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Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="أفلاطونية وسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أفلاطونية وسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_platonizm" title="Orta platonizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta platonizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelplatonismus" title="Mittelplatonismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelplatonismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskmine_platonism" title="Keskmine platonism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keskmine platonism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonismo_medio" title="Platonismo medio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Platonismo medio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="افلاطونیسم میانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="افلاطونیسم میانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen-platonisme" title="Moyen-platonisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Moyen-platonisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonisme_Pertengahan" title="Platonisme Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Platonisme Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0-platonismi" title="Mið-platonismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mið-platonismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medioplatonismo" title="Medioplatonismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medioplatonismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middenplatonisme" title="Middenplatonisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middenplatonisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%83%88%E3%83%B3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="中期プラトン主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中期プラトン主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellomplatonisme" title="Mellomplatonisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mellomplatonisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%86%DB%8D_%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="منځنۍ اپلاتوني فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="منځنۍ اپلاتوني فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medioplatonizm" title="Medioplatonizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Medioplatonizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dio_platonismo" title="Médio platonismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Médio platonismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Средний платонизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Средний платонизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredn%C3%BD_platonizmus" title="Stredný platonizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredný platonizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskiplatonismi" title="Keskiplatonismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskiplatonismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1757391#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Platonism" title="Category:Platonism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Platon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Platon.png/100px-Platon.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Platon.png/150px-Platon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Platon.png/200px-Platon.png 2x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="354" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Plato" title="Life of Plato">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dialogues_of_Plato" title="Category:Dialogues of Plato">Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_of_the_Good" title="Form of the Good">Form of the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_theory_of_soul" title="Plato's theory of soul">Theory of soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_epistemology" title="Platonic epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis" title="Atlantis">Atlantis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">Allegory of the cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogy_of_the_Sun" title="Analogy of the Sun">Analogy of the Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogy_of_the_divided_line" title="Analogy of the divided line">Analogy of the divided line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">Philosopher king</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_of_State" title="Ship of State">Ship of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Gyges" title="Ring of Gyges">Ring of Gyges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_of_Er" title="Myth of Er">Myth of Er</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Dialogues_of_Plato" title="Category:Dialogues of Plato">The works of Plato</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro" title="Euthyphro">Euthyphro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apology_(Plato)" title="Apology (Plato)">Apology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Crito" title="Crito">Crito</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)" title="Statesman (dialogue)">Statesman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parmenides_(dialogue)" title="Parmenides (dialogue)">Parmenides</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philebus" title="Philebus">Philebus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Symposium_(Plato)" title="Symposium (Plato)">Symposium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Alcibiades" title="First Alcibiades">First Alcibiades</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Second_Alcibiades" title="Second Alcibiades">Second Alcibiades</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus_(dialogue)" title="Hipparchus (dialogue)">Hipparchus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rival_Lovers" title="Rival Lovers">Rival Lovers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theages" title="Theages">Theages</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charmides_(dialogue)" title="Charmides (dialogue)">Charmides</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laches_(dialogue)" title="Laches (dialogue)">Laches</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lysis_(dialogue)" title="Lysis (dialogue)">Lysis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_(dialogue)" title="Euthydemus (dialogue)">Euthydemus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Protagoras_(dialogue)" title="Protagoras (dialogue)">Protagoras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Minor" title="Hippias Minor">Hippias Minor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ion_(dialogue)" title="Ion (dialogue)">Ion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menexenus_(dialogue)" title="Menexenus (dialogue)">Menexenus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clitophon_(dialogue)" title="Clitophon (dialogue)">Clitophon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critias_(dialogue)" title="Critias (dialogue)">Critias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minos_(dialogue)" title="Minos (dialogue)">Minos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epinomis" title="Epinomis">Epinomis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistles_(Plato)" title="Epistles (Plato)">Epistles</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Definitions_(Plato)" title="Definitions (Plato)">Definitions</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Justice" title="On Justice">On Justice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Virtue" title="On Virtue">On Virtue</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Demodocus_(dialogue)" title="Demodocus (dialogue)">Demodocus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sisyphus_(dialogue)" title="Sisyphus (dialogue)">Sisyphus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_(dialogue)" title="Halcyon (dialogue)">Halcyon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eryxias_(dialogue)" title="Eryxias (dialogue)">Eryxias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Axiochus_(dialogue)" title="Axiochus (dialogue)">Axiochus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epigrams_(Plato)" title="Epigrams (Plato)">Epigrams</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related articles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_Plato" title="Commentaries on Plato">Commentaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">The Academy in Athens</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretations_of_Plato" title="Allegorical interpretations of Plato">Allegorical interpretations of Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_unwritten_doctrines" title="Plato's unwritten doctrines">Plato's unwritten doctrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Platonica" title="Pseudo-Platonica">Pseudo-Platonica</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":20,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Plato" aria-expanded="false"></a> </span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Plato" title="Category:Plato">Plato</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Platonism" title="Template:Platonism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Platonism" title="Template talk:Platonism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Platonism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Platonism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Middle Platonism</b> is the modern name given to a stage in the development of <a href="/wiki/Platonic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic philosophy">Platonic philosophy</a>, lasting from about 90 BC – when <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus of Ascalon</a> rejected the <a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">scepticism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="New Academy">new Academy</a> – until the development of <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">neoplatonism</a> under <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> in the 3rd century. Middle Platonism absorbed many doctrines from the rival <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> schools. The pre-eminent philosopher in this period, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (c. 45–120), defended the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_will" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of the will">freedom of the will</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Immortality_of_the_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortality of the soul">immortality of the soul</a>. He sought to show that God, in creating the world, had transformed matter, as the receptacle of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a>, into the <a href="/wiki/Divine_soul_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Divine soul (disambiguation)">divine soul</a> of the world, where it continued to operate as the source of all evil. God is a <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent</a> being, who operates through divine intermediaries, which are the gods and <a href="/wiki/Daemon_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daemon (mythology)">daemons</a> of popular religion. <a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a> (c. 160) combined Platonism with <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">neopythagoreanism</a> and other eastern philosophies, in a move which would prefigure the development of neoplatonism. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Platonism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus of Ascalon</a> (c. 125–68 BC), was the pupil of <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a>, and the teacher of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. Through his influence, Platonism made the transition from Academic skepticism to <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism#Philosophy" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931273_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931273-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas Philo had still adhered to the doctrine that there is nothing absolutely certain, Antiochus returned to a pronounced <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmatism</a>. Among other objections to Academic scepticism was the consideration that without firm convictions no rational content of life is possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931273_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931273-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He pointed out that it is a contradiction to assert that <a href="/wiki/Acatalepsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Acatalepsia">nothing can be asserted</a> or to prove that nothing can be proved; that we cannot speak of false ideas and at the same time deny the distinction between false and true.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He expounded the Academic, <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> systems in such a way as to show that these three schools deviate from one another only in minor points.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He himself was chiefly interested in ethics, in which he tried to find a middle way between <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. For instance, he said that <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> suffices for happiness, but for the highest grade of happiness bodily and external goods are necessary as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This eclectic tendency was favoured by the lack of dogmatic works by Plato.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931305_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931305-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Middle Platonism was promoted by the necessity of considering the main theories of the post-Platonic schools of philosophy, such as the Aristotelian logic and the Stoic psychology and ethics (theory of goods and emotions).