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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definition_and_etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eudaimonia_and_areté" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eudaimonia_and_areté"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Eudaimonia and areté</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eudaimonia_and_areté-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eudaimonia_and_happiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eudaimonia_and_happiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Eudaimonia and happiness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eudaimonia_and_happiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_views_on_eudaimonia_and_aretē" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_views_on_eudaimonia_and_aretē"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classical views on eudaimonia and aretē</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_views_on_eudaimonia_and_aretē-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical views on eudaimonia and aretē subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_views_on_eudaimonia_and_aretē-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Socrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Socrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plato" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plato"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Plato</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plato-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Aristotle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pyrrho" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pyrrho"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Pyrrho</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pyrrho-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epicurus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epicurus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Epicurus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epicurus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Stoics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Stoics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>The Stoics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Stoics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_conceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_conceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern conceptions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_conceptions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern conceptions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_conceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Modern_Moral_Philosophy"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Modern_Moral_Philosophy""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>"Modern Moral Philosophy"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Modern_Moral_Philosophy"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Modern psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positive_psychology_on_eudaimonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_psychology_on_eudaimonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Positive psychology on eudaimonia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_psychology_on_eudaimonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="يودايمونيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يودايمونيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evdemonizm" title="Evdemonizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Evdemonizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudemonija" title="Eudemonija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Eudemonija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonie" title="Eudaimonie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Eudaimonie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ευδαιμονία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ευδαιμονία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%ADdemonio" title="Eŭdemonio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Eŭdemonio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="خوش‌روانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خوش‌روانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimon%C3%ADa" title="Eudaimonía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Eudaimonía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EC%9A%B0%EB%8B%A4%EC%9D%B4%EB%AA%A8%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84" title="에우다이모니아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에우다이모니아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94" title="אודימוניה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אודימוניה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%BC%E3%83%80%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A2%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A2" title="ユーダイモニア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユーダイモニア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudajmonia" title="Eudajmonia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Eudajmonia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эвдемонизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эвдемонизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Блаженство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Блаженство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bla%C5%BEenstvo" title="Blaženstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Blaženstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eudaimonia" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1771260#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Human flourishing in ancient Greek philosophy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the moth, see <a href="/wiki/Eudaemonia_(moth)" title="Eudaemonia (moth)">Eudaemonia (moth)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Eudaemon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Eudaemon (disambiguation)">Eudaemon (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><b>Eudaimonia</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B5%E1%BD%90%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:εὐδαιμονία">εὐδαιμονία</a></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="el-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[eu̯dai̯moníaː]</a></span>), sometimes <a href="/wiki/Anglicized" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicized">anglicized</a> as <b>Eudaemonia</b>, <b>Eudemonia</b> or <b>Eudimonia</b>, is a Greek word literally translating to the state or condition of <i>good spirit</i>, and which is commonly translated as <i><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">welfare</a></i>. </p><p>In the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i>eudaimonia</i> was the term for the highest human good in older Greek tradition. It is the aim of practical philosophy-prudence, including <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, to consider and experience what this state really is and how it can be achieved. It is thus a central concept in <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Aristotelian ethics</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, along with the terms <a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)"><i>aretē</i></a> (most often translated as <i><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a></i> or <i>excellence</i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phronesis</a></i> ('practical or ethical wisdom').<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5e_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5e-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Discussion of the links between <i>ēthikē aretē</i> (virtue of character) and <i>eudaimonia</i> (happiness) is one of the central concerns of ancient ethics, and a subject of disagreement. As a result, there are many varieties of eudaimonism. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_etymology">Definition and etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In terms of its etymology, <i>eudaimonia</i> is an abstract noun derived from the words <i>eû</i> (good, well) and <i><a href="/wiki/Daemon_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daemon (mythology)">daímōn</a></i> (spirit or deity).<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5a_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Semantically speaking, the word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BC%CF%89%CE%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:δαίμων">δαίμων</a> (<span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">daímōn</i></span>) derives from the same root of the Ancient Greek verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:δαίομαι">δαίομαι</a> (<i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">daíomai</i></span></i>, "to divide") allowing the concept of <i>eudaimonia</i> to be thought of as an "activity linked with dividing or dispensing, in a good way". </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Definitions_(Plato)" title="Definitions (Plato)">Definitions</a></i>, a dictionary of Greek philosophical terms attributed to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> himself but believed by modern scholars to have been written by his immediate followers in <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">the Academy</a>, provides the following definition of the word <i>eudaimonia</i>: "The good composed of all goods; an ability which suffices for living well; perfection in respect of virtue; resources sufficient for a living creature." </p><p> In his <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> (§21; 1095a15–22), Aristotle says that everyone agrees that eudaimonia is the highest good for humans, but that there is substantial disagreement on what sort of life counts as doing and living