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<li id="toc-Transition_from_Old_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_from_Old_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Transition from Old English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_from_Old_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early Middle English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Late Middle English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_to_Early_Modern_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_to_Early_Modern_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Transition to Early Modern English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_to_Early_Modern_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Orthography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alphabet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Alphabet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Other symbols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letter-to-sound_correspondences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letter-to-sound_correspondences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Letter-to-sound correspondences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letter-to-sound_correspondences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sample texts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sample_texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sample texts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sample_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ormulum,_12th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ormulum,_12th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ormulum, 12th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ormulum,_12th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epitaph_of_John_the_smyth,_died_1371" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epitaph_of_John_the_smyth,_died_1371"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Epitaph of John the smyth, died 1371</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epitaph_of_John_the_smyth,_died_1371-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wycliffe's_Bible,_1384" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wycliffe's_Bible,_1384"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Wycliffe's Bible, 1384</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wycliffe's_Bible,_1384-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chaucer,_1390s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chaucer,_1390s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Chaucer, 1390s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chaucer,_1390s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gower,_1390" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gower,_1390"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Gower, 1390</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gower,_1390-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Middle English</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 63 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-63" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">63 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelengels" title="Middelengels – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Middelengels" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelenglisc_spr%C3%A6c" title="Middelenglisc spræc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Middelenglisc spræc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="اللغة الإنجليزية الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الإنجليزية الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_angl%C3%A9s_meyo" title="Idioma anglés meyo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma anglés meyo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9s_mediu" title="Inglés mediu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inglés mediu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF" title="মধ্য ইংরেজি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্য ইংরেজি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Сярэднеанглійская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сярэднеанглійская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Средноанглийски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средноанглийски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krennsaozneg" title="Krennsaozneg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Krennsaozneg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C3%A8s_mitj%C3%A0" title="Anglès mitjà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anglès mitjà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C5%99edn%C3%AD_angli%C4%8Dtina" title="Střední angličtina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Střední angličtina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saesneg_Canol" title="Saesneg Canol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Saesneg Canol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelengelsk" title="Middelengelsk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Middelengelsk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelenglisch" title="Mittelenglisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelenglisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskinglise_keel" title="Keskinglise keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keskinglise keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Μέση αγγλική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μέση αγγλική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9s_medio" title="Inglés medio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Inglés medio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meza_angla_lingvo" title="Meza angla lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Meza angla lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeles_ertain" title="Ingeles ertain – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingeles ertain" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="انگلیسی میانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انگلیسی میانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen_anglais" title="Moyen anglais – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Moyen anglais" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midingelsk" title="Midingelsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Midingelsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Mhe%C3%A1n-Bh%C3%A9arla" title="An Mheán-Bhéarla – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Mheán-Bhéarla" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%A9s_medio" title="Inglés medio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Inglés medio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%96%B4" title="중세 영어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 영어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%80" title="मध्य अंग्रेज़ी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मध्य अंग्रेज़ी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjoengleski_jezik" title="Srednjoengleski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srednjoengleski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mez-Angliana" title="Mez-Angliana – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mez-Angliana" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Inggris_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Inggris Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Inggris Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0enska" title="Miðenska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miðenska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_inglese_media" title="Lingua inglese media – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua inglese media" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94" title="אנגלית תיכונה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנגלית תיכונה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="საშუალო ინგლისური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საშუალო ინგლისური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D3%A7%D1%80_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Шӧр англичан кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Шӧр англичан кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Anglica_media" title="Lingua Anglica media – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Anglica media" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelingels" title="Middelingels – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Middelingels" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Средноанглиски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Средноанглиски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Inggeris_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Inggeris Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Inggeris Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelengels" title="Middelengels – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middelengels" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E" title="中英語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中英語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellomengelsk" title="Mellomengelsk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mellomengelsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellomengelsk" title="Mellomengelsk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mellomengelsk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C3%A9s_mejan" title="Anglés