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931306_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931306-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the one hand the middle Platonists were engaged like the later Peripatetics in scholarly activities such as the exposition of Plato's doctrines and the explanation of his dialogues; on the other hand they attempted to develop the Platonic theories systematically. In so far as it was subject in this to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">neopythagoreanism</a>, it was of considerable importance in preparing the way for <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">neoplatonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931306_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931306-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutarch_of_Chaeronea-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Plutarch_of_Chaeronea-03.jpg/220px-Plutarch_of_Chaeronea-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Plutarch_of_Chaeronea-03.jpg/330px-Plutarch_of_Chaeronea-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Plutarch_of_Chaeronea-03.jpg/440px-Plutarch_of_Chaeronea-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="1251" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The most important of the middle Platonists was <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (45–120), who also won fame as a historian. Although he was a Platonist, he was open to the influence of the Peripatetics, and even, in some details, to the Stoics, despite his polemics against their principles; he absolutely rejected only <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean "atheism," he cherished a pure idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, he adopted a second principle in order to explain the constitution of the physical world.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This principle he sought not in any indeterminate matter, but in the evil <a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">world-soul</a> which had from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He elevated God above the finite world, but he believed that God comes to our aid by direct <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelations</a>; this enabled Plutarch to justify popular belief in <a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophecy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller308-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gods of popular religion are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve them.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller308-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Daemon_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daemon (mythology)">Daemons</a> were for him agents of God's influence on the world.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plutarch defended freedom of the will and the immortality of the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller307_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among later middle Platonists there were <a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Smyrna" title="Theon of Smyrna">Theon of Smyrna</a>, who wrote a mathematical introduction to Plato, and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a> (2nd century) who was a teacher of Platonist philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller308-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His pupil, <a href="/wiki/Albinus_(philosopher)" title="Albinus (philosopher)">Albinus</a>, wrote an account of his lectures, of which we possess the introduction.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller308_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller308-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the same time, <a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a> wrote an extant treatise on Platonism, in which he postulated three principles: the first God, the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">ideas</a>, which are regarded as thoughts of this "first God", and matter.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller309_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller309-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> (c. 125), a popular writer, expounded an eclectic Platonism in his books <i>On the God of Socrates</i> and <i>On Plato and his Doctrine</i>, which are written in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller309_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller309-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Tyre" title="Maximus of Tyre">Maximus of Tyre</a> (c. 180), like Plutarch, endeavoured to bridge the gulf between a transcendent God and matter by the assumption of numerous daemons as intermediaries.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller309_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller309-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Atticus_(philosopher)" title="Atticus (philosopher)">Atticus</a> (c. 175) opposed the eclecticism which had invaded the school and contested the theories of Aristotle as an aberration from Plato. He was an uncompromising supporter of Plato and regarded the theory of immortality as the basis of his whole system. Nevertheless, in this theology he approached more closely to the Stoic idea of immanence.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller309_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller309-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a> (c. 160) combined both <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">neopythagoreanism</a> and Platonism.<sup id="cite_ref-zeller309_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeller309-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He exhibited a far-going syncretism. Like Plutarch he supposed that an evil soul was combined with matter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this the mortal part of the human soul is derived, which he described as the second irrational soul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of its guilt the soul had to descend from its bodiless life into the body, and after its departure from the body, if it does not need to undergo further incarnation, it becomes indistinguishably united with God.