the human species" took place "which paralleled, but was to some extent independent of, the Darwinian revolution in biology."<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Especially in geology, archaeology, and anthropology, scholars began to compare "primitive" cultures to past societies and "saw their level of technology as parallel with that of Stone Age cultures, and thus used these peoples as models for the early stages of human evolution." A developmental model of the evolution of the mind, culture, and society was the result, paralleling the evolution of the human species:<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> "Modern savages [sic] became, in effect, living fossils left behind by the march of progress, relics of the Paleolithic still lingering on into the present."<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Classical social evolutionism is most closely associated with the 19th-century writings of Auguste Comte and of Herbert Spencer (coiner of the phrase "<a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">survival of the fittest</a>").<a href="#cite_note-psz495-25">[25]</a> In many ways, Spencer's theory of "<a href="/wiki/Cosmic_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic evolution">cosmic evolution</a>" has much more in common with the works of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> and Auguste Comte than with contemporary works of Charles Darwin. Spencer also developed and published his theories several years earlier than Darwin. In regard to social institutions, however, there is a good case that Spencer's writings might be classified as social evolutionism. Although he wrote that societies over time progressed – and that progress was accomplished through competition – he stressed that the individual rather than the <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivity</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_analysis" title="Unit of analysis">unit of analysis</a> that evolves; that, in other words, evolution takes place through natural selection and that it affects social as well as biological phenomenon. Nonetheless, the publication of Darwin's works[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] proved a boon to the proponents of sociocultural evolution, who saw the ideas of biological evolution as an attractive explanation for many questions about the development of society.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Both Spencer and Comte view society as a kind of organism subject to the process of growth—from simplicity to complexity, from chaos to order, from generalisation to specialisation, from flexibility to organisation. They agree that the process of societal growth can be divided into certain stages, have[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] their beginning and eventual end, and that this growth is in fact social progress: each newer, more-evolved society is "better". Thus <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressivism</a> became one of the basic ideas underlying the theory of sociocultural evolutionism.<a href="#cite_note-psz495-25">[25]</a> However, Spencer's theories were more complex than just a romp up the <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">great chain of being</a>. Spencer based his arguments on an analogy between the evolution of societies and the ontogeny of an animal. Accordingly, he searched for "general principles of development and structure" or "fundamental principles of organization", rather than being content simply ascribing progress between social stages to the direct intervention of some beneficent deity.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Moreover, he accepted that these conditions are "far less specific, far more modifiable, far more dependent on conditions that are variable": in short, that they are a messy biological process.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Though Spencer's theories transcended the label of 'stagism' and appreciate biological complexity, they still accepted a strongly fixed direction and morality to natural development.<a href="#cite_note-Simon-29">[29]</a> For Spencer, interference with the natural process of evolution was dangerous and had to be avoided at all costs. Such views were naturally coupled to the pressing political and economic questions of the time. Spencer clearly thought society's evolution brought about a racial hierarchy with Caucasians at the top and Africans at the bottom.<a href="#cite_note-Simon-29">[29]</a> This notion is deeply linked to the colonial projects European powers were pursuing at the time, and the idea of European superiority used paternalistically to justify those projects. The influential German zoologist Ernst Haeckel even wrote that 'natural men are closer to the higher vertebrates than highly civilized Europeans', including not just a racial hierarchy but a civilizational one.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Likewise, Spencer's evolutionary argument advanced a theory of statehood: "until spontaneously fulfilled a public want should not be fulfilled at all" sums up Spencer's notion about limited government and the free operation of market forces.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> This is not to suggest that stagism was useless or entirely motivated by colonialism and racism. Stagist theories were first proposed in contexts where competing epistemologies were largely static views of the world. Hence "progress" had in some sense to be invented, conceptually: the idea that human society would move through stages was a triumphant invention. Moreover, stages were not always static entities. In Buffon's theories, for example, it was possible to regress between stages, and physiological changes were species' reversibly adapting to their environment rather than irreversibly transforming.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In addition to progressivism, economic analyses influenced classical social evolutionism. <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> (1723–1790), who held a deeply evolutionary view of human society,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> identified the growth of freedom as the driving force in a process of stadial societal development.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> According to him, all societies pass successively through four stages: the earliest humans lived as hunter-gatherers, followed by pastoralists and nomads, after which society evolved to agriculturalists and ultimately reached the stage of commerce.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> With the strong emphasis on specialisation and the increased profits stemming from a division of labour, Smith's thinking also exerted some direct influence on Darwin himself.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Both in Darwin's theory of the evolution of species and in Smith's accounts of political economy, competition between selfishly functioning units plays an important and even dominating rôle.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Similarly occupied with economic concerns as Smith, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas R. Malthus</a> (1766–1834) warned that given the strength of the sex drive inherent in all animals, Malthus argued, populations tend to grow geometrically, and population growth is only checked by the limitations of economic growth, which, if there would be growth at all, would quickly be outstripped by population growth, causing hunger, poverty, and misery.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Far from being the consequences of economic structures or social orders, this "struggle for existence" is an inevitable natural law, so Malthus.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Auguste Comte, known as "the father of sociology", formulated the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_three_stages" title="Law of three stages">law of three stages</a>: human development progresses from the <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> stage, in which nature was <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">mythically</a> conceived and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from supernatural beings; through a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical stage</a> in which nature was conceived of as a result of obscure forces and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from them; until the final <a href="/wiki/Positivism#Social_Science" title="Positivism">positive</a> stage in which all abstract and obscure forces are discarded, and natural phenomena are explained by their constant relationship.<a href="#cite_note-psz498-499-40">[40]</a> This progress is forced through the development of human mind, and through increasing application of thought, reasoning and logic to the understanding of the world.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Comte saw the science-valuing society as the highest, most developed type of human organization.<a href="#cite_note-psz498-499-40">[40]</a> Herbert Spencer, who argued against <a href="/wiki/Government_intervention" class="mw-redirect" title="Government intervention">government intervention</a> as he believed that society should evolve toward more individual freedom,<a href="#cite_note-fordham-42">[42]</a> followed <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck</a> in his evolutionary thinking,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> in that he believed that humans do over time adapt to their surroundings.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> He differentiated between two phases of development as regards societies' internal regulation:<a href="#cite_note-psz498-499-40">[40]</a> the "military" and "industrial" societies.<a href="#cite_note-psz498-499-40">[40]</a> The earlier (and more primitive) military society has the goal of conquest and defense, is <a href="/wiki/Centralisation" title="Centralisation">centralised</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">economically self-sufficient</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">collectivistic</a>, puts the good of a group over the good of an individual, uses compulsion, force and repression, and rewards loyalty, obedience and discipline.<a href="#cite_note-psz498-499-40">[40]</a> The industrial society, in contrast, has a goal of <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">production</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Decentralisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decentralisation">decentralised</a>, interconnected with other societies via economic relations, works through voluntary cooperation and individual self-restraint, treats the good of individual as of the highest value, regulates the social life via voluntary relations; and values initiative, independence and innovation.<a href="#cite_note-psz498-499-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The transition process from the military to industrial society is the outcome of steady evolutionary processes within the society.<a href="#cite_note-psz498-499-40">[40]</a> Spencer "imagined a kind of feedback loop between mental and social evolution: the higher the mental powers the greater the complexity of the society that the individuals could create; the more complex the society, the greater the stimulus it provided for further mental development. Everything cohered to make progress inevitable or to weed out those who did not keep up."<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Regardless of how scholars of Spencer interpret his relation to Darwin, Spencer became an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Authors such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Youmans" title="Edward L. Youmans">Edward L. Youmans</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Fiske_(philosopher)" title="John Fiske (philosopher)">John Fiske</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Burgess_(political_scientist)" title="John Burgess (political scientist)">John W. Burgess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Lester Frank Ward</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a> (1818–1881) and other thinkers of the <a href="/wiki/Gilded_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilded age">gilded age</a> all developed theories of social evolutionism as a result of their exposure to Spencer as well as to Darwin. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morgan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Morgan.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="180" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a></figcaption></figure> In his 1877 classic Ancient Societies, Lewis H. Morgan, an anthropologist whose ideas have had much impact on sociology, differentiated between three eras:<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/savagery" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:savagery">savagery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>, which are divided by technological inventions, like fire, <a href="/wiki/Bow_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (weapon)">bow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a> in the savage era, <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestication of animals">domestication of animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a> in the barbarian era and <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> in the civilization era.<a href="#cite_note-psz499-500-48">[48]</a> Thus Morgan drew a link between social progress and technological progress. Morgan viewed technological progress as a force behind social progress, and held that any <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social change</a>—in <a href="/wiki/Social_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institution">social institutions</a>, organizations or ideologies—has its beginnings in technological change.<a href="#cite_note-psz499-500-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Morgan's theories were popularized by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, who based his famous work <a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a> on them.<a href="#cite_note-psz499-500-48">[48]</a> For Engels and other Marxists this theory was important, as it supported their conviction that materialistic factors—economic and technological—are decisive in shaping the fate of humanity.<a href="#cite_note-psz499-500-48">[48]</a> Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917), a pioneer of anthropology, focused on the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of culture">evolution of culture</a> worldwide, noting that culture is an important part of every society and that it is also subject to a process of evolution. He believed that societies were at different stages of cultural development and that the purpose of anthropology was to reconstruct the evolution of culture, from primitive beginnings to the modern state. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg/200px-Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a></figcaption></figure> Anthropologists Sir E.B. Tylor in England and Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States worked with data from <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people">indigenous people</a>, who (they claimed) represented earlier stages of cultural evolution that gave insight into the process and progression of evolution of culture. Morgan had a significant influence on <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and on Friedrich Engels, who developed a theory of sociocultural evolution in which the internal contradictions in society generated a series of escalating stages that ended in a socialist society (see <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>). Tylor and Morgan elaborated the theory of unilinear evolution, specifying criteria for categorising cultures according to their standing within a fixed system of growth of humanity as a whole and examining the modes and mechanisms of this growth. Theirs was often a concern with culture in general, not with individual cultures. Their analysis of cross-cultural data was based on three assumptions: <ol><li>contemporary societies may be classified and ranked as more "primitive" or more "civilized"</li> <li>there are a determinate number of stages between "primitive" and "civilized" (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">chiefdom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>)</li> <li>all societies progress through these stages in the same sequence, but at different rates</li></ol> Theorists usually measured progression (that is, the difference between one stage and the next) in terms of increasing social complexity (including class differentiation and a complex division of labour), or an increase in intellectual, theological, and aesthetic sophistication. These 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnologists</a> used these principles primarily to explain differences in religious beliefs and kinship terminologies among various societies. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%A4%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%A4%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4.jpeg/200px-%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%A4%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%A4%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4.jpeg/300px-%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%A4%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%A4%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4.jpeg/400px-%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%A4%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>Lester Frank Ward</figcaption></figure> Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913), sometimes referred to[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] as the "father" of American sociology, rejected many of Spencer's theories regarding the evolution of societies. Ward, who was also a botanist and a paleontologist, believed that the law of evolution functioned much differently in human societies than it did in the plant and animal kingdoms, and theorized that the "law of nature" had been superseded by the "law of the mind".<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-50">[50]</a> He stressed that humans, driven by emotions, create goals for themselves and strive to realize them (most effectively with the modern <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>) whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human world.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-501-51">[51]</a> Plants and animals adapt to nature; man shapes nature. While Spencer believed that competition and "survival of the fittest" benefited human society and sociocultural evolution, Ward regarded competition as a destructive force, pointing out that all human institutions, traditions and laws were tools invented by the mind of man and that that mind designed them, like all tools, to "meet and checkmate" the unrestrained competition of natural forces.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-50">[50]</a> Ward agreed with Spencer that authoritarian governments repress the talents of the individual, but he believed that modern democratic societies, which minimized the role of religion and maximized that of science, could effectively support the individual in his or her attempt to fully utilize their talents and achieve happiness. He believed that the evolutionary processes have four stages: <ul><li>First comes <a href="/wiki/Cosmogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmogenesis">cosmogenesis</a>, creation and evolution of the world.</li> <li>Then, when life arises, there is <a href="/wiki/Biogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogenesis">biogenesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-501-51">[51]</a></li> <li>Development of humanity leads to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hominization" class="extiw" title="wikt:Hominization">anthropogenesis</a>, which is influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Human_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mind">human mind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-501-51">[51]</a></li> <li>Finally there arrives <a href="/wiki/Sociogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociogenesis">sociogenesis</a>, which is the science of shaping the evolutionary process itself to optimize progress, human happiness and individual self-actualization.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-501-51">[51]</a></li></ul> Ward regarded modern societies as superior to "primitive" societies (one need only look to the impact of medical science on health and lifespan[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]) and shared theories of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>. Though he supported the <a href="/wiki/Out-of-Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Out-of-Africa">Out-of-Africa</a> theory of human evolution, he did not believe that all races and social classes were equal in talent. When a Negro rapes a white woman, Ward declared, he is impelled not only by lust but also by the instinctive drive to improve his own race.<a href="#cite_note-google-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Ward did not think that evolutionary progress was inevitable and he feared the degeneration of societies and cultures, which he saw as very evident in the historical record.<a href="#cite_note-google2-54">[54]</a> Ward also did not favor the radical reshaping of society as proposed by the supporters of the eugenics movement or by the followers of Karl Marx; like Comte, Ward believed that sociology was the most complex of the sciences and that true sociogenesis was impossible without considerable research and experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-google-52">[52]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/200px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></figcaption></figure> Émile Durkheim, another of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field" title="List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field">"fathers" of sociology</a>, developed a <a href="/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomal</a> view of social progress.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-55">[55]</a> His key concept was <a href="/wiki/Social_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Social solidarity">social solidarity</a>, as he defined social evolution in terms of progressing from <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical solidarity">mechanical solidarity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Organic_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic solidarity">organic solidarity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-55">[55]</a> In mechanical solidarity, people are self-sufficient, there is little integration and thus there is the need for the use of force and repression to keep society together.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-55">[55]</a> In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated and interdependent and specialisation and cooperation are extensive.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-55">[55]</a> Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based firstly on <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> and increasing <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</a>, secondly on increasing "morality density" (development of more complex social interactions) and thirdly on increasing specialisation in the workplace.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-55">[55]</a> To Durkheim, the most important factor in social progress is the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz500-55">[55]</a> This[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] was later used in the mid-1900s by the economist <a href="/wiki/Ester_Boserup" title="Ester Boserup">Ester Boserup</a> (1910–1999) to attempt to discount some aspects of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthusian theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a> (1855–1936) describes evolution as the development from informal society, where people have many liberties and there are few laws and obligations, to modern, formal rational society, dominated by traditions and laws, where people are restricted from acting as they wish.<a href="#cite_note-psz501-56">[56]</a> He also notes that there is a tendency to <a href="/wiki/Standardisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Standardisation">standardisation</a> and unification, when all smaller societies are absorbed into a single, large, modern society.<a href="#cite_note-psz501-56">[56]</a> Thus Tönnies can be said to describe part of the process known today as <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. Tönnies was also one of the first sociologists to claim that the evolution of society is not necessarily going in the right direction, that social progress is not perfect, and it can even be called a regression as the newer, more evolved societies are obtained only after paying a high cost, resulting in decreasing satisfaction of the individuals making up that society.<a href="#cite_note-psz501-56">[56]</a> Tönnies' work became the foundation of neoevolutionism.<a href="#cite_note-psz501-56">[56]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> is not usually counted[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] as a sociocultural evolutionist, his theory of <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_classification_of_authority" title="Tripartite classification of authority">tripartite classification of authority</a> can be viewed[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] as an evolutionary theory as well. Weber distinguishes three <a href="/wiki/Ideal_type" title="Ideal type">ideal types</a> of political <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/domination" class="extiw" title="wikt:domination">domination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_domination" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic domination">charismatic domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_domination" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional domination">traditional domination</a> (patriarchs, patrimonialism, feudalism)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_domination" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal domination">legal (rational) domination</a> (modern law and state, bureaucracy)</li></ol> Weber also notes that legal domination is the most advanced, and that societies evolve from having mostly <a href="/wiki/Traditional_authority" title="Traditional authority">traditional</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_authority" title="Charismatic authority">charismatic authorities</a> to mostly <a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">rational and legal ones</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critique_and_impact_on_modern_theories">Critique and impact on modern theories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Critique and impact on modern theories">edit</a>]</div> The early 20th-century inaugurated a period of systematic critical examination, and rejection of the sweeping generalisations of the unilineal theories of sociocultural evolution. Cultural anthropologists such as <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> (1858–1942), along with his students, including <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a>, are regarded[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] as the <a href="/wiki/Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader">leaders</a> of anthropology's rejection of classical social evolutionism. However, the school of Boas ignore some of the complexity in evolutionary theories that emerged outside Herbert Spencer's influence. Charles Darwin's <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a> gave a mechanistic account of the origins and development of animals, quite apart from Spencer's theories that emphasized the inevitable human development through stages. Consequently, many scholars developed more sophisticated understandings of how cultures evolve, relying on deep cultural analogies, than the theories in Herbert Spencer's tradition.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgson_2010_6-57">[57]</a> Walter Bagehot (1872) applied selection and inheritance to the development of human political institutions. Samuel Alexander (1892) discusses the natural selection of moral principles in society.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgson_2010_7-58">[58]</a> William James (1880) considered the 'natural selection' of ideas in learning and scientific development. In fact, he identified a 'remarkable parallel […] between the facts of social evolution on the one hand, and of zoological evolution as expounded by Mr Darwin on the other'.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgson_2010_7-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> (1898) even proposed that the current laws of nature we have exist because they have evolved over time.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgson_2010_7-58">[58]</a> Darwin himself, in Chapter 5 of the Descent of Man, proposed that human moral sentiments were subject to group selection: "A tribe including many members who, from possessing in a high degree the spirit of patriotism, fidelity, obedience, courage, and sympathy, were always ready to aid one another, and to sacrifice themselves for the common good, would be victorious over most other tribes; and this would be natural selection."<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Through the mechanism of imitation, cultures as well as individuals could be subject to natural selection. While these theories involved evolution applied to social questions, except for Darwin's group selection the theories reviewed above did not advance a precise understanding of how Darwin's mechanism extended and applied to cultures beyond a vague appeal to competition.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Ritchie's Darwinism and Politics (1889) breaks this trend, holding that "language and social institutions make it possible to transmit experience quite independently of the continuity of race."<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Hence Ritchie saw cultural evolution as a process that could operate independently of and on different scales to the evolution of species, and gave it precise underpinnings: he was 'extending its range', in his own words, to ideas, cultures and institutions.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Thorstein Veblen, around the same time, came to a similar insight: that humans evolve to their social environment, but their social environment in turn also evolves.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Veblen's mechanism for human progress was the evolution of human intentionality: Veblen labelled men 'a creature of habit' and thought that habits were 'mentally digested' from those who influenced him.<a href="#cite_note-Hodgson_2010_6-57">[57]</a> In short, as Hodgson and Knudsen point out, Veblen thinks: "the changing institutions in their turn make for a further selection of individuals endowed with the fittest temperament, and a further adaptation of individual temperament and habits to the changing environment through the formation of new institutions." Thus, Veblen represented an extension of Ritchie's theories, where evolution operates at multiple levels, to a sophisticated appreciation of how each level interacts with the other.