mejan – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Anglés mejan" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_%C5%9Brednioangielski" title="Język średnioangielski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język średnioangielski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%AAs_m%C3%A9dio" title="Inglês médio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Inglês médio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_englez%C4%83_medie" title="Limba engleză medie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba engleză medie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Среднеанглийский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Среднеанглийский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Inglis_leid" title="Middle Inglis leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Middle Inglis leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Middle English" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="وچولي انگريزي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="وچولي انگريزي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredn%C3%A1_angli%C4%8Dtina" title="Stredná angličtina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredná angličtina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednja_angle%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Srednja angleščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Srednja angleščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86" title="زمانی ئینگلیزیی ناوین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی ئینگلیزیی ناوین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskienglanti" title="Keskienglanti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskienglanti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medelengelska" title="Medelengelska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medelengelska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="ภาษาอังกฤษสมัยกลาง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอังกฤษสมัยกลาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C4%B0ngilizce" title="Orta İngilizce – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta İngilizce" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Середньоанглійська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Середньоанглійська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="وسطی انگریزی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وسطی انگریزی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Anh_trung_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Tiếng Anh trung đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Anh trung đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English_orthography&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle English orthography">Middle English orthography</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Stage of development of English, from the 12th to 15th centuries</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Middle English</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Englisch</i></span><br /><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">English</i></span><br /><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Inglis</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaucer-canterburytales-miller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chaucer-canterburytales-miller.jpg/320px-Chaucer-canterburytales-miller.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="453" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Chaucer-canterburytales-miller.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="362" data-file-height="513" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">A page from <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a></i>, published in the late 14th century</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> (except for west <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>), some localities in the eastern fringe of <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, south east <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and Scottish <a href="/wiki/Burgh" title="Burgh">burghs</a>, to some extent <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">developed into <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yola_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yola language">Yola</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> by the 15th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic languages">North Sea Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Middle English</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=131">enm</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/enm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:enm">enm</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-6" title="ISO 639-6">ISO 639-6</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>meng</code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/midd1317">midd1317</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Middle English</b> (abbreviated to <b>ME</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a form of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> that was spoken after the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> period. Scholarly opinion varies, but the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Valencia" title="University of Valencia">University of Valencia</a> states the period when Middle English was spoken as being from 1150 to 1500.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stage of the development of the English language roughly coincided with the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>. </p><p>Middle English saw significant changes to its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>. Writing conventions during the Middle English period varied widely. Examples of writing from this period that have survived show extensive regional variation. The more standardized Old English literary variety broke down and writing in English became fragmented and localized and was, for the most part, being improvised.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the period (about 1470), and aided by the <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">invention of the printing press</a> by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> in 1439, a standard based on the London dialects (Chancery Standard) had become established. This largely formed the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a>, which lasted until about 1650. <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> developed concurrently from a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_dialect" title="Northumbrian dialect">Northumbrian dialect</a> (prevalent in northern England and spoken in southeast <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>). </p><p>During the Middle English period, many Old English grammatical features either became simplified or disappeared altogether. Noun, adjective, and verb <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflections</a> were simplified by the reduction (and eventual elimination) of most <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical case</a> distinctions. Middle English also saw considerable adoption of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> vocabulary, especially in the areas of politics, law, the arts, and religion, as well as poetic and emotive diction. Conventional English vocabulary remained primarily Germanic in its sources, with <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> influences becoming more apparent. Significant changes in pronunciation took place, particularly involving long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>. </p><p>Little survives of early <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English literature</a>, due in part to Norman domination and the prestige that came with writing in French rather than English. During the 14th century, a new style of literature emerged with the works of writers including <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>, whose <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">Canterbury Tales</a></i> remains the most studied and read work of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_from_Old_English">Transition from Old English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Transition from Old English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_English_Dialects.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Middle_English_Dialects.png/220px-Middle_English_Dialects.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Middle_English_Dialects.png/330px-Middle_English_Dialects.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Middle_English_Dialects.png/440px-Middle_English_Dialects.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The dialects of Middle English <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The transition from Late <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> to Early Middle English had taken place by the 1150s to 1180s, the period when the <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian canon</a> <a href="/wiki/Orrm" title="Orrm">Orrm</a> wrote the <i><a href="/wiki/Ormulum" title="Ormulum">Ormulum</a></i>, one of the oldest surviving texts in Middle English.