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A gift of God is the wisdom which is the highest good, and this gift is only granted to those who devote themselves to the ultimate good to the exclusion of all other thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Platonism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretations_of_Plato" title="Allegorical interpretations of Plato">Allegorical interpretations of Plato</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Platonism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931273-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931273_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931273_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931274_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931305-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931305_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931306-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931306_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931306_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeller307-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller307_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 307</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeller308-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zeller308_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller308_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller308_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller308_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 308</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeller309-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zeller309_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller309_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller309_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller309_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zeller309_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 309</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZeller1931310_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZeller1931">Zeller 1931</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Platonism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZeller1931" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Zeller" title="Eduard Zeller">Zeller, Eduard</a> (1931), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.148766"><i>Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy</i></a> (13th ed.)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outlines+of+the+History+of+Greek+Philosophy&rft.edition=13th&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Zeller&rft.aufirst=Eduard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.148766&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+Platonism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Platonism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brittain, Charles. 2001. <i>Philo of Larissa: The Last of the Academic Sceptics.</i> Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.</li> <li>Bonazzi, Mauro. 2012. <i>Antiochus and Platonism.</i> In <i>The Philosophy of Antiochus.</i> Edited by David N. Sedley, 307–333. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Catana, Leo. 2013. "The Origin of the Division between Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism." <i>Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science</i> 46.2: 166–200.</li> <li>Centrone, Bruno. 2000. "Platonism and Pythagoreanism in the Early Empire." In <i>The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Political Thought.</i> Edited by Christopher Rowe and Malcolm Schofield, 559–584. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li> <li>Chiaradonna, Riccardo. 2009. "Galen and Middle Platonism." In <i>Galen and the World of Knowledge.</i> Edited by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_J._Gill" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher J. Gill">Christopher J. Gill</a>, Tim Whitmarsh, and John Wilkins, 243–260. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li> <li>Dillon, John. 1996. <i>The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220.</i> Rev. ed. London: Duckworth.</li> <li>Jones, Roger M. 1980. <i>The Platonism of Plutarch and Selected Papers.</i> 2d ed. New York: Garland.</li> <li>Kalligas, Paul. 2004. "Platonism in Athens During the First Two Centuries AD: An Overview." <i>Rhizai</i> 2:37–56.</li> <li>Mansfeld, Jaap. 1988. "Compatible Alternatives: Middle Platonist Theology and the Xenophanes Reception." In <i>Knowledge of God in the Graeco-Roman World.</i> Edited by Robert van den Broek, Tjitze Baarda, and <a href="/wiki/Jaap_Mansfeld" title="Jaap Mansfeld">Jaap Mansfeld</a>, 92–117. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.</li> <li>Opsomer, Jan. 1998. <i>In Search of the Truth: Academic Tendencies in Middle Platonism.</i> Brussels: Koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten.</li> <li>Zambon, Marco. 2006. "Middle Platonism." In <i>A Companion to Ancient Philosophy.</i> Edited by Mary Louise Gill and Pierre Pellegrin, 561–576. Oxford: Blackwell.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Platonism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Middle Platonism</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Middle+Platonism&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Middle+Platonism">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Middle+Platonism&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/m/midplato.htm">Middle Platonism in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plato" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plato_navbox" title="Template:Plato navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plato_navbox" title="Template talk:Plato navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plato_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plato navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plato" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Apology_(Plato)" title="Apology (Plato)">Apology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charmides_(dialogue)" title="Charmides (dialogue)">Charmides</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clitophon_(dialogue)" title="Clitophon (dialogue)">Clitophon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critias_(dialogue)" title="Critias (dialogue)">Critias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Crito" title="Crito">Crito</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_(dialogue)" title="Euthydemus (dialogue)">Euthydemus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro" title="Euthyphro">Euthyphro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Alcibiades" title="First Alcibiades">First Alcibiades</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Minor" title="Hippias Minor">Hippias Minor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ion_(dialogue)" title="Ion (dialogue)">Ion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laches_(dialogue)" title="Laches (dialogue)">Laches</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lysis_(dialogue)" title="Lysis (dialogue)">Lysis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menexenus_(dialogue)" title="Menexenus (dialogue)">Menexenus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parmenides_(dialogue)" title="Parmenides (dialogue)">Parmenides</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philebus" title="Philebus">Philebus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Protagoras_(dialogue)" title="Protagoras (dialogue)">Protagoras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)" title="Statesman (dialogue)">Statesman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Symposium_(Plato)" title="Symposium (Plato)">Symposium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)">Theaetetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Of_doubtfulauthenticity" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of doubtful<br />authenticity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Axiochus_(dialogue)" title="Axiochus (dialogue)">Axiochus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Definitions_(Plato)" title="Definitions (Plato)">Definitions</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Demodocus_(dialogue)" title="Demodocus (dialogue)">Demodocus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epigrams_(Plato)" title="Epigrams (Plato)">Epigrams</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epinomis" title="Epinomis">Epinomis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistles_(Plato)" title="Epistles (Plato)">Epistles</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Letter" title="Seventh Letter">Seventh Letter</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eryxias_(dialogue)" title="Eryxias (dialogue)">Eryxias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_(dialogue)" title="Halcyon (dialogue)">Halcyon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus_(dialogue)" title="Hipparchus (dialogue)">Hipparchus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minos_(dialogue)" title="Minos (dialogue)">Minos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Justice" title="On Justice">On Justice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Virtue" title="On Virtue">On Virtue</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rival_Lovers" title="Rival Lovers">Rival Lovers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Second_Alcibiades" title="Second Alcibiades">Second Alcibiades</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sisyphus_(dialogue)" title="Sisyphus (dialogue)">Sisyphus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theages" title="Theages">Theages</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg/100px-Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg/150px-Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg/200px-Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3600" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_love" title="Platonic love">Platonic love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophrosyne" title="Sophrosyne">Sophrosyne</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_epistemology" title="Platonic epistemology">Platonic epistemology</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anamnesis_(philosophy)" title="Anamnesis (philosophy)">Amanesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Divine_madness" title="Divine madness">Theia mania</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of Forms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Form_of_the_Good" title="Form of the Good">Form of the Good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_theory_of_soul" title="Plato's theory of soul">Theory of soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">Plato's political philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">Philosopher king</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_solid" title="Platonic solid">Platonic solid</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hyperuranion" title="Hyperuranion">Hyperuranion</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretations_of_Plato" title="Allegorical interpretations of Plato">Allegories<br />and metaphors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis" title="Atlantis">Atlantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Gyges" title="Ring of Gyges">Ring of Gyges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">The Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogy_of_the_divided_line" title="Analogy of the divided line">The Divided Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogy_of_the_Sun" title="Analogy of the Sun">The Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_of_State" title="Ship of State">Ship of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_of_Er" title="Myth of Er">Myth of Er</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Plato" title="Life of Plato">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">The Academy in Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socratic problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_in_Plato%27s_dialogues" title="List of speakers in Plato's dialogues">List of speakers in Plato's dialogues</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_unwritten_doctrines" title="Plato's unwritten doctrines">Unwritten doctrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_of_Plato%27s_dialogues" title="List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues">List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_influence_of_Plato%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural influence of Plato's Republic">Cultural influence of Plato's <i>Republic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Gnosticism" title="Neoplatonism and Gnosticism">Neoplatonism and Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Platonism in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_Plato" title="Commentaries on Plato">Commentaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">and Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_Papyri#Greek" title="Oxyrhynchus Papyri">Oxyrhynchus Papyri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_23" title="Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 23">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_24" title="Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 24">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_228" title="Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 228">228</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_229" title="Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 229">229</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Dream" title="Plato's Dream">Plato's Dream</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Poitier_Meets_Plato" title="Poitier Meets Plato">Poitier Meets Plato</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Platonists" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Platonists" title="Template:Platonists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Platonists" title="Template talk:Platonists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Platonists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Opus" title="Philip of Opus">Philip of Opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristonymus_of_Athens" title="Aristonymus of Athens">Aristonymus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriscus_of_Scepsis" title="Coriscus of