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> This complexity notwithstanding, Boas and Benedict used sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a> and more rigorous empirical methods to argue that Spencer, Tylor, and Morgan's theories were speculative and systematically misrepresented ethnographic data. Theories regarding "stages" of evolution were especially criticised as illusions. Additionally, they rejected the distinction between "primitive" and "civilized" (or "modern"), pointing out that so-called primitive contemporary societies have just as much history, and were just as evolved, as so-called civilized societies. They therefore argued that any attempt to use this theory to reconstruct the histories of non-literate (i.e. leaving no historical documents) peoples is entirely speculative and unscientific. They observed that the postulated progression, which typically ended with a stage of civilization identical to that of modern Europe, is <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">ethnocentric</a>. They also pointed out that the theory assumes that societies are clearly bounded and distinct, when in fact cultural traits and forms often cross social boundaries and diffuse among many different societies (and are thus an important mechanism of change). Boas in his <a href="/wiki/Culture_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture history">culture-history</a> approach focused on anthropological fieldwork in an attempt to identify factual processes instead of what he criticized as speculative stages of growth. His approach greatly influenced American anthropology in the first half of the 20th century, and marked a retreat from high-level generalization and from "systems building". Later critics observed that the assumption of firmly bounded societies was proposed precisely at the time when European powers were colonising non-Western societies, and was thus self-serving. Many anthropologists and social theorists now consider unilineal cultural and social evolution a Western <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">myth</a> seldom based on solid empirical grounds. <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theorists</a> argue that notions of social evolution are simply justifications for <a href="/wiki/Power_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (sociology)">power</a> by the élites of society. Finally, the devastating World Wars that occurred between 1914 and 1945 crippled Europe's self-confidence. After millions of deaths, genocide, and the destruction of Europe's industrial infrastructure, the idea of progress seemed dubious at best. Thus modern sociocultural evolutionism rejects most of classical social evolutionism due to various theoretical problems: <ol><li>The theory was deeply <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnocentric">ethnocentric</a>—it makes heavy value judgments about different societies, with <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a> seen as the most valuable.</li> <li>It assumed all cultures follow the same path or progression and have the same goals.</li> <li>It equated civilization with <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> (technology, cities, etc.)</li></ol> Because social evolution was posited as a scientific theory, it was often used to support unjust and often <a href="/wiki/Racist" class="mw-redirect" title="Racist">racist</a> social practices – particularly colonialism, slavery, and the unequal economic conditions present within industrialized Europe. Social Darwinism is especially criticised, as it purportedly led to some philosophies used by the <a href="/wiki/Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazis">Nazis</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Max_Weber,_disenchantment,_and_critical_theory">Max Weber, disenchantment, and critical theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Max Weber, disenchantment, and critical theory">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Weber_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Max_Weber_1917.jpg/220px-Max_Weber_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Max_Weber_1917.jpg/330px-Max_Weber_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Max_Weber_1917.jpg/440px-Max_Weber_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>Max Weber in 1917</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></div> Weber's major works in <a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economic sociology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">sociology of religion</a> dealt with the <a href="/wiki/Rationalisation_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalisation (sociology)">rationalization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secularisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Secularisation">secularisation</a>, and so called "<a href="/wiki/Disenchantment" title="Disenchantment">disenchantment</a>" which he associated with the rise of capitalism and <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> In sociology, rationalization is the process whereby an increasing number of <a href="/wiki/Social_action" title="Social action">social actions</a> become based on considerations of teleological efficiency or calculation rather than on motivations derived from <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">custom</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a>. Rather than referring to what is genuinely "rational" or "logical", rationalization refers to a relentless quest for goals that might actually function to the detriment of a society. Rationalization is an ambivalent aspect of modernity, manifested especially in <a href="/wiki/Western_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Western society">Western society</a> – as a behaviour of the capitalist market, of rational administration in <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">the state</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, of the extension of modern <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and of the expansion of modern technology.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Weber's thought regarding the rationalizing and secularizing tendencies of modern Western society (sometimes described as the "<a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">Weber Thesis</a>") would blend with Marxism to facilitate critical theory, particularly in the work of thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> (born 1929). Critical theorists, as <a href="/wiki/Antipositivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipositivist">antipositivists</a>, are critical of the idea of a hierarchy of sciences or societies, particularly with respect to the sociological <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> originally set forth by Comte. Jürgen Habermas has critiqued the concept of pure <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_rationality" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental rationality">instrumental rationality</a> as meaning that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> itself. For theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a> (1925–2017), rationalization as a manifestation of modernity may be most closely and regrettably associated with the events of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_theories">Modern theories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern theories">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">multilineal evolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:City_Lights_2012_-_Flat_map_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/City_Lights_2012_-_Flat_map_crop.jpg/300px-City_Lights_2012_-_Flat_map_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/City_Lights_2012_-_Flat_map_crop.jpg/450px-City_Lights_2012_-_Flat_map_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/City_Lights_2012_-_Flat_map_crop.jpg/600px-City_Lights_2012_-_Flat_map_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="11358" data-file-height="6075" /></a><figcaption>Composite image of the Earth at night in 2012, created by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a>. The brightest areas of the Earth are the most urbanized, but not necessarily the most populated. Even more than 100 years after the invention of the electric light, most regions remain thinly populated or unlit.</figcaption></figure> When the critique of classical social evolutionism became widely accepted, modern anthropological and sociological approaches changed respectively. Modern theories are careful to avoid unsourced, ethnocentric speculation, comparisons, or value judgments; more or less regarding individual societies as existing within their own historical contexts. These conditions provided the context for new theories such as <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a> and multilineal evolution. In the 1920s and 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Childe" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon Childe">Gordon Childe</a> revolutionized the study of cultural evolutionism. He conducted a comprehensive pre-history account that provided scholars with evidence for African and Asian cultural transmission into Europe. He combated scientific racism by finding the tools and artifacts of the indigenous people from Africa and Asia and showed how they influenced the technology of European culture. Evidence from his excavations countered the idea of Aryan supremacy and superiority. Adopting "Kosinna's basic concept of the archaeological culture and his identification of such cultures as the remains of prehistoric peoples" and combining it with the detailed chronologies of European prehistory developed by Gustaf Oscar Montelius, Childe argued that each society needed to be delineated individually on the basis of constituent artefacts which were indicative of their practical and social function.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Childe explained cultural evolution by his theory of divergence with modifications of convergence. He postulated that different cultures form separate methods that meet different needs, but when two cultures were in contact they developed similar adaptations, solving similar problems. Rejecting Spencer's theory of parallel cultural evolution, Childe found that interactions between cultures contributed to the convergence of similar aspects most often attributed to one culture. Childe placed emphasis on human culture as a <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a> rather than products of environmental or technological contexts. Childe coined the terms "<a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Urban_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban Revolution">Urban Revolution</a>" which are still used today in the branch of pre-historic anthropology. In 1941 anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Redfield" title="Robert Redfield">Robert Redfield</a> wrote about a shift from 'folk society' to 'urban society'. By the 1940s cultural anthropologists such as <a href="/wiki/Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julian_Steward" title="Julian Steward">Julian Steward</a> sought to revive an evolutionary model on a more scientific basis, and succeeded in establishing an approach known as neoevolutionism. White rejected the opposition between "primitive" and "modern" societies but did argue that societies could be distinguished based on the amount of energy they harnessed, and that increased energy allowed for greater social differentiation (White's law). Steward on the other hand rejected the 19th-century notion of progress, and instead called attention to the Darwinian notion of "adaptation", arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way. The anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elman_Service" title="Elman Service">Elman Service</a> prepared an edited volume, Evolution and Culture, in which they attempted to synthesise White's and Steward's approaches.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Other anthropologists, building on or responding to work by White and Steward, developed theories of cultural ecology and ecological anthropology. The most prominent examples are <a href="/wiki/Peter_Vayda" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Vayda">Peter Vayda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Rappaport" title="Roy Rappaport">Roy Rappaport</a>. By the late 1950s, students of Steward such as <a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mintz" title="Sidney Mintz">Sidney Mintz</a> turned away from cultural ecology to Marxism, <a href="/wiki/World_Systems_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="World Systems Theory">World Systems Theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a>. Today most anthropologists reject 19th-century notions of progress and the three assumptions of unilineal evolution. Following Steward, they take seriously the relationship between a culture and its environment to explain different aspects of a culture. But most modern cultural anthropologists have adopted a general systems approach, examining cultures as emergent systems and arguing that one must consider the whole social environment, which includes political and economic relations among cultures. As a result of simplistic notions of "progressive evolution", more modern, complex cultural evolution theories (such as <a href="/wiki/Dual_Inheritance_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual Inheritance Theory">Dual Inheritance Theory</a>, discussed below) receive little attention in the social sciences, having given way in some cases to a series of more humanist approaches. Some reject the entirety of evolutionary thinking and look instead at historical contingencies, contacts with other cultures, and the operation of cultural symbol systems. In the area of development studies, authors such as <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> have developed an understanding of 'development' and 'human flourishing' that also question more simplistic notions of progress, while retaining much of their original inspiration. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Neoevolutionism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></div> Neoevolutionism was the first in a series of modern multilineal evolution theories. It emerged in the 1930s and extensively developed in the period following the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> and was incorporated into both anthropology and sociology in the 1960s. It bases its theories on empirical evidence from areas of archaeology, <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> and tries to eliminate any references to systems of <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">values</a>, be it moral or cultural, instead trying to remain objective and simply descriptive.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> While 19th-century evolutionism explained how culture develops by giving general principles of its evolutionary process, it was dismissed by the <a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical Particularists</a> as unscientific in the early 20th century. It was the neo-evolutionary thinkers who brought back evolutionary thought and developed it to be acceptable to contemporary anthropology. Neo-evolutionism discards many ideas of classical social evolutionism, namely that of social progress, so dominant in previous sociology evolution-related theories.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> Then neo-evolutionism discards the <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a> argument and introduces <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>, arguing that accidents and free will greatly affect the process of social evolution.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> It also supports <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_history" title="Counterfactual history">counterfactual history</a>—asking "what if" and considering different possible paths that social evolution may take or might have taken, and thus allows for the fact that various cultures may develop in different ways, some skipping entire stages others have passed through.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> Neo-evolutionism stresses the importance of <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> evidence. While 19th-century evolutionism used value judgments and assumptions for interpreting data, neo-evolutionism relies on measurable information for analysing the process of sociocultural evolution. <a href="/wiki/Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a>, author of The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome (1959), attempted to create a theory explaining the entire <a href="/wiki/History_of_humanity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of humanity">history of humanity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> The most important factor in his theory is technology.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">Social systems</a> are determined by technological systems, wrote White in his book,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> echoing the earlier theory of Lewis Henry Morgan. He proposes a society's <a href="/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="World energy resources and consumption">energy consumption</a> as a measure of its advancement.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> He differentiates between five stages of human development.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> In the first, people use the energy of their own muscles.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> In the second, they use the energy of domesticated animals.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> In the third, they use the energy of plants (so White refers to agricultural revolution here).