<sup id="cite_ref-Johannesson2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johannesson2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The influence of <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> aided the development of English from a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic language</a> with relatively free word order to a more <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic language</a> with a stricter word order.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Old English and Old Norse were synthetic languages with complicated inflections. Communication between <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a> and their Anglo-Saxon neighbours resulted in the erosion of inflection in both languages.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old Norse may have had a more profound impact on Middle and Modern English development than any other language.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Like close cousins, Old Norse and Old English resembled each other, and with some words and grammatical structures in common, speakers of each language roughly understood each other, but according to historian Simeon Potler the main difference lied on the distinct inflectional endings, which led to much confusion within the mixed population that existed in the Danelaw, this endings tended gradually to become obscured and finally lost, "simplifying English grammar" in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In time, the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Viking influence on Old English is most apparent in <a href="/wiki/Pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronouns">pronouns</a>, modals, comparatives, <a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronominal adverbs">pronominal adverbs</a> (like <i>hence</i> and <i>together</i>), conjunctions, and prepositions show the most marked Danish influence. The best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in extensive word borrowings; however, texts from the period in Scandinavia and Northern England do not provide certain evidence of an influence on syntax. However, at least one scholarly study of this influence shows that Old English may have been replaced entirely by Norse, by virtue of the change from Old English to Norse syntax.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Old Norse influence was strongest in the dialects under Danish control that composed the southern part of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">Northern England</a> (corresponding to the Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_J%C3%B3rv%C3%ADk" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Jórvík">Kingdom of Jórvík</a>), the <a href="/wiki/East_Midlands" title="East Midlands">East Midlands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/East_of_England" title="East of England">East of England</a>, words in the spoken language emerged in the 10th and 11th centuries near the transition from Old to Middle English. Influence on the written languages only appeared from the beginning of the 13th century,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this delay in Scandinavian lexical influence in English has been attributed to the lack of written evidence from the areas of Danish control, as the majority of written sources from Old English were produced in the <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon dialect</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>, the heart of Anglo-Saxon political power at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of England in 1066 saw the replacement of the top levels of the English-speaking political and ecclesiastical hierarchies by <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> rulers who spoke a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>, now known as <a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a>, which developed in England into <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a>. The use of Norman as the preferred language of literature and polite discourse fundamentally altered the role of Old English in education and administration, even though many Normans of this period were illiterate and depended on the clergy for written communication and record-keeping. A significant number of <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a> words were borrowed into English and used alongside native Germanic words with similar meanings. Examples of Norman/Germanic pairs in Modern English include <i>pig</i> and <i>pork</i>, <i>calf</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Veal" title="Veal">veal</a></i>, <i>wood</i> and <i>forest</i>, and <i>freedom</i> and <i>liberty</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role of Anglo-Norman as the language of government and law can be seen in the abundance of Modern English words for the mechanisms of government that are derived from Anglo-Norman, such as <i>court</i>, <i>judge</i>, <i>jury</i>, <i>appeal</i>, and <i>parliament</i>. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the <a href="/wiki/Chivalric" class="mw-redirect" title="Chivalric">chivalric</a> cultures that arose in the 12th century, an era of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seigneurialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Seigneurialism">seigneurialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crusading" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusading">crusading</a>. </p><p>Words were often taken from Latin, usually through French transmission. This gave rise to various synonyms, including <i>kingly</i> (inherited from Old English), <i>royal</i> (from French, inherited from Vulgar Latin), and <i>regal</i> (from French, which borrowed it from Classical Latin). Later French appropriations were derived from standard, rather than Norman, French. Examples of the resulting <a href="/wiki/Doublet_(linguistics)" title="Doublet (linguistics)">doublet</a> pairs include <i>warden</i> (from Norman) and <i>guardian</i> (from later French; both share a common ancestor loaned from Germanic).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not result in immediate changes to the language. The general population would have spoken the same <a href="/wiki/Old_English_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English dialects">dialects</a> as they had before the Conquest. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, only dialects that evolved individually from Old English.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Middle_English">Early Middle English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Middle English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early Middle English (1150–1350)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary (with <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_influence_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian influence in English">many Norse borrowings</a> in the northern parts of the country) but a greatly simplified <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> system. The grammatical relations that were expressed in Old English by the <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental cases</a> were replaced in Early Middle English with <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositional</a> constructions. The Old English <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> -<span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">es</i></span> survives in the <i>-'s</i> of the modern <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">English possessive</a>, but most of the other case endings disappeared in the Early Middle English period, including most of the <a href="/wiki/Old_English_declension#Articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English declension">roughly one dozen forms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> ("the"). The <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> personal pronouns (denoting exactly two) also disappeared from English during this period. </p><p>The loss of case endings was part of a general trend from inflections to fixed <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> that also occurred in other Germanic languages (though more slowly and to a lesser extent), and, therefore, it cannot be attributed simply to the influence of French-speaking sections of the population: English did, after all, remain the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>. It is also argued<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that Norse immigrants to England had a great impact on the loss of inflectional endings in Middle English. One argument is that, although Norse and English speakers were somewhat comprehensible to each other due to similar morphology, the Norse speakers' inability to reproduce the ending sounds of English words influenced Middle English's loss of inflectional endings. </p><p>Important texts for the reconstruction of the evolution of Middle English out of Old English are the <i><a href="/wiki/Peterborough_Chronicle" title="Peterborough Chronicle">Peterborough