well; i.e. eudaimon:</p><blockquote><p>Verbally there is a very general agreement; for both the general run of men and people of superior refinement say that it is [eudaimonia], and identify living well and faring well with being happy; but with regard to what [eudaimonia] is they differ, and the many do not give the same account as the wise. For the former think it is some plain and obvious thing like pleasure, wealth or honour... [1095a17]<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5c_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5c-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_of_Aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Head_of_Aristotle.jpg/220px-Head_of_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Head_of_Aristotle.jpg/330px-Head_of_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Head_of_Aristotle.jpg/440px-Head_of_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Head of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Roman copy in marble of the mid-1st century from the Greek original <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 320 BC</span></figcaption></figure> <p>So, as Aristotle points out, saying that a eudaimonic life is a life that is objectively desirable and involves living well is not saying very much. Everyone wants to be eudaimonic; and everyone agrees that being eudaimonic is related to faring well and to an individual's <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a>. The really difficult question is to specify just what sort of activities enable one to live well. Aristotle presents various popular conceptions of the best life for human beings. The candidates that he mentions are (1) a life of pleasure, (2) a life of political activity, and (3) a philosophical life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eudaimonia_and_areté"><span id="Eudaimonia_and_aret.C3.A9"></span>Eudaimonia and areté</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Eudaimonia and areté"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia" title="Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One important move in Greek philosophy to answer the question of how to achieve eudaimonia is to bring in another important concept in ancient philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)"><i>aretē</i></a> ('<a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>'). Aristotle says that the eudaimonic life is one of "virtuous activity in accordance with reason" [1097b22–1098a20]; even <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, who argues that the eudaimonic life is the life of pleasure, maintains that the life of pleasure coincides with the life of virtue. So, the ancient ethical theorists tend to agree that virtue is closely bound up with happiness (<i>areté</i> is bound up with <i>eudaimonia</i>). However, they disagree on the way in which this is so. A major difference between Aristotle and the Stoics, for instance, is that the Stoics believed moral virtue was in and of itself sufficient for happiness (eudaimonia). For the Stoics, one does not need external goods, like physical beauty, in order to have virtue and therefore happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One problem with the English translation of <i>areté</i> as <i>virtue</i> is that we are inclined to understand virtue in a moral sense, which is not always what the ancients had in mind. For Aristotle, <i>areté</i> pertains to all sorts of qualities we would not regard as relevant to ethics, for example, physical beauty. So it is important to bear in mind that the sense of <i>virtue</i> operative in ancient ethics is not exclusively moral and includes more than states such as wisdom, courage, and compassion. The sense of virtue which <i>areté</i> connotes would include saying something like "speed is a virtue in a horse," or "height is a virtue in a basketball player." Doing anything well requires virtue, and each characteristic activity (such as carpentry, flute playing, etc.) has its own set of virtues. The alternative translation <i>excellence</i> (a desirable quality) might be helpful in conveying this general meaning of the term. The moral virtues are simply a subset of the general sense in which a human being is capable of functioning well or excellently. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eudaimonia_and_happiness">Eudaimonia and happiness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eudaimonia and happiness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia" title="Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Eudaimonia implies a positive and divine state of being that humanity is able to strive toward and possibly reach. A literal view of <i>eudaimonia</i> means achieving a state of being similar to a benevolent deity, or being protected and looked after by a benevolent deity. As this would be considered the most positive state to be in, the word is often translated as <i>happiness</i> although incorporating the divine nature of the word extends the meaning to also include the concepts of being fortunate, or blessed. Despite this etymology, however, discussions of eudaimonia in ancient Greek ethics are often conducted independently of any supernatural significance. </p><p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> (1095a15–22) <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> says that <i>eudaimonia</i> means 'doing and living well'.<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5c_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5c-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is significant that synonyms for <i>eudaimonia</i> are living well and doing well. In the standard English translation, this would be to say that, "<a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a> is doing well and living well." The word <i>happiness</i> does not entirely capture the meaning of the Greek word. One important difference is that <i>happiness</i> often connotes being or tending to be in a certain pleasant state of mind. For example, when one says that someone is "a very happy person", one usually means that they seem subjectively contented with the way things are going in their life. They mean to imply that they feel good about the way things are going for them. In contrast, Aristotle suggests that eudaimonia is a more encompassing notion than feeling happy since events that do not contribute to one's experience of feeling happy may affect one's eudaimonia. </p><p>Eudaimonia depends on all the things that would make us happy if we knew of their existence, but quite independently of whether we do know about them. Ascribing eudaimonia to a person, then, may include ascribing such things as being virtuous, being loved and having good friends. But these are all objective judgments about someone's life: they concern whether a person is really being virtuous, really being loved, and really having fine friends. This implies that a person who has evil sons and daughters will not be judged to be eudaimonic even if he or she does not know that they are evil and feels pleased and contented with the way they have turned out (happy). Conversely, being loved by your children would not count towards your happiness if you did not know that they loved you (and perhaps thought that they did not), but it would count towards your eudaimonia. So, eudaimonia corresponds to the idea of having an objectively good or desirable life, to some extent independently of whether one knows that certain things exist or not. It includes conscious experiences of well-being, success, and failure, but also a whole lot more. (See Aristotle's discussion: <i>Nicomachean Ethics,</i> book 1.10–1.11.) </p><p>Because of this discrepancy between the meanings of <i>eudaimonia</i> and <i>happiness</i>, some alternative translations have been proposed. <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">W.D. Ross</a> suggests 'well-being' and John Cooper proposes <i>flourishing</i>. These translations may avoid some of the misleading associations carried by "happiness" although each tends to raise some problems of its own. In some modern texts therefore, the other alternative is to leave the term in an English form of the original Greek, as <i>eudaimonia</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_views_on_eudaimonia_and_aretē"><span id="Classical_views_on_eudaimonia_and_aret.C4.93"></span>Classical views on eudaimonia and aretē</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical views on eudaimonia and aretē"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socrates">Socrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Socrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Picture of a painting." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates_detail.jpg/220px-David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates_detail.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="221" data-file-height="241" /></a><figcaption>French painter <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">David</a> portrayed the philosopher in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Socrates" title="The Death of Socrates">The Death of Socrates</a></i> (1787).</figcaption></figure> <p>What is known of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>' philosophy is almost entirely derived from Plato's writings. Scholars typically divide Plato's works into three periods: the early, middle, and late periods. They tend to agree also that Plato's earliest works quite faithfully represent the teachings of Socrates and that Plato's own views, which go beyond those of Socrates, appear for the first time in the middle works such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a>.