<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> In the fifth, they harness <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> White introduced a formula, P=E·T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilising the energy.<a href="#cite_note-psz502-503-68">[68]</a> This theory is similar to Russian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Kardashev" title="Nikolai Kardashev">Nikolai Kardashev</a>'s later theory of the <a href="/wiki/Kardashev_scale" title="Kardashev scale">Kardashev scale</a>. <a href="/wiki/Julian_Steward" title="Julian Steward">Julian Steward</a>, author of Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (1955, reprinted 1979), created the theory of "multilinear" evolution which examined the way in which societies adapted to their environment. This approach was more nuanced than White's theory of "unilinear evolution." Steward rejected the 19th-century notion of progress, and instead called attention to the Darwinian notion of "adaptation", arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way. He argued that different adaptations could be studied through the examination of the specific resources a society exploited, the technology the society relied on to exploit these resources, and the organization of human labour. He further argued that different environments and technologies would require different kinds of adaptations, and that as the resource base or technology changed, so too would a culture. In other words, cultures do not change according to some inner logic, but rather in terms of a changing relationship with a changing environment. Cultures therefore would not pass through the same stages in the same order as they changed—rather, they would change in varying ways and directions. He called his theory "multilineal evolution". He questioned the possibility of creating a social theory encompassing the entire evolution of humanity; however, he argued that anthropologists are not limited to describing specific existing cultures. He believed that it is possible to create theories analysing typical common culture, representative of specific eras or regions. As the decisive factors determining the development of given culture he pointed to technology and economics, but noted that there are secondary factors, like political system, ideologies and religion. All those factors push the evolution of a given society in several directions at the same time; hence the application of the term "multilinear" to his theory of evolution. <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a>, co-editor with Elman Service of Evolution and Culture (1960), divided the evolution of societies into 'general' and 'specific'.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> General evolution is the tendency of cultural and social systems to increase in complexity, organization and adaptiveness to environment.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> However, as the various cultures are not isolated, there is interaction and a <a href="/wiki/Diffusionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusionism">diffusion</a> of their qualities (like technological <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventions</a>).<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> This leads cultures to develop in different ways (specific evolution), as various elements are introduced to them in different combinations and at different stages of evolution.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> In his Power and Prestige (1966) and Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology (1974), <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Lenski" title="Gerhard Lenski">Gerhard Lenski</a> expands on the works of Leslie White and Lewis Henry Morgan,<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> developing the <a href="/wiki/Ecological-evolutionary_theory" title="Ecological-evolutionary theory">ecological-evolutionary theory</a>. He views technological progress as the most basic factor in the evolution of societies and cultures.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> Unlike White, who defined technology as the ability to create and utilise <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, Lenski focuses on <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>—its amount and uses.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> He distinguishes four stages of human development, based on advances in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">history of communication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> In the first stage, information is passed by <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> In the second, when humans gain <a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">sentience</a>, they can <a href="/wiki/Learn" class="mw-redirect" title="Learn">learn</a> and pass information through by experience.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> In the third, humans start using <a href="/wiki/Signage" title="Signage">signs</a> and develop <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> In the fourth, they can create <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a> and develop <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and writing.<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> Advancements in the technology of communication translate into advancements in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">economic system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political system</a>, distribution of <a href="/wiki/Good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics)">goods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a> and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) agricultural, (3) industrial, and (4) special (like fishing societies).<a href="#cite_note-psz504-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, author of Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (1966) and The System of Modern Societies (1971) divided evolution into four subprocesses: (1) division, which creates functional subsystems from the main system; (2) adaptation, where those systems evolve into more efficient versions; (3) inclusion of elements previously excluded from the given systems; and (4) generalization of values, increasing the legitimization of the ever more complex system.<a href="#cite_note-psz505-71">[71]</a> He shows those processes on 4 stages of evolution: (I) primitive or foraging, (II) archaic agricultural, (III) classical or "historic" in his terminology, using formalized and universalizing theories about reality and (IV) modern empirical cultures. However, these divisions in Parsons' theory are the more formal ways in which the evolutionary process is conceptualized, and should not be mistaken for Parsons' actual theory. Parsons develops a theory where he tries to reveal the complexity of the processes which take form between two points of necessity, the first being the cultural "necessity," which is given through the values-system of each evolving community; the other is the environmental necessities, which most directly is reflected in the material realities of the basic production system and in the relative capacity of each industrial-economical level at each window of time. Generally, Parsons highlights that the dynamics and directions of these processes is shaped by the cultural imperative embodied in the cultural heritage, and more secondarily, an outcome of sheer "economic" conditions. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>'s recent, and very much misunderstood, concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Biopower" title="Biopower">Biopower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biopolitics" title="Biopolitics">Biopolitics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power-knowledge" title="Power-knowledge">Power-knowledge</a> has been cited as breaking free from the traditional conception of man as cultural animal. Foucault regards both the terms "cultural animal" and "human nature"as misleading abstractions, leading to a non-critical exemption of man and anything can be justified when regarding social processes or natural phenomena (social phenomena).<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Foucault argues these complex processes are interrelated, and difficult to study for a reason so those 'truths' cannot be topled or disrupted. For Foucault, the many modern concepts and practices that attempt to uncover "the truth" about human beings (either psychologically, sexually, religion or spiritually) actually create the very types of people they purport to discover. Requiring trained "specialists" and knowledge codes and know how, rigorous pursuit is "put off" or delayed which makes any kind of study not only a 'taboo' subject but deliberately ignored. He cites the concept of 'truth'<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> within many human cultures and the ever flowing dynamics between truth, power, and knowledge as a resultant complex dynamics (Foucault uses the term regimes of truth) and how they flow with ease like water which make the concept of 'truth' impervious to any further rational investigation. Some of the West's most powerful social institutions are powerful for a reason, not because they exhibit powerful structures which inhibit investigation or it is illegal to investigate there historical foundation. It is the very notion of "legitimacy" Foucault cites as examples of "truth" which function as a "<a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a>" claims to historical accuracy. Foucault argues, systems such as <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisons">Prisons</a>,<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a>, as well as groundbreaking works on more abstract theoretical issues of power are suspended or buried into oblivion.<a href="#cite_note-kantor-76">[76]</a> He cites as further examples the 'Scientific study' of <a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> as both examples of this kind of "Biopower" over the vast majority of the human population giving the new founded political population their 'politics' or polity. With the advent of biology and genetics teamed together as new scientific innovations notions of study of knowledge regarding truth belong to the realm of experts who will never divulge their secrets openly, while the bulk of the population do not know their own biology or genetics this is done for them by the experts. This functions as a truth ignorance mechanism: "where the "subjugated knowledge's", as those that have been both written out of history and submerged in it in a masked form produces what we now know as truth. He calls them "Knowledge's from below" and a "historical knowledge of struggles".<a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a>, Foucault suggests, is a way of getting at these knowledge's and struggles; "they are about the insurrection of knowledge's." Foucault tries to show with the added dimension of "<a href="/wiki/Milieu_int%C3%A9rieur" class="mw-redirect" title="Milieu intérieur">Milieu</a>"(derived from <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian mechanics">Newtonian mechanics</a>) how this Milieu from the 17th century with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological Science">Biological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Sciences">Physical sciences</a> managed to be interwoven into the political, social and biological relationship of men with the arrival of the concept <a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a> placed upon the industrial population. Foucault uses the term <a href="/wiki/Umwelt" title="Umwelt">Umwelt</a>, borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Jakob_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakob von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a>, meaning environment within. Technology, production, <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> the production of <a href="/wiki/Nation_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation states">Nation states</a> and Government making the efficiency of the <a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consanguine" class="mw-redirect" title="Consanguine">Consanguine</a><a href="#cite_note-kantor-76">[76]</a> not only sound genuine and beyond historical origin and foundation it can be turned into 'exact truth' where the individual and the societal body are not only subjugated and nullified but dependent upon it. Foucault is not denying that genetic or biological study is inaccurate or is simply not telling the truth what he means is that notions of this newly discovered sciences were extended to include the vast majority (or whole populations) of populations as an exercise in "regimes change". Foucault argues that the conceptual meaning from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> period, the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentric model</a>, later superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a> model placing the position of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural and legal rights">law of right</a> in the Middle ages (<a href="/wiki/Exclusive_right" title="Exclusive right">Exclusive right</a> or its correct legal term <a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">Sui generis</a>) was the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a> where the previous incarnation of truth and rule of political sovereignty was considered absolute and unquestioned by <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> (monarchs, popes and emperors). However, Foucault noticed that this <a href="/wiki/Pharaonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharaonic">Pharaonic</a> version of <a href="/wiki/Political_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Political power">political power</a> was transversed and it was with 18th-century emergence of capitalism and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> that these terms began to be "democratized". The modern Pharaonic version represented by the <a href="/wiki/President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">president</a>, the monarch, the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">pope</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a> all became propagandized versions or examples of symbol agents all aimed at towards a newly discovered phenomenon, the population.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> As symbolic symbol agents of power making the mass population having to sacrifice itself all in the name of the newly formed voting franchise we now call <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a>. However, this was all turned on its head (when the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> rulers were thrown out and replaced by a more exact apparatus now called the state) when the human sciences suddenly discovered: "The set of mechanisms through which the basic biological features of the human species became an object of a political strategy and took on board the fundamental facts that humans were now a biological species."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sociobiology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></div> Sociobiology departs perhaps the furthest from classical social evolutionism.<a href="#cite_note-psz506-80">[80]</a> It was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Osborne_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Osborne Wilson">Edward Wilson</a> in his 1975 book <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology:_The_New_Synthesis" title="Sociobiology: The New Synthesis">Sociobiology: The New Synthesis</a> and followed his adaptation of evolutionary theory to the field of social sciences. Wilson pioneered the attempt to explain the evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviours such as <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a>, and nurturance.<a href="#cite_note-psz506-80">[80]</a> In doing so, Wilson sparked one of the greatest scientific <a href="/wiki/Controversy" title="Controversy">controversies</a> of the 20th century by introducing and rejuvenating neo-Darwinian modes of thinking in many social sciences and the humanities, leading to reactions ranging from fundamental opposition, not only from social scientists and humanists but also from Darwinists who see it as "excessively simplistic in its approach",<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> to calls for a radical restructuring of the respective disciplines on an evolutionary basis.