Chronicle</a></i>, which continued to be compiled up to 1154; the <i><a href="/wiki/Ormulum" title="Ormulum">Ormulum</a></i>, a biblical commentary probably composed in <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire" title="Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a> in the second half of the 12th century, incorporating a unique phonetic spelling system; and the <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm"><a href="/wiki/Ancrene_Wisse" title="Ancrene Wisse">Ancrene Wisse</a></i></span> and the <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Group" title="Katherine Group">Katherine Group</a>, religious texts written for <a href="/wiki/Anchoress" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoress">anchoresses</a>, apparently in the <a href="/wiki/West_Midlands_(region)" title="West Midlands (region)">West Midlands</a> in the early 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language found in the last two works is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/AB_language" title="AB language">AB language</a>. </p><p>Additional literary sources of the 12th and 13th centuries include <i><a href="/wiki/Layamon%27s_Brut" title="Layamon's Brut">Layamon's Brut</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Owl_and_the_Nightingale" title="The Owl and the Nightingale">The Owl and the Nightingale</a></i>. </p><p>Some scholars<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have defined "Early Middle English" as encompassing English texts up to 1350. This longer time frame would extend the corpus to include many Middle English Romances (especially those of the <i><a href="/wiki/Auchinleck_manuscript" title="Auchinleck manuscript">Auchinleck manuscript</a></i> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1330</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Middle_English">Late Middle English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Late Middle English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gradually, the wealthy and the government <a href="/wiki/Anglicisation" title="Anglicisation">Anglicised</a> again, although Norman (and subsequently <a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">French</a>) remained the dominant language of literature and law until the 14th century, even after the loss of the majority of the continental possessions of the <a href="/wiki/English_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="English monarchy">English monarchy</a>. </p><p>In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> of the 14th century, there was significant migration into <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, of people to the counties of the <a href="/wiki/South_East_England" title="South East England">southeast of England</a> and from the <a href="/wiki/East_Midlands" title="East Midlands">east</a> and central <a href="/wiki/Midlands" title="Midlands">Midlands</a> of England, and a new <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige</a> London dialect began to develop as a result of this clash of the different dialects,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that was based chiefly on the speech of the East Midlands but also influenced by that of other regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Wright_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The writing of this period, however, continues to reflect a variety of regional forms of English. The <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm"><a href="/wiki/Ayenbite_of_Inwyt" title="Ayenbite of Inwyt">Ayenbite of Inwyt</a></i></span>, a translation of a French confessional prose work, completed in 1340, is written in a <a href="/wiki/Kentish_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Kentish dialect">Kentish dialect</a>. The best known writer of Middle English, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>, wrote in the second half of the 14th century in the emerging London dialect, although he also portrays some of his characters as speaking in northern dialects, as in "<a href="/wiki/The_Reeve%27s_Tale" title="The Reeve's Tale">The Reeve's Tale</a>". </p><p>In the English-speaking areas of lowland <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, an independent standard was developing, based on the <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_dialect" title="Northumbrian dialect">Northumbrian dialect</a>. This would develop into what came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots language</a>. </p><p>A large number of terms for abstract concepts were adopted directly from <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">scholastic philosophical Latin</a> (rather than via French). Examples are "absolute", "act", "demonstration", and "probable".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Chancery_Standard"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_to_Early_Modern_English">Transition to Early Modern English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Transition to Early Modern English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Chancery Standard of written English emerged <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1430</span> in official documents that, since the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a>, had normally been written in French.<sup id="cite_ref-Wright_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Chaucer's work, this new standard was based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Clerks using this standard were usually familiar with <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, influencing the forms they chose. The Chancery Standard, which was adopted slowly, was used in England by bureaucrats for most official purposes, excluding those of the Church and legalities, which used Latin and <a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a> respectively. </p><p>The Chancery Standard's influence on later forms of written English is disputed, but it did undoubtedly provide the core around which <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> formed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Early Modern English emerged with the help of <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">William Caxton</a>'s printing press, developed during the 1470s. The press stabilized English through a push towards standardization, led by Chancery Standard enthusiast and writer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pynson" title="Richard Pynson">Richard Pynson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> began in the 1540s after the printing and wide distribution of the <a href="/wiki/English_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="English Bible">English Bible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Prayer Book</a>, which made the new standard of English publicly recognizable and lasted until about 1650. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English phonology</a></div> <p>The main changes between the <a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old English sound system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">that of Middle English</a> include: </p> <ul><li>Emergence of the voiced <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> as separate <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>, rather than mere <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> of the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> fricatives</li> <li>Reduction of the Old English <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> to monophthongs and the emergence of new diphthongs due to vowel breaking in certain positions, change of Old English post-vocalic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> (sometimes resulting from the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span>) to offglides, and borrowing from French</li> <li>Merging of Old English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/<span class="wrap"> </span>and<span class="wrap"> </span>/ɑ/</span> into a single vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span></li> <li>Raising of the long vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æː/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛː/</span></li> <li>Rounding of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span> in the southern dialects</li> <li>Unrounding of the front <a href="/wiki/Rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded vowels</a> in most dialects</li> <li>Lengthening of vowels in <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllables</a> (and in certain other positions). The resultant long vowels (and other preexisting long vowels) subsequently underwent changes of quality in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>, which began during the later Middle English period.