</i> </p><p>As with all ancient ethical thinkers, Socrates thought that all human beings wanted eudaimonia more than anything else (see Plato, <i><a href="/wiki/Apology_(Plato)" title="Apology (Plato)">Apology</a></i> 30b, <i><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_(dialogue)" title="Euthydemus (dialogue)">Euthydemus</a></i> 280d–282d, <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i> 87d–89a). However, Socrates adopted a quite radical form of eudaimonism (see above): he seems to have thought that <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. Socrates is convinced that virtues such as self-control, courage, justice, piety, wisdom and related qualities of mind and soul are absolutely crucial if a person is to lead a good and happy (eudaimon) life. Virtues guarantee a happy life eudaimonia. For example, in the <i>Meno</i>, with respect to wisdom, he says: "everything the soul endeavours or endures under the guidance of wisdom ends in happiness" (<i>Meno</i> 88c).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In the <i>Apology,</i> Socrates clearly presents his disagreement with those who think that the eudaimon life is the life of honour or pleasure, when he chastises the Athenians for caring more for riches and honour than the state of their souls.</p><blockquote><p>Good Sir, you are an Athenian, a <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizen</a> of the greatest city with the greatest reputation for both wisdom and power; are you not ashamed of your eagerness to possess as much wealth, reputation, and honors as possible, while you do not care for nor give thought to wisdom or truth or the best possible state of your soul? (29e)<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5d2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5d2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ... [I]t does not seem like human nature for me to have neglected all my own affairs and to have tolerated this neglect for so many years while I was always concerned with you, approaching each one of you like a father or an elder brother to persuade you to care for <i>virtue</i>. (31a–b; italics added)<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>It emerges a bit further on that this concern for one's soul, that one's soul might be in the best possible state, amounts to acquiring moral virtue. So Socrates' pointing out that the Athenians should care for their souls means that they should care for their virtue, rather than pursuing honour or riches. Virtues are states of the soul. When a soul has been properly cared for and perfected, it possesses the virtues. Moreover, according to Socrates, this state of the soul, moral virtue, is the most important good. The health of the soul is incomparably more important for eudaimonia than (e.g.) wealth and political power. Someone with a virtuous soul is better off than someone who is wealthy and honoured but whose soul is corrupted by unjust actions. This view is confirmed in the <i><a href="/wiki/Crito" title="Crito">Crito</a></i>, where Socrates gets <a href="/wiki/Crito_of_Alopece" title="Crito of Alopece">Crito</a> to agree that the <a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(philosophy)" title="Perfectionism (philosophy)">perfection</a> of the soul, virtue, is the most important good: </p><blockquote><p>And is life worth living for us with that part of us corrupted that unjust action harms and just action benefits? Or do we think that part of us, whatever it is, that is concerned with justice and injustice, is inferior to the body? Not at all. It is much more valuable...? Much more... (47e–48a)<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Here, Socrates argues that life is not worth living if the soul is ruined by wrongdoing.<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5f_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5f-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In summary, Socrates seems to think that virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. A person who is not virtuous cannot be happy, and a person with virtue cannot fail to be happy. We shall see later on that Stoic ethics takes its cue from this Socratic insight. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plato">Plato</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plato"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia" title="Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato's</a> great work of the middle period, the <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>, is devoted to answering a challenge made by the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophist</a> <a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a>, that conventional morality, particularly the <i>virtue</i> of justice, actually prevents the strong man from achieving eudaimonia. Thrasymachus's views are restatements of a position which Plato discusses earlier on in his writings, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i>, through the mouthpiece of <a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a>. The basic argument presented by Thrasymachus and Callicles is that justice (being just) hinders or prevents the achievement of eudaimonia because conventional morality requires that we control ourselves and hence live with un-satiated desires. This idea is vividly illustrated in book 2 of the <i>Republic</i> when <a href="/wiki/Glaucon" title="Glaucon">Glaucon</a>, taking up Thrasymachus' challenge, recounts a myth of the magical ring of <a href="/wiki/Gyges_of_Lydia" title="Gyges of Lydia">Gyges</a>. According to the myth, Gyges becomes king of <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> when he stumbles upon a magical ring, which, when he turns it a particular way, makes him invisible, so that he can satisfy any desire he wishes without fear of punishment. When he discovers the power of the ring he kills the king, marries his wife and takes over the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thrust of Glaucon's challenge is that no one would be just if he could escape the retribution he would normally encounter for fulfilling his desires at whim. But if eudaimonia is to be achieved through the satisfaction of desire, whereas being just or acting justly requires suppression of desire, then it is not in the interests of the strong man to act according to the dictates of conventional morality. (This general line of argument reoccurs much later in the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>.) Throughout the rest of the <i>Republic</i>, Plato aims to refute this claim by showing that the <a href="/wiki/Virtue_of_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtue of justice">virtue of justice</a> is necessary for eudaimonia. </p><p> The argument of the <i>Republic</i> is lengthy and complex. In brief, Plato argues that virtues are states of the soul, and that the just person is someone whose soul is ordered and harmonious, with all its parts functioning properly to the person's benefit. In contrast, Plato argues that the unjust man's soul, without the virtues, is chaotic and at war with itself, so that even if he were able to satisfy most of his desires, his lack of inner harmony and unity thwart any chance he has of achieving eudaimonia. Plato's ethical theory is eudaimonistic because it maintains that eudaimonia depends on virtue. On Plato's version of the relationship, virtue is depicted as the most crucial and the dominant constituent of eudaimonia.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato_and_Aristotle_in_The_School_of_Athens,_by_italian_Rafael.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Plato_and_Aristotle_in_The_School_of_Athens%2C_by_italian_Rafael.jpg/240px-Plato_and_Aristotle_in_The_School_of_Athens%2C_by_italian_Rafael.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Plato_and_Aristotle_in_The_School_of_Athens%2C_by_italian_Rafael.jpg/360px-Plato_and_Aristotle_in_The_School_of_Athens%2C_by_italian_Rafael.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Plato_and_Aristotle_in_The_School_of_Athens%2C_by_italian_Rafael.jpg 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a> by <a href="/wiki/Raffaello_Sanzio" class="mw-redirect" title="Raffaello Sanzio">Raffaello Sanzio</a>, 1509, showing <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (right)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia" title="Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Happiness_in_Aristotle%27s_Nicomachean_Ethics_-_Sara_Sgarlata.ogg" title="File:Happiness in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics - Sara Sgarlata.ogg">Happiness in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="1445" data-mwtitle="Happiness_in_Aristotle's_Nicomachean_Ethics_-_Sara_Sgarlata.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Happiness_in_Aristotle%27s_Nicomachean_Ethics_-_Sara_Sgarlata.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ad/Happiness_in_Aristotle%27s_Nicomachean_Ethics_-_Sara_Sgarlata.ogg/Happiness_in_Aristotle%27s_Nicomachean_Ethics_-_Sara_Sgarlata.