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The current theory of evolution, the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a> (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> occurs through a combination of Darwin's mechanism of natural selection and <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>'s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics.<a href="#cite_note-psz506-80">[80]</a> Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection).<a href="#cite_note-psz506-80">[80]</a> Due to its close reliance on biology, sociobiology is often considered a branch of the biology, although it uses techniques from a plethora of sciences, including <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, evolution, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, archaeology, population genetics, and many others. Within the study of human <a href="/wiki/Societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Societies">societies</a>, sociobiology is closely related to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Human_behavioral_ecology" title="Human behavioral ecology">human behavioral ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>. Sociobiology has remained highly controversial as it contends <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> explain specific human behaviours, although sociobiologists describe this role as a very complex and often unpredictable interaction between nature and nurture. The most notable critics of the view that genes play a direct role in human behaviour have been biologists <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Rose" title="Steven Rose">Steven Rose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a>. Given the convergence of much of sociobiology's claims with right-wing politics, this approach has seen severe opposition both with regard to its research results as well as its basic tenets;<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> this has led even Wilson himself to revisit his claims and state his opposition to some elements of modern sociobiology.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Since the rise of evolutionary psychology, another school of thought, <a href="/wiki/Dual_Inheritance_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual Inheritance Theory">Dual Inheritance Theory</a>, has emerged in the past 25 years that applies the mathematical standards of Population genetics to modeling the adaptive and selective principles of culture. This school of thought was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyd_(anthropologist)" title="Robert Boyd (anthropologist)">Robert Boyd</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">UCLA</a> and Peter Richerson at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">UC Davis</a> and expanded by <a href="/wiki/William_C._Wimsatt" title="William C. Wimsatt">William Wimsatt</a>, among others. Boyd and Richerson's book, Culture and the Evolutionary Process (1985), was a highly mathematical description of cultural change, later published in a more accessible form in Not by Genes Alone (2004). In Boyd and Richerson's view, cultural evolution, operating on socially learned information, exists on a separate but co-evolutionary track from genetic evolution, and while the two are related, cultural evolution is more dynamic, rapid, and influential on human society than genetic evolution. Dual Inheritance Theory has the benefit of providing unifying territory for a "nature and nurture" paradigm and accounts for more accurate phenomenon in evolutionary theory applied to culture, such as randomness effects (drift), concentration dependency, "fidelity" of evolving information systems, and lateral transmission through communication.<a href="#cite_note-Culture_and_the_Evolutionary_Process-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Christakis" title="Nicholas Christakis">Nicholas Christakis</a> also advances similar ideas about "evolutionary sociology" in his 2019 book, Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society, emphasizing the relevance of underlying evolutionary forces that have helped to shape all societies, whatever their cultural differences.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_modernization">Theory of modernization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Theory of modernization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization theory</a></div> Theories of <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a> are closely related to the dependency theory and <a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">development theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a> While they have been developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s, their ideological and epistemic ancestors can be traced back until at least the early 20th century when progressivist historians and social scientists, building upon Darwinian ideas that the roots of economic success in the US had to be found in its population structure, which, as an immigrant society, was composed of the strongest and fittest individuals of their respective countries of origin, had started to supply the national myth of US-American manifest destiny with evolutionary reasoning. Explicitly and implicitly, the US became the yardstick of modernisation, and other societies could be measured in the extent of their modernity by how closely they adhered to the US-American example.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Modernization Theories combine the previous theories of sociocultural evolution with practical experiences and empirical research, especially those from the era of <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>. The theory states that: <ul><li>Western countries are the most developed, and the rest of the world (mostly former colonies) is in the earlier stages of development, and will eventually reach the same level as the Western world.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a></li> <li>Development stages go from the <a href="/wiki/Traditional_society" title="Traditional society">traditional societies</a> to developed ones.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a> countries have fallen behind with their social progress and need to be directed on their way to becoming more advanced.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a></li></ul> Developing from classical social evolutionism theories, the theory of modernization stresses the modernization factor: many societies are simply trying (or need) to emulate the most successful societies and cultures.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a> It also states that it is possible to do so, thus supporting the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">social engineering</a> and that the developed countries can and should help those less developed, directly or indirectly.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a> Among the scientists who contributed much to this theory are <a href="/wiki/Walt_Rostow" title="Walt Rostow">Walt Rostow</a>, who in his The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1960) concentrates on the economic system side of the modernization, trying to show factors needed for a country to reach the path to modernization in his <a href="/wiki/Rostovian_take-off_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostovian take-off model">Rostovian take-off model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Apter" title="David Apter">David Apter</a> concentrated on the political system and history of democracy, researching the connection between democracy, good <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a> and efficiency and modernization.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a> (The Achieving Society, 1967) approached this subject from the <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological</a> perspective, with his <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivations</a> theory, arguing that modernization cannot happen until given society values innovation, success and free enterprise.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alex_Inkeles" title="Alex Inkeles">Alex Inkeles</a> (Becoming Modern, 1974) similarly creates a model of modern personality, which needs to be independent, active, interested in public policies and cultural matters, open to new experiences, rational and able to create long-term plans for the future.<a href="#cite_note-psz507-508-87">[87]</a> Some works of Jürgen Habermas are also connected with this subfield. The theory of modernization has been subject to some criticism similar to that levied against classical social evolutionism, especially for being too ethnocentric, one-sided and focused on the Western world and its culture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_perspectives">Contemporary perspectives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Contemporary perspectives">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_perspectives">Political perspectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Political perspectives">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> period was marked by rivalry between two superpowers, both of which considered themselves to be the most highly evolved cultures on the planet. The <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> painted itself as a <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> society which emerged from <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a>, destined to reach the state of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, while sociologists in the United States (such as Talcott Parsons) argued that the freedom and prosperity of the United States were a proof of a higher level of sociocultural evolution of its culture and society. At the same time, decolonization created newly independent countries who sought to become more developed—a model of progress and industrialization which was itself a form of sociocultural evolution. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technological_perspectives">Technological perspectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Technological perspectives">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Major_Evolutionary_Transitions_digital.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Major_Evolutionary_Transitions_digital.jpg/340px-Major_Evolutionary_Transitions_digital.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Major_Evolutionary_Transitions_digital.jpg/510px-Major_Evolutionary_Transitions_digital.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Major_Evolutionary_Transitions_digital.jpg/680px-Major_Evolutionary_Transitions_digital.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1558" data-file-height="1253" /></a><figcaption>Schematic timeline of information and replicators in the biosphere: <a href="/wiki/The_Major_Transitions_in_Evolution" title="The Major Transitions in Evolution">major evolutionary transitions</a> in information processing<a href="#cite_note-InfoBiosphere2016-89">[89]</a></figcaption></figure> Many[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] argue that the next stage of sociocultural evolution consists of a merger with technology, especially information processing technology. Several <a href="/wiki/The_Major_Transitions_in_Evolution" title="The Major Transitions in Evolution">cumulative major transitions of evolution</a> have transformed life through key innovations in information storage and replication, including <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellularity">multicellularity</a>, and also <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> as inter-human information processing systems.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> in this sense it can be argued that the carbon-based biosphere has generated a system (human society) capable of creating technology that will result in a comparable evolutionary transition. "Digital information has reached a similar magnitude to information in the biosphere. It increases exponentially, exhibits high-fidelity replication, evolves through differential fitness, is expressed through artificial intelligence (AI), and has facility for virtually limitless recombination. Like previous evolutionary transitions, the potential symbiosis between biological and digital information will reach a critical point where these codes could compete via natural selection. Alternatively, this fusion could create a higher-level superorganism employing a low-conflict division of labor in performing informational tasks...humans already embrace fusions of biology and technology. We spend most of our waking time communicating through digitally mediated channels, ...most transactions on the stock market are executed by automated trading algorithms, and our electric grids are in the hands of artificial intelligence. With one in three marriages in America beginning online, digital algorithms are also taking a role in human pair bonding and reproduction".<a href="#cite_note-InfoBiosphere2016-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropological_perspectives">Anthropological perspectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Anthropological perspectives">edit</a>]</div> Current political theories of the <a href="/wiki/New_tribalists" class="mw-redirect" title="New tribalists">new tribalists</a> consciously mimic ecology and the life-ways of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a>, augmenting them with modern sciences. <a href="/wiki/Ecoregional_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecoregional Democracy">Ecoregional Democracy</a> attempts to confine the "shifting groups", or tribes, within "more or less clear boundaries" that a society inherits from the surrounding ecology, to the borders of a naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregion</a>. Progress can proceed by competition between but not within tribes, and it is limited by ecological borders or by <a href="/wiki/Natural_Capitalism" title="Natural Capitalism">Natural Capitalism</a> incentives which attempt to mimic the pressure of natural selection on a human society by forcing it to adapt consciously to scarce energy or materials. <a href="/wiki/Gaianism" title="Gaianism">Gaians</a> argue that societies evolve deterministically to play a role in the ecology of their <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, or else die off as failures due to competition from more efficient societies exploiting nature's leverage. Thus, some have appealed to theories of sociocultural evolution to assert that optimizing the ecology and the social harmony of closely knit groups is more desirable or necessary than the progression to "civilization." A 2002 poll of experts on <a href="/wiki/Neoarctic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoarctic">Neoarctic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotropic">Neotropic</a> indigenous peoples (reported in Harper's magazine)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] revealed that all of them would have preferred to be a typical New World person in the year 1491, prior to any European contact, rather than a typical European of that time. This approach has been criticised by pointing out that there are a number of historical examples of indigenous peoples doing severe environmental damage (such as the <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a> and the extinction of <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoths</a> in North America) and that proponents of the goal have been trapped by the European stereotype of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_role_of_war_in_the_development_of_states_and_societies">The role of war in the development of states and societies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The role of war in the development of states and societies">edit</a>]</div> Particularly since the end of the Cold War, there has been a growing number of scholars in the social sciences and humanities who came to complement the more presentist neo-evolutionary research with studies into the more distant past and its human inhabitants. A key element in many of these analyses and theories is warfare, which <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Carneiro" title="Robert L. Carneiro">Robert L. Carneiro</a> called the "prime mover in the origin of the state".<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> He theorizes that given the limited availability of natural resources, societies will compete against each other, with the losing group either moving out of the area now dominated by the victorious one, or, if the area is circumscribed by an ocean or a mountain range and re-settlement is thus impossible, will be either subjugated or killed. Thus, societies become larger and larger, but, facing the constant threat of extinction or assimilation, they were also forced to become more complex in their internal organisation both in order to remain competitive as well as to administer a growing territory and a larger population.