</li> <li>Loss of <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">gemination</a> (double consonants came to be pronounced as single ones)</li> <li>Loss of weak final vowels (<a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>, written <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span>). By <a href="/wiki/Chaucer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaucer">Chaucer</a>'s time, this vowel was silent in normal speech, although it was normally pronounced in verse as the <a href="/wiki/Meter_(verse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meter (verse)">meter</a> required (much as occurs in modern <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>). Also, nonfinal unstressed <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span> was dropped when adjacent to only a single consonant on either side if there was another short <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span> in an adjoining syllable. Thus, <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">every</i></span> began to be pronounced as <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">evry</i></span>, and <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">palmeres</i></span> as <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">palmers</i></span>.</li></ul> <p>The combination of the last three processes listed above led to the spelling conventions associated with <a href="/wiki/Silent_e" title="Silent e">silent <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span></a> and <a href="/wiki/Double_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Double letter">doubled consonants</a> (see under <a href="#Orthography">Orthography</a>, below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Middle English retains only two distinct noun-ending patterns from the more complex system of <a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar#Nouns" title="Old English grammar">inflection in Old English</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Middle English nouns </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Nouns </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong nouns</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak nouns</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td rowspan="2">-(<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">e</span></span>) </td> <td rowspan="2">-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">es</span></span> </td> <td>-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">e</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="4">-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">en</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td rowspan="3">-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">en</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">es</span></span><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">e</span></span>(<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">ne</span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">e</span></span> </td> <td>-<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">e</span></span>(<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><span lang="enm">s</span></span>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Nouns of the weak declension are primarily inherited from Old English <i>n</i>-stem nouns but also from <i>ō</i>-stem, <i>wō</i>-stem, and <i>u</i>-stem nouns,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which did not inflect in the same way as <i>n</i>-stem nouns in Old English, but joined the weak declension in Middle English. Nouns of the strong declension are inherited from the other Old English noun stem classes. </p><p>Some nouns of the strong type have an <i>-e</i> in the nominative/accusative singular, like the weak declension, but otherwise strong endings. Often, these are the same nouns that had an <i>-e</i> in the nominative/accusative singular of Old English (they, in turn, were inherited from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> <i>ja</i>-stem and <i>i</i>-stem nouns). </p><p>The distinct dative case was lost in early Middle English, and although the genitive survived, by the end of the Middle English period only the strong <i>-'s</i> ending (variously spelled) was in use.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some formerly feminine nouns, as well as some weak nouns, continued to make their genitive forms with <i>-e</i> or no ending (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">fole hoves</i></span>, horses' hooves), and nouns of relationship ending in <i>-er</i> frequently have no genitive ending (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">fader bone</i></span>, "father's bane").<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p23_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p23-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strong <i>-(e)s</i> plural form has survived into Modern English. The weak <i>-(e)n</i> form is now rare and used only in <i>oxen</i> and as part of a <a href="/wiki/Double_plural" title="Double plural">double plural</a>, in <i>children</i> and <i>brethren</i>. Some dialects still have forms such as <i>eyen</i> (for <i>eyes</i>), <i>shoon</i> (for <i>shoes</i>), <i>hosen</i> (for <i>hose(s)</i>), <i>kine</i> (for <i>cows</i>), and <i>been</i> (for <i>bees</i>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Grammatical gender</a> survived to a limited extent in early Middle English<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p23_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p23-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before being replaced by natural gender in the course of the Middle English period. Grammatical gender was indicated by agreement of articles and pronouns (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þo ule</i></span> "the feminine owl") or using the pronoun <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">he</i></span> to refer to masculine nouns such as <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">helm</i></span> ("helmet"), or phrases such as <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">scaft stærcne</i></span> (strong shaft), with the masculine accusative adjective ending <i>-ne</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p38_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p38-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Single-syllable adjectives added <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-e</i></span></i> when modifying a noun in the plural and when used after the definite article (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þe</i></span>), after a demonstrative (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þis</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þat</i></span>), after a possessive pronoun (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">hir</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">our</i></span>), or with a name or in a form of address. This derives from the Old English "weak" declension of adjectives.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-pp27-28_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-pp27-28-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This inflexion continued to be used in writing even after final -e had ceased to be pronounced.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p28_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p28-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In earlier texts, multisyllable adjectives also receive a final <i>-e</i> in these situations, but this occurs less regularly in later Middle English texts. Otherwise, adjectives have no ending and adjectives already ending in <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-e</i></span></i> etymologically receive no ending as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p28_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p28-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Earlier texts sometimes inflect adjectives for case as well. <i><a href="/wiki/Layamon%27s_Brut" title="Layamon's Brut">Layamon's Brut</a></i> inflects adjectives for the masculine accusative, genitive, and dative, the feminine dative, and the plural genitive.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-pp28-29_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-pp28-29-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>The Owl and the Nightingale</i> adds a final <i>-e</i> to all adjectives not in the nominative, here only inflecting adjectives in the weak declension (as described above).<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p29-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Comparative" title="Comparative">Comparatives</a> and superlatives were usually formed by adding <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-er</i></span></i> and <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-est</i></span></i>. Adjectives with long vowels sometimes shortened these vowels in the comparative and superlative (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">greet</i></span>, great; <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">gretter</i></span>, greater).<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p29-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adjectives ending in <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-ly</i></span></i> or <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-lich</i></span></i> formed comparatives either with <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-lier</i></span></i>, <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-liest</i></span></i> or <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-loker</i></span></i>, <i><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-lokest</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p29-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few adjectives also displayed <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a> in their comparatives and superlatives, such as <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">long</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">lenger</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p29-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other irregular forms were mostly the same as in modern English.