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">23 June 2020, audio recording by Sara Sgarlata (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3905301">DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3905301</a>)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>Aristotle's account is articulated in the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></i>. In outline, for Aristotle, eudaimonia involves activity, exhibiting virtue (<i><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)">aretē</a></i> sometimes translated as excellence) in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>. This conception of eudaimonia derives from Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialist</a> understanding of <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a>, the view that <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i> sometimes translated as <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>) is unique to human beings and that the ideal function or work (<i>ergon</i>) of a human being is the fullest or most perfect exercise of reason. Basically, well-being (eudaimonia) is gained by proper development of one's highest and most human capabilities and human beings are "the rational animal". It follows that eudaimonia for a human being is the attainment of excellence (<i>areté</i>) in reason. </p><p>According to Aristotle, eudaimonia actually requires <a href="/wiki/Energeia" class="mw-redirect" title="Energeia">activity</a>, action, so that it is not sufficient for a person to possess a squandered ability or disposition. Eudaimonia requires not only good character but rational activity. Aristotle clearly maintains that to live in accordance with reason means achieving excellence thereby. Moreover, he claims this excellence cannot be isolated and so competencies are also required appropriate to related functions. For example, if being a truly outstanding scientist requires impressive math skills, one might say "doing mathematics well is necessary to be a first rate scientist". From this it follows that eudaimonia, living well, consists in activities exercising the rational part of the psyche in accordance with the virtues or excellency of reason [1097b22–1098a20]. Which is to say, to be fully engaged in the intellectually stimulating and fulfilling work at which one achieves well-earned success. The rest of the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> is devoted to filling out the claim that the best life for a human being is the life of excellence in accordance with reason. Since the reason for Aristotle is not only theoretical but practical as well, he spends quite a bit of time discussing excellence of character, which enables a person to exercise his practical reason (i.e., reason relating to action) successfully. </p><p>Aristotle's ethical theory is eudaimonist because it maintains that eudaimonia depends on virtue. However, it is Aristotle's explicit view that virtue is necessary but not sufficient for eudaimonia. While emphasizing the importance of the rational aspect of the psyche, he does not ignore the importance of other <i>goods</i> such as friends, wealth, and power in a life that is eudaimonic. He doubts the likelihood of being eudaimonic if one lacks certain external goods such as <i>good birth</i>, <i>good children</i>, and <i>beauty</i>. So, a person who is hideously ugly or has "lost children or good friends through death" (1099b5–6), or who is isolated, is unlikely to be eudaimon. In this way, "dumb luck" (<a href="/wiki/Chance_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chance (philosophy)">chance</a>) can preempt one's attainment of eudaimonia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pyrrho"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Philosopher_marble_head_Roman_copy_AM_Corfu_Krfm22-removebg-preview.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Philosopher_marble_head_Roman_copy_AM_Corfu_Krfm22-removebg-preview.png/100px-Philosopher_marble_head_Roman_copy_AM_Corfu_Krfm22-removebg-preview.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Philosopher_marble_head_Roman_copy_AM_Corfu_Krfm22-removebg-preview.png/150px-Philosopher_marble_head_Roman_copy_AM_Corfu_Krfm22-removebg-preview.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Philosopher_marble_head_Roman_copy_AM_Corfu_Krfm22-removebg-preview.png/200px-Philosopher_marble_head_Roman_copy_AM_Corfu_Krfm22-removebg-preview.png 2x" data-file-width="438" data-file-height="569" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Pyrrhonists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acatalepsy" title="Acatalepsy">Acatalepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">Adiaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporia" title="Aporia">Aporia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">Dogma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9" title="Epoché">Epoché</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Similar philosophies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiric_school" title="Empiric school">Empiric school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epilogism" title="Epilogism">Epilogism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skepticism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern influence</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnchhausen_trilemma" title="Münchhausen trilemma">Münchhausen trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_Mates" title="Benson Mates">Benson Mates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogelin" title="Robert Fogelin">Robert Fogelin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pyrrhonism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyrrho_in_Thomas_Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pyrrho_in_Thomas_Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg/220px-Pyrrho_in_Thomas_Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pyrrho_in_Thomas_Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg/330px-Pyrrho_in_Thomas_Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pyrrho_in_Thomas_Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg/440px-Pyrrho_in_Thomas_Stanley_History_of_Philosophy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1380" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> was the founder of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>. A summary of his approach to eudaimonia was preserved by <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>, quoting <a href="/wiki/Aristocles_of_Messene" title="Aristocles of Messene">Aristocles of Messene</a>, quoting <a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a>, in what is known as the "Aristocles passage". </p> <blockquote><p>Whoever wants eudaimonia must consider these three questions: First, how are <i>pragmata</i> (ethical matters, affairs, topics) by nature? Secondly, what attitude should we adopt towards them? Thirdly, what will be the outcome for those who have this attitude?" Pyrrho's answer is that "As for <i>pragmata</i> they are all <a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">adiaphora</a> (undifferentiated by a logical differentia), <i>astathmēta</i> (unstable, unbalanced, not measurable), and <i>anepikrita</i> (unjudged, unfixed, undecidable). Therefore, neither our sense-perceptions nor our <i>doxai</i> (views, theories, beliefs) tell us the truth or lie; so we certainly should not rely on them. Rather, we should be <i>adoxastoi</i> (without views), <i>aklineis</i> (uninclined toward this side or that), and <i>akradantoi</i> (unwavering in our refusal to choose), saying about every single one that it no more is than it is not or it both is and is not or it neither is nor is not.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>With respect to aretē, the Pyrrhonist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a> said: </p> <blockquote><p>If one defines a system as an attachment to a number of <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmas</a> that agree with one another and with <a href="/wiki/Phantasiai" title="Phantasiai">appearances</a>, and defines a dogma as an assent to something non-evident, we shall say that the Pyrrhonist does not have a system. But if one says that a system is a way of life that, in accordance with appearances, follows a certain rationale, where that rationale shows how it is possible to seem to live rightly ("rightly" being taken, not as referring only to aretē, but in a more ordinary sense) and tends to produce the disposition to <a href="/wiki/Epoche" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoche">suspend judgment</a>, then we say that he does have a system.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epicurus">Epicurus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Epicurus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia" title="Special:EditPage/Eudaimonia">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epicurus-PergamonMuseum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sculpture of a face." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Epicurus-PergamonMuseum.png/220px-Epicurus-PergamonMuseum.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="387" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Epicurus-PergamonMuseum.png/330px-Epicurus-PergamonMuseum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Epicurus-PergamonMuseum.png/440px-Epicurus-PergamonMuseum.png 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="1801" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> identified eudaimonia with the life of pleasure.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>' ethical theory is <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonistic</a>. His views were very influential for the founders and best proponents of <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>. Hedonism is the view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and that pain is the only intrinsic bad. An object, experience or state of affairs is intrinsically valuable if it is good simply because of what it is. Intrinsic value is to be contrasted with instrumental value. An object, experience or state of affairs is instrumentally valuable if it serves as a means to what is intrinsically valuable. To see this, consider the following example. Suppose a person spends their days and nights in an office, working at not entirely pleasant activities for the purpose of receiving money. Someone asks them "why do you want the money?", and they answer: "So, I can buy an apartment overlooking the ocean, and a red sports car." This answer expresses the point that money is instrumentally valuable because its value lies in what one obtains by means of it—in this case, the money is a means to getting an apartment and a sports car and the value of making this money dependent on the price of these commodities. </p><p>Epicurus identifies the good life with the life of pleasure. He understands eudaimonia as a more or less continuous experience of pleasure and, also, freedom from pain and distress. But Epicurus does not advocate that one pursue any and every pleasure. Rather, he recommends a policy whereby pleasures are maximized "in the long run". In other words, Epicurus claims that some pleasures are not worth having because they lead to greater pains, and some pains are worthwhile when they lead to greater pleasures. The best strategy for attaining a maximal amount of pleasure overall is not to seek instant gratification but to work out a sensible long term policy.