Scepsis">Coriscus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erastus_of_Scepsis" title="Erastus of Scepsis">Erastus of Scepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Amphipolis" title="Demetrius of Amphipolis">Demetrius of Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euaeon_of_Lampsacus" title="Euaeon of Lampsacus">Euaeon of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_of_Aenus" title="Heraclides of Aenus">Heraclides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Python_of_Aenus" title="Python of Aenus">Python of Aenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hestiaeus_of_Perinthus" title="Hestiaeus of Perinthus">Hestiaeus of Perinthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lastheneia_of_Mantinea" title="Lastheneia of Mantinea">Lastheneia of Mantinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timolaus_of_Cyzicus" title="Timolaus of Cyzicus">Timolaus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiothea_of_Phlius" title="Axiothea of Phlius">Axiothea of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus_of_Pyrrha" title="Menedemus of Pyrrha">Menedemus of Pyrrha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crantor" title="Crantor">Crantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_(scholarch)" title="Polemon (scholarch)">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Athens" title="Crates of Athens">Crates of Athens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Skeptics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_of_Cnidus" title="Diocles of Cnidus">Diocles of Cnidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacydes_of_Cyrene" title="Lacydes of Cyrene">Lacydes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecles" title="Telecles">Telecles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evander_(philosopher)" title="Evander (philosopher)">Evander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesinus_of_Pergamon" title="Hegesinus of Pergamon">Hegesinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagnon_of_Tarsus" title="Hagnon of Tarsus">Hagnon of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Stratonicea" title="Metrodorus of Stratonicea">Metrodorus of Stratonicea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)" title="Clitomachus (philosopher)">Clitomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmadas" title="Charmadas">Charmadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeschines_of_Neapolis" title="Aeschines of Neapolis">Aeschines of Neapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_of_Alexandria" title="Dio of Alexandria">Dio of Alexandria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle Platonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinus_(philosopher)" title="Albinus (philosopher)">Albinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Peloplaton" title="Alexander Peloplaton">Alexander Peloplaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticus_(philosopher)" title="Atticus (philosopher)">Atticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Tyre" title="Maximus of Tyre">Maximus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Longinus_(philosopher)" title="Cassius Longinus (philosopher)">Longinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen_the_Pagan" title="Origen the Pagan">Origen the Pagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcidius" title="Calcidius">Calcidius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">Students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelius" title="Amelius">Amelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopater_of_Apamea" title="Sopater of Apamea">Sopater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustathius_of_Cappadocia" title="Eustathius of Cappadocia">Eustathius of Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosipatra" title="Sosipatra">Sosipatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesius" title="Aedesius">Aedesius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexippus_(philosopher)" title="Dexippus (philosopher)">Dexippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysanthius" title="Chrysanthius">Chrysanthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Asine" title="Theodorus of Asine">Theodorus of Asine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salutius" title="Salutius">Salutius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Ephesus" title="Maximus of Ephesus">Maximus of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Myndus" title="Eusebius of Myndus">Eusebius of Myndus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus_of_Epirus" title="Priscus of Epirus">Priscus of Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_(philosopher)" title="Antoninus (philosopher)">Antoninus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius_Victorinus" title="Gaius Marius Victorinus">Gaius Marius Victorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academy" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepigenia" title="Asclepigenia">Asclepigenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierocles_of_Alexandria" title="Hierocles of Alexandria">Hierocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermias_(philosopher)" title="Hermias (philosopher)">Hermias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesia" title="Aedesia">Aedesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiodotus_of_Alexandria" title="Asclepiodotus of Alexandria">Asclepiodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegias" title="Hegias">Hegias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodotus_(philosopher)" title="Zenodotus (philosopher)">Zenodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agapius_of_Athens" title="Agapius of Athens">Agapius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian_of_Lydia" title="Priscian of Lydia">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_the_Invincible" title="David the Invincible">David the Invincible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berthold_of_Moosburg" title="Berthold of Moosburg">Berthold of Moosburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Florentine_Academy" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy_(Florence)" title="Platonic Academy (Florence)">Florentine Academy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Cudworth" title="Ralph Cudworth">Ralph Cudworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_More" title="Henry More">Henry More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Conway_(philosopher)" title="Anne Conway (philosopher)">Anne Conway</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_(neoplatonist)" title="Thomas Taylor (neoplatonist)">Thomas Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bernard Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Losev" title="Aleksei Losev">Aleksei Losev</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kaplan_(philosopher)" title="David Kaplan (philosopher)">David Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. 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