<sup id="cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burrow-2005-p29-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Middle English <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> were mostly developed from <a href="/wiki/Old_English_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English pronouns">those of Old English</a>, with the exception of the third person plural, a borrowing from <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> (the original Old English form clashed with the third person singular and was eventually dropped). Also, the nominative form of the feminine third person singular was replaced by a form of the <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> that developed into <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">sche</i></span> (modern <i>she</i>), but the alternative <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">heyr</i></span> remained in some areas for a long time. </p><p>As with nouns, there was some inflectional simplification (the distinct Old English <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> forms were lost), but pronouns, unlike nouns, retained distinct nominative and accusative forms. Third person pronouns also retained a distinction between accusative and dative forms, but that was gradually lost: The masculine <span title="Mzieme Naga-language text"><i lang="nme">hine</i></span> was replaced by <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">him</i></span> south of the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">River Thames</a> by the early 14th century, and the neuter dative <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">him</i></span> was ousted by <i>it</i> in most dialects by the 15th.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following table shows some of the various Middle English pronouns. Many other variations are noted in Middle English sources because of differences in spellings and pronunciations at different times and in different dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" width="75%"> <caption>Middle English personal pronouns <br /> Below each Middle English pronoun, the <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English_personal_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern English personal pronouns">Modern English</a> is shown in italics</i> (with <a href="/wiki/Archaism" title="Archaism">archaic</a> forms in parentheses) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Person / gender </th> <th style="width:6em;line-height:1.2;"><a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> </th> <th style="width:6em;line-height:1.2;"><a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> </th> <th style="width:6em;line-height:1.2;"><a href="/wiki/Possessive_determiner" title="Possessive determiner">Possessive determiner</a> </th> <th style="width:6em;line-height:1.2;"><a href="/wiki/Possessive_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive pronoun">Possessive pronoun</a> </th> <th style="width:6em;line-height:1.2;"><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Singular </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">First </th> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I_(pronoun)" title="I (pronoun)">ic / ich / I</a></span> <br /> <i>I</i></td> <td>me / mi <br /> <i>me</i></td> <td><span class="nowrap">min / minen [pl.] </span> <br /> <i>my</i></td> <td><span class="nowrap">min / mire / minre</span> <br /> <i>mine</i></td> <td><span class="nowrap">min one / mi seluen</span><br /> <i>myself</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Second </th> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thou" title="Thou">þou</a> / þu / tu / þeou </span> <br /> <i><a href="/wiki/You" title="You">you</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Thou" title="Thou">thou</a>)</td> <td><span class="nowrap">þe</span> <br /> <i>you</i> (thee)</td> <td><span class="nowrap">þi / ti</span> <br /> <i>your</i> (thy)</td> <td><span class="nowrap">þin / þyn</span> <br /> <i>yours</i> (thine)</td> <td><span class="nowrap">þeself / þi seluen</span> <br /> <i>yourself</i> (thyself) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Third </th> <th>Masculine </th> <td><a href="/wiki/He_(pronoun)" title="He (pronoun)">he</a> <br /> <i>he</i></td> <td>him<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> / hine<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> <i>him</i></td> <td>his / hisse / hes <br /><i> his</i></td> <td>his / hisse <br /> <i>his</i></td> <td>him-seluen <br /> <i>himself</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Feminine </th> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sche" class="mw-redirect" title="Sche">sche[o] / s[c]ho / ȝho</a></span> <br /> <i><a href="/wiki/She_(pronoun)" title="She (pronoun)">she</a></i></td> <td><span class="nowrap">heo / his / hie / hies / hire</span> <br /> <i>her</i></td> <td><span class="nowrap">hio / heo / hire / heore</span> <br /> <i>her</i></td> <td>- <br /> <i>hers</i></td> <td>heo-seolf <br /> <i>herself</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Neuter </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Hit_(pronoun)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hit (pronoun)">hit</a> <br /> <i><a href="/wiki/It_(pronoun)" title="It (pronoun)">it</a></i></td> <td>hit / him <br /> <i>it</i></td> <td>his <br /> <i>its</i></td> <td>his <br /> <i>its</i></td> <td>hit sulue <br /> <i>itself</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">First </th> <td><a href="/wiki/We" title="We">we</a> <br /> <i>we</i></td> <td>us / ous <br /> <i>us</i></td> <td><span class="nowrap">ure[n] / our[e] / ures / urne</span> <br /> <i>our</i></td> <td>oures <br /> <i>ours</i></td> <td>us self / ous silue <br /> <i>ourselves</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Second </th> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ye_(pronoun)" title="Ye (pronoun)">ȝe / ye</a></span> <br /> <i><a href="/wiki/You" title="You">you</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ye_(pronoun)" title="Ye (pronoun)">ye</a></i>)</td> <td><span class="nowrap">eow / [ȝ]ou / ȝow / gu / you</span> <br /> <i>you</i></td> <td><span class="nowrap">eower / [ȝ]ower / gur / [e]our </span> <br /> <i>your</i></td> <td>youres <br /> <i>yours</i></td> <td>Ȝou self / ou selue <br /> <i>yourselves</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Third </th> <th>From Old English </th> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/They" title="They">heo / he</a></span></td> <td><span class="nowrap">his / heo[m]</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap">heore / her</span></td> <td>-</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <th>From Old Norse </th> <td><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/They" title="They">þa / þei / þeo / þo</a></span></td> <td><span class="nowrap">þem / þo</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap">þeir</span></td> <td>-</td> <td>þam-selue </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>modern</i> </th> <td><i>they</i></td> <td><i>them</i></td> <td><i>their</i></td> <td><i>theirs</i></td> <td><i>themselves</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative case</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">indirect object</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative case</a>, <a href="/wiki/Direct_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct object">direct object</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a general rule, the indicative first person singular of verbs in the present tense ended in <i>-e</i> (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ich here</i></span>, "I hear"), the second person singular in <i>-(e)st</i> (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þou spekest</i></span>, "thou speakest"), and the third person singular in <i>-eþ</i> (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">he comeþ</i></span>, "he cometh/he comes"). (<i><a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">þ</a></i> (the letter "thorn") is pronounced like the unvoiced <i>th</i> in "think", but under certain circumstances, it may be like the voiced <i>th</i> in "that"). The following table illustrates a typical conjugation pattern:<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Middle English verb inflection </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">Verbs inflection </th> <th rowspan="3">Infinitive </th> <th colspan="5">Present </th> <th colspan="5">Past </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Participle </th> <th colspan="3">Singular </th> <th rowspan="2">Plural </th> <th rowspan="2">Participle </th> <th colspan="3">Singular </th> <th rowspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <th>2nd person </th> <th>3rd person </th> <th>1st person </th> <th>2nd person </th> <th>3rd person </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="12">Regular