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Greek ethics is eudaimonist because it links virtue and eudaimonia, where eudaimonia refers to an individual's well-being. Epicurus' doctrine can be considered eudaimonist since Epicurus argues that a life of pleasure will coincide with a life of virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believes that we do and ought to seek virtue because virtue brings pleasure. Epicurus' basic doctrine is that a life of virtue is the life that generates the most pleasure, and it is for this reason that we ought to be virtuous. This thesis—the eudaimon life is the pleasurable life—is not a <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautology</a> as "eudaimonia is the good life" would be: rather, it is the substantive and controversial claim that a life of pleasure and absence of pain is what eudaimonia consists in. </p><p>One important difference between Epicurus' eudaimonism and that of Plato and Aristotle is that for the latter virtue is a constituent of eudaimonia, whereas Epicurus makes virtue a means to happiness. To this difference, consider Aristotle's theory. Aristotle maintains that eudaimonia is what everyone wants (and Epicurus would agree). He also thinks that eudaimonia is best achieved by a life of virtuous activity in accordance with reason. The virtuous person takes pleasure in doing the right thing as a result of a proper training of moral and intellectual character (See e.g., <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> 1099a5). However, Aristotle does not think that virtuous activity is pursued for the sake of pleasure. Pleasure is a byproduct of virtuous action: it does not enter at all into the reasons why virtuous action is virtuous. Aristotle does not think that we literally aim for eudaimonia. Rather, eudaimonia is what we achieve (assuming that we are not particularly unfortunate in the possession of external goods) when we live according to the requirements of reason. Virtue is the largest constituent in a eudaimon life. By contrast, Epicurus holds that virtue is the means to achieve happiness. His theory is eudaimonist in that he holds that virtue is indispensable to happiness; but virtue is not a constituent of a eudaimon life, and being virtuous is not (external goods aside) identical with being eudaimon. Rather, according to Epicurus, virtue is only instrumentally related to happiness. So whereas Aristotle would not say that one ought to aim for virtue in order to attain pleasure, Epicurus would endorse this claim. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Stoics">The Stoics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Stoics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raffael_070.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Raffael_070.jpg/220px-Raffael_070.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Raffael_070.jpg/330px-Raffael_070.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Raffael_070.jpg/440px-Raffael_070.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1220" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno</a> thought happiness was a "good flow of life".</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic philosophy</a> begins with <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span>, and was developed by <a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a> (331–232 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 280</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 206 BC</span>) into a formidable systematic unity.<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5g_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5g-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zeno believed happiness was a "good flow of life"; Cleanthes suggested it was "living in agreement with nature", and Chrysippus believed it was "living in accordance with experience of what happens by nature."<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5g_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5g-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stoic ethics is a particularly strong version of eudaimonism. According to the Stoics, virtue is necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. (This thesis is generally regarded as stemming from the Socrates of Plato's earlier dialogues.) </p><p>We saw earlier that the conventional Greek concept of arete is not quite the same as that denoted by <i>virtue</i>, which has Christian connotations of charity, patience, and uprightness, since arete includes many non-moral virtues such as physical strength and beauty. However, the Stoic concept of arete is much nearer to the Christian conception of virtue, which refers to the moral virtues. However, unlike Christian understandings of virtue, righteousness or piety, the Stoic conception does not place as great an emphasis on mercy, forgiveness, self-abasement (i.e. the ritual process of declaring complete powerlessness and humility before God), charity and self-sacrificial love, though these behaviors/mentalities are not necessarily spurned by the Stoics (they are spurned by some other philosophers of Antiquity). Rather Stoicism emphasizes states such as justice, honesty, moderation, simplicity, self-discipline, resolve, fortitude, and courage (states which Christianity also encourages). </p><p>The Stoics make a radical claim that the eudaimon life is the morally virtuous life. Moral virtue is good, and moral vice is bad, and everything else, such as health, honour and riches, are merely "neutral".<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5g_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5g-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoics therefore are committed to saying that external goods such as wealth and physical beauty are not really good at all. Moral virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. In this, they are akin to <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a> philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes of Sinope">Diogenes</a> in denying the importance to eudaimonia of external goods and circumstances, such as were recognized by Aristotle, who thought that severe misfortune (such as the death of one's family and friends) could rob even the most virtuous person of eudaimonia. This Stoic doctrine re-emerges later in the history of ethical philosophy in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, who argues that the possession of a "good will" is the only unconditional good. One difference is that whereas the Stoics regard external goods as neutral, as neither good nor bad, Kant's position seems to be that external goods are good, but only so far as they are a condition to achieving happiness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_conceptions">Modern conceptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Modern conceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Modern_Moral_Philosophy""><span id=".22Modern_Moral_Philosophy.22"></span>"Modern Moral Philosophy"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: "Modern Moral Philosophy""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interest in the concept of eudaimonia and ancient ethical theory more generally had a revival in the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a> in her article "<a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a>" (1958) argued that <a href="/wiki/Duty-based_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Duty-based ethics">duty-based conceptions of morality</a> are conceptually incoherent for they are based on the idea of a "law without a lawgiver".<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5h_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5h-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She claims a system of morality conceived along the lines of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> depends on someone having made these rules.<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5i_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5i-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anscombe recommends a return to the eudaimonistic ethical theories of the ancients, particularly Aristotle, which ground morality in the interests and <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> of human moral agents, and can do so without appealing to any such lawgiver. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julia_Driver" title="Julia Driver">Julia Driver</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> explains: </p> <blockquote><p> Anscombe's article <i>Modern Moral Philosophy</i> stimulated the development of <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a> as an alternative to Utilitarianism, Kantian Ethics, and Social Contract theories. Her primary charge in the article is that, as secular approaches to moral theory, they are without foundation. They use concepts such as "morally ought", "morally obligated", "morally right", and so forth that are legalistic and require a legislator as the source of <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a>. In the past God occupied that role, but systems that dispense with God as part of the theory are lacking the proper foundation for meaningful employment of those concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-twsJun5j_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsJun5j-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_psychology">Modern psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Well-being_-_Contributing_factors_and_research_findings" class="mw-redirect" title="Well-being - Contributing factors and research findings">Well-being - Contributing factors and research findings</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eudaimonic_well-being_Joshanloo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Eudaimonic_well-being_Joshanloo.jpg/220px-Eudaimonic_well-being_Joshanloo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Eudaimonic_well-being_Joshanloo.jpg/330px-Eudaimonic_well-being_Joshanloo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Eudaimonic_well-being_Joshanloo.jpg/440px-Eudaimonic_well-being_Joshanloo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3725" data-file-height="2362" /></a><figcaption>Eudaimonic well-being in 166 nations based on Gallup World Poll data</figcaption></figure> <p>Models of eudaimonia in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">positive psychology</a> emerged from early work on <a href="/wiki/Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">self-actualization</a> and the means of its accomplishment by researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">hierarchy of needs</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-ryff1989_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ryff1989-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theories include Diener's <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_model_of_subjective_well-being" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripartite model of subjective well-being">tripartite model of subjective well-being</a>, Ryff's <a href="/wiki/Six-factor_Model_of_Psychological_Well-being" class="mw-redirect" title="Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being">Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being</a>, Keyes work on <a href="/wiki/Flourishing" title="Flourishing">flourishing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Seligman</a>'s contributions to positive psychology and his theories on <i>authentic happiness</i> and P.E.R.M.A. Related concepts are <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flourishing" title="Flourishing">flourishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contentment" title="Contentment">contentment</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Meaningful_life" title="Meaningful life">meaningful life</a>. </p><p>The Japanese concept of <a href="/wiki/Ikigai" title="Ikigai">Ikigai</a> has been described as eudaimonic well-being, as it "entails actions of devoting oneself to pursuits one enjoys and is associated with feelings of accomplishment and fulfillment."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_psychology_on_eudaimonia">Positive psychology on eudaimonia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Positive psychology on eudaimonia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being" developed in <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive Psychology</a> lists six dimensions of eudaimonia:<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>self-discovery;</li> <li>perceived development of one's best potentials;</li> <li>a sense of purpose and meaning in life;</li> <li>investment of significant effort in pursuit of excellence;</li> <li>intense involvement in activities; and</li> <li>enjoyment of activities as personally expressive.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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.reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-twsJun5e-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-twsJun5e_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRosalind_Hursthouse2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rosalind Hursthouse (July 18, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/">"Virtue Ethics"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>But although modern virtue ethics does not have to take the form known as "neo-Aristotelian", almost any modern version still shows that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy by the employment of three concepts derived from it. These are <i>areté</i> (excellence or virtue), <i>phronesis</i> (practical or moral wisdom), and <i>Eudaimonia</i> (usually translated as happiness or flourishing). As modern virtue ethics has grown and more people have become familiar with its literature, the understanding of these terms has increased, but it is still the case that readers familiar only with modern philosophy tend to misinterpret them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2007-07-18&rft.au=Rosalind+Hursthouse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-virtue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-twsJun5a-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-twsJun5a_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerena_von_Pfetten2008" class="citation news cs1">Verena von Pfetten (4 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/09/04/5-things-happy-people-do_n_124002.html">"5 Things Happy People Do"</a>. <i>Huffington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>But researchers now believe that eudaimonic well-being may be more important. Cobbled from the Greek eu ("good") and daimon ("spirit" or "deity"), eudaimonia means striving toward excellence based on one's unique talents and potential—Aristotle considered it to be the noblest goal in life. In his time, the Greeks commonly believed that one was blessed at birth with a personal daimon embodying the highest possible expression of one's nature. One way they envisioned the daimon was as a golden figurine that would be revealed by cracking away an outer layer of cheap pottery (the person's baser exterior). The effort to know and realize one's most golden self—"personal growth," in today's vernacular—is now the central concept of eudaimonia, which has also come to include continually taking on new challenges and fulfilling one's sense of purpose in life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=5+Things+Happy+People+Do&rft.date=2008-09-04&rft.au=Verena+von+Pfetten&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2F2008%2F09%2F04%2F5-things-happy-people-do_n_124002.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-twsJun5c-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-twsJun5c_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-twsJun5c_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle,_also_David_Ross,_Lesley_Brown1980" class="citation news cs1">Aristotle, also David Ross, Lesley Brown (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JHkp7t6ISvEC&q=very+general+agreement&pg=PA5">"The Nicomachean Ethics"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>Verbally there is very general agreement, for both the general run of men and people of superior refinement...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Nicomachean+Ethics&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0199213610&rft.au=Aristotle%2C+also+David+Ross%2C+Lesley+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJHkp7t6ISvEC%26q%3Dvery%2Bgeneral%2Bagreement%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong1968" class="citation journal cs1">Long, A. 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"Aristotle's Legacy to Stoic Ethics". <i>Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies</i>. <b>15</b>: 74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2041-5370.1968.tb00064.x">10.1111/j.2041-5370.1968.tb00064.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Institute+of+Classical+Studies&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+Legacy+to+Stoic+Ethics&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=74&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.2041-5370.1968.tb00064.x&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTesarPeters2019" class="citation journal cs1">Tesar, Marek; Peters, Michael A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>Men of Athens, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath and am able, I shall not cease to practice philosophy, to exhort you and in my usual way to point out to any of you whom I happen to meet: "Good Sir, you are an Athenian, a citizen of the greatest city with the greatest reputation for both wisdom and power; are you not ashamed of your eagerness to possess as much wealth, reputation and honors as possible, while you do not care for nor give thought to wisdom or truth, or the best possible state of your soul?"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+%22God%22+functioned+in+Socrates%27+life&rft.date=2008-09-19&rft.au=Uncertain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohiodialogues.org%2Fnugget%2Fhow-god-functioned-socrates-life&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00254377">"Crito"</a>, <i>Plato: Euthyphro; Apology of Socrates; and Crito</i>, Oxford University Press, 1924, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00254377">10.1093/oseo/instance.00254377</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198140153" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198140153"><bdi>978-0198140153</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-12-04</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plato%3A+Euthyphro%3B+Apology+of+Socrates%3B+and+Crito&rft.atitle=Crito&rft.date=1924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00254377&rft.isbn=978-0198140153&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Foseo%2Finstance.00254377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-twsJun5f-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-twsJun5f_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Parry2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Richard Parry (Aug 7, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/">"Ancient Ethical Theory"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>Socrates says that a man worth anything at all does not reckon whether his course of action endangers his life or threatens death. He looks only at one thing—whether what he does is just or not, the work of a good or of a bad man (28b–c).