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Carneiro's ideas have inspired great number of subsequent research into the role of war in the process of political, social, or cultural evolution. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Ian_Morris_(historian)" title="Ian Morris (historian)">Ian Morris</a> who argues that given the right geographic conditions, war not only drove much of human culture by integrating societies and increasing material well-being, but paradoxically also made the world much less violent. Large-scale states, says Morris, evolved because only they provided enough stability both internally and externally to survive the constant conflicts which characterise the early history of smaller states, and the possibility of war will continue to force humans to invent and evolve.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> War drove human societies to adapt in a step-wise process, and each development in military technology either requires or leads to comparable developments in politics and society.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Many of the underlying assumptions of Morris's thinking can be traced back in some form or another not only to Carneiro but also to <a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a>, and particularly his 1997 book <a href="/wiki/Guns,_Germs,_and_Steel" title="Guns, Germs, and Steel">Guns, Germs, and Steel</a>. Diamond, who explicitly opposes racist evolutionary tales,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> argues that the ultimate explanation of why different human development on different continents is the presence or absence of domesticable plants and animals as well as the fact that the east-west orientation of Eurasia made migration within similar climates much easier than the south-north orientation of Africa and the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Nevertheless, he also stresses the importance of conflict and warfare as a proximate explanation for how Europeans managed to conquer much of the world,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> given how societies who fail to innovate will "tend to be eliminated by competing societies".<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tilly" title="Charles Tilly">Charles Tilly</a> argues that what drove the political, social, and technological change which, after centuries of great variation with regard to states, lead to the European states ultimately all converging on the national state was coercion and warfare: "War wove the European network of national states, and preparation for war created the internal structures of states within it."<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> He describes how war became more expensive and complex due to the introduction of gunpowder and large armies and thus required significantly large states in order to provide the capital and manpower to sustain these, which at the same time were forced to develop new means of extraction and administration.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Yoffee" title="Norman Yoffee">Norman Yoffee</a> has criticised such theorists who, based on general evolutionary frameworks, came to formulate theories of the origins of states and their evolution. He claimed that in no small part due to the prominence of neoevolutionary explanations which group different societies into groups in order to compare them and their progress both to themselves and to modern ethnographic examples, while focusing mostly on political systems and a despotic élite who held together a territorial state by force, "much of what has been said of the earliest states, both in the professional literature as well as in popular writings, is not only factually wrong but also is implausible in the logic of social evolutionary theory".<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Biocultural evolution">Biocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of Civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_juncture_theory" title="Critical juncture theory">Critical juncture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">Cultural diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_determinism" title="Economic determinism">Economic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_order" title="Extended order">Extended order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futures studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_memory" title="Institutional memory">Institutional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Steward" title="Julian Steward">Julian Steward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_progress" title="Moral progress">Moral progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroculture">Neuroculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Origin of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_society" title="Origins of society">Origins of society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">Rationalization (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raciolinguistics" title="Raciolinguistics">Raciolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dynamics" title="Social dynamics">Social dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_implications_of_the_theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social implications of the theory of evolution">Social implications of the theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_system" title="Sociocultural system">Sociocultural system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">Social progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_culture" title="Symbolic culture">Symbolic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-World_Religions_and_Social_Evolution_of_the_Old_World_Oikumene_Civilizations:_A_Cross-cultural_Perspective-1"><a href="#cite_ref-World_Religions_and_Social_Evolution_of_the_Old_World_Oikumene_Civilizations:_A_Cross-cultural_Perspective_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKorotayev2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrey_Korotayev" title="Andrey Korotayev">Korotayev, Andrey</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/29329039">World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective</a> (First ed.). Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 1–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7734-6310-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7734-6310-3"><bdi>978-0-7734-6310-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions+and+Social+Evolution+of+the+Old+World+Oikumene+Civilizations%3A+A+Cross-cultural+Perspective&rft.place=Lewiston%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1-8&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Edwin+Mellen+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7734-6310-3&rft.aulast=Korotayev&rft.aufirst=Andrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F29329039&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTivel2012" class="citation book cs1">Tivel, David E. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cnv0p0Xyc50C">"3: Evolution: Cultures and Ethnicity"</a>. Evolution: The Universe, Life, Cultures, Ethnicity, Religion, Science, and Technology. Pittsburgh: Dorrance Publishing. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781434918161" title="Special:BookSources/9781434918161"><bdi>9781434918161</bdi></a>. <q>Cultural evolution as a theory in anthropology was developed in the nineteenth century as an outgrowth of Darwinian evolution. It is the process by which structural reorganization is affected through time, eventually producing a form or structure which is qualitatively different from the ancestral form.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%3A+Evolution%3A+Cultures+and+Ethnicity&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+Universe%2C+Life%2C+Cultures%2C+Ethnicity%2C+Religion%2C+Science%2C+and+Technology&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Dorrance+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781434918161&rft.aulast=Tivel&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcnv0p0Xyc50C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 301–304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=301-304&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Dawkins, Richard (1976). <a href="/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" title="The Selfish Gene">The Selfish Gene</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 190. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-857519-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-857519-X">0-19-857519-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-psz491-5"><a href="#cite_ref-psz491_5-0">^</a> Sztompka, p. 491 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=103&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 145f. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=145f&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 27–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=27-47&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontesquieu1989" class="citation book cs1">Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat (1989). Anne M. Cohler; Basia Carolyn Miller; Harold Samuel Stone (eds.). The spirit of the laws. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 213–245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36183-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36183-4"><bdi>0-521-36183-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18559462">18559462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+spirit+of+the+laws&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=213-245&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18559462&rft.isbn=0-521-36183-4&rft.aulast=Montesquieu&rft.aufirst=Charles+de+Secondat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontesquieu1989" class="citation book cs1">Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat (1989). Anne M. Cohler; Basia Carolyn Miller; Harold Samuel Stone (eds.). The spirit of the laws. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 246–307. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36183-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36183-4"><bdi>0-521-36183-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18559462">18559462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+spirit+of+the+laws&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=246-307&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18559462&rft.isbn=0-521-36183-4&rft.aulast=Montesquieu&rft.aufirst=Charles+de+Secondat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontesquieu1989" class="citation book cs1">Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat (1989). Anne M. Cohler; Basia Carolyn Miller; Harold Samuel Stone (eds.). The spirit of the laws. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36183-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36183-4"><bdi>0-521-36183-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18559462">18559462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+spirit+of+the+laws&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=310&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18559462&rft.isbn=0-521-36183-4&rft.aulast=Montesquieu&rft.aufirst=Charles+de+Secondat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLund2018" class="citation book cs1">Lund, Nelson (2018). Rousseau's rejuvenation of political philosophy: A new introduction. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-82342-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-82342-3"><bdi>978-3-319-82342-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1091034107">1091034107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau%27s+rejuvenation+of+political+philosophy%3A+A+new+introduction&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1091034107&rft.isbn=978-3-319-82342-3&rft.aulast=Lund&rft.aufirst=Nelson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRousseau1997" class="citation book cs1">Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1997). Victor Gourevitch (ed.). The discourses and other political writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 161–178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-41381-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-41381-8"><bdi>0-521-41381-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35638169">35638169</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+discourses+and+other+political+writings&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=161-178&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35638169&rft.isbn=0-521-41381-8&rft.aulast=Rousseau&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Priestman_2013_184-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Priestman_2013_184_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priestman_2013_184_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriestman2013" class="citation book cs1">Priestman, Martin (2013). Victor Gourevitch (ed.). The Poetry of Erasmus Darwin. Ashgate Publishing. p. 184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Erasmus+Darwin&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Priestman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=85&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Priestman_2013_188-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Priestman_2013_188_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Priestman_2013_188_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriestman2013" class="citation book cs1">Priestman, Martin (2013). Victor Gourevitch (ed.). The Poetry of Erasmus Darwin. Ashgate Publishing. p. 188.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Erasmus+Darwin&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Priestman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriestman2013" class="citation book cs1">Priestman, Martin (2013). Victor Gourevitch (ed.). The Poetry of Erasmus Darwin. Ashgate Publishing. p. 191.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Erasmus+Darwin&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Priestman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriestman2013" class="citation book cs1">Priestman, Martin (2013). Victor Gourevitch (ed.). The Poetry of Erasmus Darwin. Ashgate Publishing. p. 189.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Erasmus+Darwin&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Priestman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> This is from James Secord's introduction to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers1994" class="citation book cs1">Chambers, Robert (1994). James Secord (ed.). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation and Other Evolutionary Writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vestiges+of+the+Natural+History+of+Creation+and+Other+Evolutionary+Writings&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 135–136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=135-136&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowler_2009_136-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bowler_2009_136_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowler_2009_136_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=136&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=284&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=285&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=286&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-psz495-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-psz495_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz495_25-1">b</a> Sztompka, p. 495 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> For a recent comparison between biological and social evolution see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrinin,_L.Markov,_A.Korotayev,_A.2013" class="citation journal cs1">Grinin, L.; Markov, A.; Korotayev, A. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21237%2FC7CLIO4221334">"On similarities between biological and social evolutionary mechanisms: Mathematical modeling"</a>. Cliodynamics: The Journal of Quantitative History and Cultural Evolution. 