verbs </th></tr> <tr> <th>Strong </th> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-en</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-ende</i></span>, -<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ynge</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-e</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-est</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-eþ</i></span> (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-es</i></span>) </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-en</i></span> <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">(-es</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-eþ</i></span>) </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">i-</i></span> <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-en</i></span> </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-e</i></span> (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-est</i></span>) </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-en</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Weak </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-ed</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-ede</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-edest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-ede</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">-eden</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="12">Irregular verbs </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Been "<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">be</i></span>" </th> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">been</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">beende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">beynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">am</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">art</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">is</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">aren</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ibeen</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">was</i></span> </td> <td>wast </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">was</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">weren</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">be</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">bist</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">biþ</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">beth</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">been</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">were</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Cunnen</i></span> "can" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">cunnen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">cunnende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">cunnynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">can</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">canst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">can</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">cunnen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">cunned</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">coud</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">coude</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">couthe</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">coudest</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">couthest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">coude</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">couthe</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">couden</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">couthen</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Don</i></span> "do" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">don</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">doende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">doynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">do</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">dost</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">doþ</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">doþ</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">don</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">idon</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">didde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">didst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">didde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">didden</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Douen</i></span> "be good for" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">douen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">douende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">douynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">deigh</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">deight</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">deigh</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">douen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">idought</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">dought</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">doughtest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">dought</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">doughten</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Durren</i></span> "dare" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durren</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durrende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durrynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">dar</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">darst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">dar</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durren</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durst</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">dirst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durstest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">durst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">dursten</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Gon</i></span> "go" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Gon</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">goende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">goynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">go</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">gost</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">goþ</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">goþ</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">gon</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">igon</i></span>(gen) </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wend</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yede</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yode</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wendest</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yedest</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yodest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yede</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yode</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wenden</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yeden</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">yoden</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Haven</i></span> "have" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">haven</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">havende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">havynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">have</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">hast</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">haþ</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">haven</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ihad</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">hadde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">haddest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">hadde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">hadden</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Moten</i></span> "must" </th> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mot</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">must</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mot</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">moten</i></span> </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">muste</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mustest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">muste</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">musten</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Mowen</i></span> "may" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mowen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mowende</i></span>, <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mowynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">may</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">myghst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">may</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mowen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