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Ethical+Theory&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2009-08-07&rft.au=Richard+Parry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-ancient%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlato1979" class="citation book cs1">Plato (1979). <i>The Republic</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>But what is happiness? The Epicureans' answer was deceptively straightforward: the happy life is the one which is most pleasant. (But their account of what the highest pleasure consists of was not at all straightforward.) Zeno's answer was "a good flow of life" (Arius Didymus, 63A) or "living in agreement", and Cleanthes clarified that with the formulation that the end was "living in agreement with nature" (Arius Didymus, 63B). Chrysippus amplified this to (among other formulations) "living in accordance with experience of what happens by nature"; later Stoics inadvisably, in response to Academic attacks, substituted such formulations as "the rational selection of the primary things according to nature". 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Anscombe (January 1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100131133731/http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/cmt/mmp.html">"Modern Moral Philosophy"</a>. Vol. 33, no. 124. Philosophy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/cmt/mmp.html">the original</a> on 2010-01-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>The first is that it is not profitable for us at present to do moral philosophy; that should be laid aside at any rate until we have an adequate philosophy of psychology, in which we are conspicuously lacking. The second is that the concepts of obligation, and duty—moral obligation and moral duty, that is to say—and of what is morally right and wrong, and of the moral sense of "ought", ought to be jettisoned if this is psychologically possible; because they are survivals, or derivatives from survivals, from an earlier conception of ethics which no longer generally survives, and are only harmful without it. My third thesis is that the differences between the well‑known English writers on moral philosophy from Sidgwick to the present day are of little importance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Modern+Moral+Philosophy&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=124&rft.date=1958-01&rft.au=G.+E.+M.+Anscombe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophy.uncc.edu%2Fmleldrid%2Fcmt%2Fmmp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-twsJun5j-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-twsJun5j_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulia_Driver2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Julia Driver (Jul 21, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anscombe/#VirEth">"Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe: 5.1 Virtue Ethics"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-05</span></span>. <q>In the past God occupied that role, but systems that dispense with God as part of the theory are lacking the proper foundation for meaningful employment of those concepts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gertrude+Elizabeth+Margaret+Anscombe%3A+5.1+Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2009-07-21&rft.au=Julia+Driver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fanscombe%2F%23VirEth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ryff1989-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ryff1989_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyff1989" class="citation journal cs1">Ryff, C. D. (1989). "Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being". <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>57</b> (6): 1069–1081. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.57.6.1069">10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11323%2F11028">11323/11028</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Happiness+is+everything%2C+or+is+it%3F+Explorations+on+the+meaning+of+psychological+well-being&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1069-1081&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11323%2F11028&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.57.6.1069&rft.aulast=Ryff&rft.aufirst=C.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2014" class="citation book cs1">Graham, Michael C. (2014). <i>Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment</i>. Outskirts Press. pp. 6–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1478722595" title="Special:BookSources/978-1478722595"><bdi>978-1478722595</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facts+of+Life%3A+ten+issues+of+contentment&rft.pages=6-10&rft.pub=Outskirts+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1478722595&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumano2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kumano, Michiko (2018-06-01). "On the Concept of Well-Being in Japan: Feeling Shiawase as Hedonic Well-Being and Feeling Ikigai as Eudaimonic Well-Being". <i>Applied Research in Quality of Life</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 419–433. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11482-017-9532-9">10.1007/s11482-017-9532-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1871-2576">1871-2576</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149162906">149162906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Research+in+Quality+of+Life&rft.atitle=On+the+Concept+of+Well-Being+in+Japan%3A+Feeling+Shiawase+as+Hedonic+Well-Being+and+Feeling+Ikigai+as+Eudaimonic+Well-Being&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=419-433&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149162906%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1871-2576&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11482-017-9532-9&rft.aulast=Kumano&rft.aufirst=Michiko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEudaimonia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kjell, Oscar (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/ws/files/4275774/3168522.pdf">"Sustainable Well-Being: A Potential Synergy Between Sustainability and Well-Being Research."</a> <i>Review of General Psychology</i>, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 255–266. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0024603">10.1037/a0024603</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Aristotle. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nicomachean_Ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Nicomachean Ethics">The Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ostwald" title="Martin Ostwald">Martin Ostwald</a>. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company. 1962</li> <li>—— <i>The Complete Works of Aristotle, vol. 1 and 2</i> (rev. ed.), edited by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Jonathan Barnes</a> (1984). <a href="/wiki/Bollingen_Foundation" title="Bollingen Foundation">Bollingen Foundation</a>.1995. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000J0HP5E">B000J0HP5E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. "On Ends" in <i><a href="/wiki/De_finibus_bonorum_et_malorum" title="De finibus bonorum et malorum">De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum</a></i>, translated by H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. 1914. Latin text with old-fashioned and not always philosophically precise English translation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>. "Letter to Menoeceus, Principal Doctrines, and Vatican Sayings." pp. 28–40 in <i>Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Readings</i> (2nd ed.), edited by B. Inwood and L. Gerson. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0872203786" title="Special:BookSources/0872203786">0872203786</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. <i>Plato's Complete Works</i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/John_M._Cooper_(philosopher)" title="John M. Cooper (philosopher)">John M. Cooper</a>, translated by D. S. Hutchinson. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0872203492" title="Special:BookSources/0872203492">0872203492</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ackrill, J. L. (1981) <i>Aristotle the Philosopher</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192891189" title="Special:BookSources/0192891189">0192891189</a></li> <li>Anscombe, G. E. M. (1958) "Modern Moral Philosophy". <i>Philosophy</i> 33; repr. in G.E.M. Anscombe (1981), vol. 3, 26–42.</li> <li>Broadie, Sarah W. (1991) <i>Ethics with Aristotle</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000VM6T34">B000VM6T34</a></li> <li>Irwin, T. H. (1995) <i>Plato's Ethics</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Long, A. A., and D.N. Sedley, <i>The Hellenistic Philosophers</i>, vol 1 and 2 (Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darrin_McMahon" title="Darrin McMahon">McMahon, Darrin M.</a> (2005). <i>Happiness: A History</i>. Atlantic Monthly Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0871138867" title="Special:BookSources/0871138867">0871138867</a></li> <li>—— (2004) "The History of Happiness: 400 B.C. – A.D. 1780." <a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)"><i>Daedalus</i></a> (Spring 2004).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_L._Norton" title="David L. Norton">Norton, David L.</a> (1976) <i>Personal Destinies</i>, Princeton University Press.</li> <li>Sellars, J. (2014). <i>Stoicism</i>. Routledge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._O._Urmson" title="J. O. Urmson">Urmson, J. O.