4 (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21237%2FC7CLIO4221334">10.21237/C7CLIO4221334</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cliodynamics%3A+The+Journal+of+Quantitative+History+and+Cultural+Evolution&rft.atitle=On+similarities+between+biological+and+social+evolutionary+mechanisms%3A+Mathematical+modeling&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21237%2FC7CLIO4221334&rft.au=Grinin%2C+L.&rft.au=Markov%2C+A.&rft.au=Korotayev%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.21237%252FC7CLIO4221334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1960" class="citation journal cs1">Simon (1960). "Herbert Spencer and the Social Organism". Journal of the History of Ideas. 21 (2): 294–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2708202">10.2307/2708202</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708202">2708202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Herbert+Spencer+and+the+Social+Organism&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=294-299&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2708202&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2708202%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> p. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1960" class="citation journal cs1">Simon (1960). "Herbert Spencer and the Social Organism". Journal of the History of Ideas. 21 (2): 294–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2708202">10.2307/2708202</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708202">2708202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Herbert+Spencer+and+the+Social+Organism&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=294-299&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2708202&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2708202%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> p. 296-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-Simon-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1960" class="citation journal cs1">Simon (1960). "Herbert Spencer and the Social Organism". Journal of the History of Ideas. 21 (2): 294–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2708202">10.2307/2708202</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708202">2708202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Herbert+Spencer+and+the+Social+Organism&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=294-299&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2708202&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2708202%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> p. 297-8. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydRicherson" class="citation journal cs1">Boyd; Richerson. "Built for Speed, Not for Comfort: Darwinian Theory of Human Laws". History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. 23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Philosophy+of+the+Life+Sciences&rft.atitle=Built+for+Speed%2C+Not+for+Comfort%3A+Darwinian+Theory+of+Human+Laws&rft.volume=23&rft.au=Boyd&rft.au=Richerson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988">pp.423-463 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1960" class="citation journal cs1">Simon (1960). "Herbert Spencer and the Social Organism". Journal of the History of Ideas. 21 (2): 297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2708202">10.2307/2708202</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708202">2708202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Herbert+Spencer+and+the+Social+Organism&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=297&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2708202&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2708202%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=52&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1990" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Charles M. A. (September 1990). "Adam Smith and Society as an Evolutionary Process". Journal of Economic Issues. 24 (3): 825–844. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00213624.1990.11505073">10.1080/00213624.1990.11505073</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-3624">0021-3624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Issues&rft.atitle=Adam+Smith+and+Society+as+an+Evolutionary+Process&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=825-844&rft.date=1990-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00213624.1990.11505073&rft.issn=0021-3624&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Charles+M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=56&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1981" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Adam (1981). R. H. Campbell; Andrew S. Skinner (eds.). An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. Indianapolis: Liberty Classics. pp. 689–708. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86597-008-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-86597-008-4"><bdi>0-86597-008-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7811517">7811517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+inquiry+into+the+nature+and+causes+of+the+wealth+of+nations&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pages=689-708&rft.pub=Liberty+Classics&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7811517&rft.isbn=0-86597-008-4&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=172&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBluemle" class="citation journal cs1">Bluemle, Gerold. 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American Journal of Sociology. 81 (6): 1339–1359. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F226226">10.1086/226226</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9602">0002-9602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143884335">143884335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Herbert+Spencer%27s+Four+Theories+of+Social+Evolution&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1339-1359&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143884335%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0002-9602&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F226226&rft.aulast=Perrin&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarneiro2015" class="citation book cs1">Carneiro, Robert L. 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Sociological Theorists Page. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowle_r2009" class="citation book cs1">Bowle r, Peter J. (2009). Evolution: the history of an idea (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26128-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26128-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=222&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26128-0&rft.aulast=Bowle+r&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hume, Brad D. (2011). "Evolutionisms: Lewis Henry Morgan, Time, and the Question of Sociocultural Evolutionary Theory". Histories of Anthropology Annual. 7 (1): 91–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhaa.2011.0009">10.1353/haa.2011.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1940-5138">1940-5138</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170478166">170478166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Histories+of+Anthropology+Annual&rft.atitle=Evolutionisms%3A+Lewis+Henry+Morgan%2C+Time%2C+and+the+Question+of+Sociocultural+Evolutionary+Theory&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=91-126&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170478166%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1940-5138&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhaa.2011.0009&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=Brad+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-psz499-500-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-psz499-500_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz499-500_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz499-500_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz499-500_48-3">d</a> Sztompka, pp. 499-500 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Morgan, Lewis H. (1877) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/morgan-lewis/ancient-society/ch03.htm">Chapter III: Ratio of Human Progress</a>". Ancient Society. </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommager,_H.S.1950" class="citation book cs1">Commager, H.S. (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanmindinte00comm">The American Mind: An Interpretation of American Thought and Character Since the 1880s</a>. Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanmindinte00comm/page/199">199</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300000467" title="Special:BookSources/9780300000467"><bdi>9780300000467</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Mind%3A+An+Interpretation+of+American+Thought+and+Character+Since+the+1880s&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=9780300000467&rft.au=Commager%2C+H.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanmindinte00comm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-psz500-501-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-psz500-501_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz500-501_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz500-501_51-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz500-501_51-3">d</a> Sztompka, pp. 500–501 </li> <li id="cite_note-google-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_52-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGossett1997" class="citation book cs1">Gossett, Thomas F. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WUucYTW6ug0C&q=lester+ward">Race: The History of an Idea in America</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198025825" title="Special:BookSources/9780198025825"><bdi>9780198025825</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%3A+The+History+of+an+Idea+in+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780198025825&rft.aulast=Gossett&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWUucYTW6ug0C%26q%3Dlester%2Bward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Ibid. p 166, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/racehistoryofide0000goss_r1r7/page/166/mode/2up?q=lester&view=theater">https://archive.org/details/racehistoryofide0000goss_r1r7/page/166/mode/2up?q=lester&view=theater</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-google2-54"><a href="#cite_ref-google2_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCape,_E.P.1922" class="citation book cs1">Cape, E.P. (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lesterfwardaper00unkngoog">Lester F. Ward; a Personal Sketch</a>. G. P. 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Metzler. pp. 318–325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-476-05462-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-476-05462-3"><bdi>978-3-476-05462-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/929995587">929995587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Soziologie+und+Sozialwissenschaften&rft.btitle=Evolution.+Ein+interdisziplin%C3%A4res+Handbuch&rft.place=Stuttgart+and+Weimar&rft.pages=318-325&rft.pub=J.+B.+Metzler&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F929995587&rft.isbn=978-3-476-05462-3&rft.aulast=Merz-Benz&rft.aufirst=Peter-Ulrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPreglau2003" class="citation book cs1">Preglau, Max (2003). 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Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag. pp. 339–344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-531-14043-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-531-14043-8"><bdi>978-3-531-14043-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Sozio-Biologie+als+letzte+%27gro%C3%9Fe+Erz%C3%A4hlung%27%E2%80%94wider+den+biologischen+Reduktionismus%27&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=339-344&rft.pub=Westdeutscher+Verlag&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-531-14043-8&rft.aulast=Preglau&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2012" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Edward O. 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New York: Liveright Pub. pp. 207–221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-413-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-413-8"><bdi>978-0-87140-413-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/755704999">755704999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+social+conquest+of+earth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=207-221&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Liveright+Pub.&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F755704999&rft.isbn=978-0-87140-413-8&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Edward+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Culture_and_the_Evolutionary_Process-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Culture_and_the_Evolutionary_Process_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydRichersonPeter_J._Richerson1985" class="citation book cs1">Boyd, Robert; Richerson, Peter J.; Peter J. Richerson (1985). Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-06933-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-06933-3"><bdi>978-0-226-06933-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+the+Evolutionary+Process&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-226-06933-3&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Richerson%2C+Peter+J.&rft.au=Peter+J.+Richerson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristakis2019" class="citation book cs1">Christakis, Nicholas (2019). Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society. New York: Little Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316230032" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316230032"><bdi>978-0316230032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blueprint%3A+The+Evolutionary+Origins+of+a+Good+Society&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Little+Brown&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0316230032&rft.aulast=Christakis&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-psz507-508-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-psz507-508_87-9">j</a> Sztompka, pp. 507–508 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWehler1975" class="citation book cs1">Wehler, Hans Ulrich (1975). 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (33): 10104–10111. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PNAS..11210104S">2015PNAS..11210104S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1421398112">10.1073/pnas.1421398112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4547294">4547294</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25838283">25838283</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Toward+major+evolutionary+transitions+theory+2.0%3A+Table+1&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=33&rft.pages=10104-10111&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4547294%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25838283&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1421398112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PNAS..11210104S&rft.au=Szathm%C3%A1ry%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4547294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarneiro1970" class="citation journal cs1">Carneiro, Robert L. 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Science. 169 (3947): 734. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970Sci...169..733C">1970Sci...169..733C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.169.3947.733">10.1126/science.169.3947.733</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17820299">17820299</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11536431">11536431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=A+Theory+of+the+Origin+of+the+State&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=3947&rft.pages=734&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.169.3947.733&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11536431%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17820299&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970Sci...169..733C&rft.aulast=Carneiro&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarneiro1970" class="citation journal cs1">Carneiro, Robert L. (1970). "A Theory of the Origin of the State". Science. 