</a> (1988) <i>Aristotle's Ethics</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</li> <li>Vlastos, G. (1991) <i>Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher</i>. Ithaca, NY: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801497876" title="Special:BookSources/0801497876">0801497876</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eudaimonia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aristotelianism" title="Template talk:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aristotelianism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas and interests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">Active intellect</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scholasticism" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain" title="Peter of Spain">Peter of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Zabarella" title="Jacopo Zabarella">Jacopo Zabarella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesar Cremonini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modern" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Trendelenburg" title="Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg">Trendelenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Smith" title="Wolfgang Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">Transmission of the Greek Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epicureanism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinamen" title="Clinamen">Clinamen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will_in_antiquity" title="Free will in antiquity">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedone" title="Hedone">Hedone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otium" title="Otium">Otium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">On the Nature of Things</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Principal_Doctrines" title="Principal Doctrines">Principal Doctrines</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herculaneum_papyri" title="Herculaneum papyri">Herculaneum papyri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stoicism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stoicism" title="Template:Stoicism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stoicism" title="Template talk:Stoicism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stoicism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stoicism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stoicism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Babylon" title="Diogenes of Babylon">Diogenes of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_of_Tarsus" title="Antipater of Tarsus">Antipater of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Stoicism_terms" title="Glossary of Stoicism terms">Philosophical concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_logic" title="Stoic logic">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">Adiaphora</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katalepsis" title="Katalepsis">Katalepsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diairesis" title="Diairesis">Diairesis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_physics" title="Stoic physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">Physis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">Fire</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">Pneuma</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoic_passions" title="Stoic passions">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">Apatheia</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathekon" title="Kathekon">Kathekon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oikei%C3%B4sis" title="Oikeiôsis">Oikeiôsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prohairesis" title="Prohairesis">Prohairesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sophos</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Passions" title="On Passions"><i>On Passions</i> (Chrysippus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paradoxa_Stoicorum" title="Paradoxa Stoicorum">Paradoxa Stoicorum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_Morales_ad_Lucilium" title="Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium"><i>Letters to Lucilius</i> (Seneca)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger#Essays" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca's Essays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca%27s_Consolations" title="Seneca's Consolations">Seneca's Consolations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus#Writings" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus"><i>Lectures</i> (Musonius Rufus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_of_Epictetus" title="Discourses of Epictetus">Discourses of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enchiridion_of_Epictetus" title="Enchiridion of Epictetus">Enchiridion of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations"><i>Meditations of Marcus Aurelius</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoicorum_Veterum_Fragmenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta">Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoa_Poikile" title="Stoa Poikile">Stoa Poikile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoic_Opposition" title="Stoic Opposition">Stoic Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neostoicism" title="Neostoicism">Neostoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" title="Template:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek schools of philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epimenides_of_Knossos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epimenides of Knossos">Epimenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Sages" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solon_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Solon of Athens">Solon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene" title="Pittacus of Mytilene">Pittacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_Priene" title="Bias of Priene">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periander_of_Corinth" class="mw-redirect" title="Periander of Corinth">Periander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleobulus_of_Lindos" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleobulus of Lindos">Cleobulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilon_of_Sparta" title="Chilon of Sparta">Chilon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ionian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Milesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Italian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamiskos" title="Lamiskos">Lamiskos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brontinus" title="Brontinus">Brontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damo_(philosopher)" title="Damo (philosopher)">Damo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliphon_of_Croton" title="Calliphon of Croton">Calliphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Cos" title="Metrodorus of Cos">Metrodorus of Cos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arignote" title="Arignote">Arignote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myia" title="Myia">Myia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurytus_(Pythagorean)" title="Eurytus (Pythagorean)">Eurytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pythagoreans" title="Category:Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_(philosopher)" title="Hippo (philosopher)">Hippo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_(philosopher)" title="Archelaus (philosopher)">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_elder)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_of_Athens" title="Damon of Athens">Damon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophron_(sophist)" title="Lycophron (sophist)">Lycophron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus_(sophist)" title="Dionysodorus (sophist)">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_of_Chios" title="Euthydemus of Chios">Euthydemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">students</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniceris" title="Anniceris">Anniceris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyrenaic_philosophers" title="Category:Cyrenaic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus" title="Menedemus">Menedemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Phlius" title="Asclepiades of Phlius">Asclepiades of Phlius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyas" title="Ichthyas">Ichthyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus_of_Corinth" title="Thrasymachus of Corinth">Thrasymachus of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarete_of_Megara" title="Nicarete of Megara">Nicarete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasicles_of_Thebes" title="Pasicles of Thebes">Pasicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Achaea" title="Bryson of Achaea">Bryson</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dialecticians" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Dialecticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinomachus" title="Clinomachus">Clinomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_Cronus" title="Apollonius Cronus">Apollonius Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphantus" title="Euphantus">Euphantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Chalcedon" title="Dionysius of Chalcedon">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician" title="Philo the Dialectician">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexinus" title="Alexinus">Alexinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthoides" title="Panthoides">Panthoides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Skeptic_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Lucius Annaeus Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius of Tyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderatus_of_Gades" title="Moderatus of Gades">Moderatus of Gades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Pythagoreans" title="Category:Neo-Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicetes_of_Smyrna" title="Nicetes of Smyrna">Nicetes of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman-era_Sophists" title="Category:Roman-era Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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