169 (3947): 733–738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970Sci...169..733C">1970Sci...169..733C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.169.3947.733">10.1126/science.169.3947.733</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17820299">17820299</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11536431">11536431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=A+Theory+of+the+Origin+of+the+State&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=3947&rft.pages=733-738&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.169.3947.733&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11536431%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17820299&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970Sci...169..733C&rft.aulast=Carneiro&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2014" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Ian (2014). War! What is it good for?: conflict and the progress of civilization from primates to robots. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-28600-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-28600-2"><bdi>978-0-374-28600-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/846545682">846545682</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%21+What+is+it+good+for%3F%3A+conflict+and+the+progress+of+civilization+from+primates+to+robots&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F846545682&rft.isbn=978-0-374-28600-2&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2012" class="citation journal cs1">Morris, Ian (2012). 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Norton. pp. vi, 6–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2"><bdi>0-393-03891-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35792200">35792200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+germs%2C+and+steel%3A+The+fates+of+human+societies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vi%2C+6-12&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35792200&rft.isbn=0-393-03891-2&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond1997" class="citation book cs1">Diamond, Jared M. (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies (1st ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. pp. 62–158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2"><bdi>0-393-03891-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35792200">35792200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+germs%2C+and+steel%3A+The+fates+of+human+societies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=62-158&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35792200&rft.isbn=0-393-03891-2&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond1997" class="citation book cs1">Diamond, Jared M. (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies (1st ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2"><bdi>0-393-03891-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35792200">35792200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+germs%2C+and+steel%3A+The+fates+of+human+societies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=10&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35792200&rft.isbn=0-393-03891-2&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond1997" class="citation book cs1">Diamond, Jared M. (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies (1st ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2"><bdi>0-393-03891-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35792200">35792200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+germs%2C+and+steel%3A+The+fates+of+human+societies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=352&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35792200&rft.isbn=0-393-03891-2&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTilly1990" class="citation book cs1">Tilly, Charles (1990). Coercion, capital, and European states, AD 990-1990. Cambridge, MA: B. Blackwell. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55786-067-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-55786-067-X"><bdi>1-55786-067-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/20170025">20170025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coercion%2C+capital%2C+and+European+states%2C+AD+990-1990&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=B.+Blackwell&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F20170025&rft.isbn=1-55786-067-X&rft.aulast=Tilly&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> (see 20-28) </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTilly1990" class="citation book cs1">Tilly, Charles (1990). Coercion, capital, and European states, AD 990-1990. Cambridge, MA: B. Blackwell. pp. 67–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55786-067-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-55786-067-X"><bdi>1-55786-067-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/20170025">20170025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coercion%2C+capital%2C+and+European+states%2C+AD+990-1990&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=67-95&rft.pub=B.+Blackwell&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F20170025&rft.isbn=1-55786-067-X&rft.aulast=Tilly&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoffee2005" class="citation book cs1">Yoffee, Norman (2005). Myths of the archaic state: evolution of the earliest cities, states and civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-511-08109-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-511-08109-X"><bdi>0-511-08109-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/252514212">252514212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myths+of+the+archaic+state%3A+evolution+of+the+earliest+cities%2C+states+and+civilizations&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F252514212&rft.isbn=0-511-08109-X&rft.aulast=Yoffee&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociocultural+evolution" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cited_sources">Cited sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cited sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Sztompka" title="Piotr Sztompka">Sztompka, Piotr</a> (2002). Socjologia. Znak. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-240-0218-9" title="Special:BookSources/83-240-0218-9">83-240-0218-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/philosophies/positivism.htm">The Philosophy of Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Carneiro" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Carneiro">Robert Carneiro</a>, Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History. Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_World_Until_Yesterday" title="The World Until Yesterday">The World until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies?</a>, Penguin Books, 2012 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-141-02448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-141-02448-6">978-0-141-02448-6</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">Evans-Pritchard, Sir Edward</a>, A History of Anthropological Thought, 1981, Basic Books, Inc., New York.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Graber,_Robert_B.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Graber, Robert B. (page does not exist)">Graber, Robert B.</a>, A Scientific Model of Social and Cultural Evolution, 1995, Thomas Jefferson University Press, Kirksville, MO.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Harris, Marvin</a>, The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture, 1968, Thomas Y. Crowell, New York.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elvin_Hatch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elvin Hatch (page does not exist)">Hatch, Elvin</a>, Theories of Man and Culture, 1973, Columbia University Press, New York.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=H._R._Hays&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H. R. Hays (page does not exist)">Hays, H. R.</a>, From Ape to Angel: An Informal History of Social Anthropology, 1965, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allen_W._Johnson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allen W. Johnson (page does not exist)">Johnson, Allen W.</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Timothy_Earle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Timothy Earle (page does not exist)">Earle, Timothy</a>, The Evolution of Human Societies: From Foraging Group to Agrarian State, 1987, Stanford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Kaplan_(anthropologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Kaplan (anthropologist) (page does not exist)">Kaplan, David</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_A._Manners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert A. Manners (page does not exist)">Manners, Robert</a>, Culture Theory, 1972, Waveland Press, Inc., Prospect Heights, Illinois.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hernika_Kuklick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hernika Kuklick (page does not exist)">Kuklick, Henrika</a>, The Savage Within: The Social History of British Anthropology, 1885–1945, 1991, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iain_McGilchrist" title="Iain McGilchrist">McGilchrist, Iain</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary" title="The Master and His Emissary">The Master and His Emissary</a>: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World, 2009, <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, US and London.</li> <li>Mesoudi, A. (2007). Using the methods of experimental social psychology to study cultural evolution. Journal of Social, Evolutionary & Cultural Psychology, 1(2), 35–58. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070925233932/http://www.jsecjournal.com/JSEC_Mesoudi_1-2.pdf">Full text</a></li> <li>Mesoudi, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Cultural-Evolution-How-Darwinian-Theory-Can-Explain-Human-Culture-and-Synthesize-the-Social-Sciences.php">Cultural Evolution: How Darwinian Theory Can Explain Human Culture and Synthesize the Social Sciences</a>, 2011, University of Chicago Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52044-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52044-5">978-0-226-52044-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Morgan" title="John Henry Morgan">Morgan, John Henry</a>, In the Beginning: The Paleolithic Origins of Religious Consciousness 2007 <a href="/wiki/Cloverdale_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloverdale Books">Cloverdale Books</a>, South Bend. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-929569-41-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-929569-41-0">978-1-929569-41-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Naroll" title="Raoul Naroll">Raoul Naroll</a> and William T. Divale. 1976. Natural Selection in Cultural Evolution: Warfare versus Peaceful Diffusion. American Ethnologist 3: 97–128.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pzacad.pitzer.edu/%7Edsegal/">Segal, Daniel</a> (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2651809">Western Civ" and the Staging of History in American Higher Education</a> <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>, Vol. 105, No. 3 (Jun., 2000), pp. 770–805 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2651809">10.2307/2651809</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charlotte_Seymour-Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charlotte Seymour-Smith (page does not exist)">Seymour-Smith, Charlotte</a>, Macmillan Dictionary of Anthropology, 1986, Macmillan, New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Stocking_Jr." title="George W. Stocking Jr.">Stocking Jr., George W.</a>, Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology, 1968, The Free Press, New York.</li> <li>Stocking Jr., George W., After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888–1951, 1995, The University of Wisconsin Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Stocking_Jr." title="George W. Stocking Jr.">Stocking, George</a>, Victorian Anthropology, Free Press, 1991, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-931551-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-931551-4">0-02-931551-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Sztompka" title="Piotr Sztompka">Sztompka</a>, Piotr, The Sociology of Social Change, Blackwell Publishers, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18206-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18206-3">0-631-18206-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_G._Trigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruce G. Trigger">Trigger, Bruce</a>, Sociocultural Evolution: Calculation and Contingency (New Perspectives on the Past), Blackwell Publishers, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55786-977-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55786-977-4">1-55786-977-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Winthrop&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert H. Winthrop (page does not exist)">Winthrop, Robert H.</a>, Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, 1991, Greenwood Press, New York.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Readings_from_an_evolutionary_anthropological_perspective">Readings from an evolutionary anthropological perspective</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Readings from an evolutionary anthropological perspective">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Two special issues on the evolution of culture: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121210060624/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jissue/104520093">Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews Volume 12, Issue 2, Pages 57–108 (April 2003)</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/easmith/Janson&Smith2003-EA.pdf">The evolution of culture: New perspectives and evidence</a> (p 57–60) Charles H. Janson, Eric A. Smith</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uga.edu/psychology/primate/pub/Making%20Space%20for%20Traditions%202003%20DMF.pdf">Making space for traditions</a> (p 61–70) Dorothy Fragaszy</li> <li>Traditions in monkeys (p 71–81) Susan Perry, Joseph H. Manson</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthropology.tamu.edu/faculty/alvard/anth630/reading/Week%2011%20Culture%20and%20intelligence%201/Boesch%202003.pdf">Is culture a golden barrier between human and chimpanzee?</a> (p 82–91) Christophe Boesch</li> <li>Cultural panthropology (p 92–105) Andrew Whiten, Victoria Horner, Sarah Marshall-Pescini</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070925233939/http://www.nycep.org/ed/download/pdf/Delson_2003d.pdf">The fossil record – Human and nonhuman</a> (p 106–108) Eric Delson</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121210084159/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jissue/104533378">Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews Volume 12, Issue 3, Pages 109–159 (2003)</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306133911/http://www.human-evol.cam.ac.uk/Members/Foley/pubs/03ea-12(109-122).pdf">On stony ground: Lithic technology, human evolution, and the emergence of culture</a> (p 109–122) <a href="/wiki/Robert_Foley_(academic)" title="Robert Foley (academic)">Robert Foley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marta_Miraz%C3%B3n_Lahr" title="Marta Mirazón Lahr">Marta Mirazón Lahr</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xcelab.net/rmpubs/henrich%20mcelreath%20EA%202003.pdf">The evolution of cultural evolution</a> (p 123–135) <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henrich" title="Joseph Henrich">Joseph Henrich</a>, Richard McElreath</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthropology.tamu.edu/faculty/alvard/downloads/culture.pdf">The adaptive nature of culture</a> (p 136–149) Michael S. Alvard</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthropology.tamu.edu/faculty/alvard/ANTH689%20Fall%202005/week%204/Laland%20and%20Hopitt%202003.pdf">Do animals have culture?</a> (p 150–159) <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Laland" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevin Laland">Kevin N. Laland</a>, William Hoppitt</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociocultural_evolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/SOCEVOL.html">Sociocultural evolution on Principia Cybernetica Web</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072824301/student_view0/chapter4/chapter_summary.html">Classical Sociological Theory: Comte and Spencer</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/wp6/">Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> / <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a 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