">imought</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mighte</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mightest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mighte</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">mighten</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Owen</i></span> "owe, ought" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owende, owynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owe</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owe</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">iowen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owed</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ought</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">owed</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">ought</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Schulen</i></span> "should" </th> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">schal</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">schalt</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">schal</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">schulen</i></span> </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">scholde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">scholdest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">scholde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">scholde</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Þurven/Þaren</i></span> "need" </th> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þarf</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þarst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þarf</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þurven, þaren</i></span> </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þurft</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þurst</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þurft</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þurften</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Willen</i></span> "want" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">willen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">willende, willynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">will</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wilt</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">will</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wollen</i></span> </td> <td>– </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wolde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">woldest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wolde</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wolden</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Witen</i></span> "know" </th> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">witen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">witende, witynge</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">woot</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">woost</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">woot</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">witen</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">iwiten</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wiste</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wistest</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wiste</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wisten</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Plural forms vary strongly by dialect, with Southern dialects preserving the Old English <i>-eþ</i>, Midland dialects showing <i>-en</i> from about 1200, and Northern forms using <i>-es</i> in the third person singular as well as the plural.<sup id="cite_ref-cambridge_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cambridge-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The past tense of weak verbs was formed by adding an <i>-ed(e)</i>, <i>-d(e)</i>, or <i>-t(e)</i> ending. The past-tense forms, without their personal endings, also served as past participles with past-participle prefixes derived from Old English: <i>i-</i>, <i>y-</i>, and sometimes <i>bi-</i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Strong verbs</a>, by contrast, formed their past tense by changing their stem vowel (e.g., <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">binden</i></span> became <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">bound</i></span>, a process called <a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">apophony</a>), as in Modern English. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the discontinuation of the <a href="/wiki/Late_West_Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Late West Saxon">Late West Saxon</a> standard used for the <a href="/wiki/Old_English_orthography" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English orthography">writing of Old English</a> in the period prior to the Norman Conquest, Middle English came to be written in a wide variety of scribal forms, reflecting different regional dialects and orthographic conventions. Later in the Middle English period, however, and particularly with the development of the <a href="#Chancery_Standard">Chancery Standard</a> in the 15th century, orthography became relatively standardised in a form based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Spelling at the time was mostly quite <a href="/wiki/Regular_spelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Regular spelling">regular</a>. (There was a fairly consistent correspondence between letters and sounds.) The irregularity of <a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">present-day English orthography</a> is largely due to <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">pronunciation changes</a> that have taken place over the <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> eras. </p><p>Middle English generally did not have <a href="/wiki/Silent_letter" title="Silent letter">silent letters</a>. For example, <i>knight</i> was pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="enm-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ˈkniçt]</a></span> (with both the <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span> and the <span class="nowrap">⟨gh⟩</span> pronounced, the latter sounding as the <span class="nowrap">⟨ch⟩</span> in German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Knecht</i></span>). The major exception was the <a href="/wiki/Silent_e" title="Silent e">silent <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span></a> – originally pronounced but lost in normal speech by Chaucer's time. This letter, however, came to indicate a lengthened – and later also modified – pronunciation of a preceding vowel. For example, in <i>name</i>, originally pronounced as two syllables, the /a/ in the first syllable (originally an open syllable) lengthened, the final weak vowel was later dropped, and the remaining long vowel was modified in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a> (for these sound changes, see <a href="#Phonology">Phonology</a>, above). The final <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span>, now silent, thus became the indicator of the longer and changed pronunciation of <span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span>. In fact, vowels could have this lengthened and modified pronunciation in various positions, particularly before a single consonant letter and another vowel or before certain pairs of consonants. </p><p>A related convention involved the doubling of consonant letters to show that the preceding vowel was not to be lengthened. In some cases, the double consonant represented a sound that was (or had previously been) <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a> (i.e., had genuinely been "doubled" and would thus have regularly blocked the lengthening of the preceding vowel). In other cases, by analogy, the consonant was written double merely to indicate the lack of lengthening. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabet">Alphabet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Alphabet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">Old English Latin alphabet</a> consisted of 20 standard letters plus four additional letters: <a href="/wiki/Ash_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash (letter)">ash</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨æ⟩</span>, <a href="/wiki/Eth" title="Eth">eth</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ð⟩</span>, <a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">thorn</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span>, and <a href="/wiki/Wynn" title="Wynn">wynn</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ƿ⟩</span>. There was not yet a distinct <i>j</i>, <i>v</i>, or <i>w</i>, and Old English scribes did not generally use <i>k</i>, <i>q</i>, or <i>z</i>. </p><p>Ash was no longer required in Middle English, as the Old English vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span> that it represented had <a href="#Phonology">merged into /a/</a>. The symbol nonetheless came to be used as a <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligature</a> for the digraph <span class="nowrap">⟨ae⟩</span> in many words of Greek or Latin origin, as did <span class="nowrap">⟨œ⟩</span> for <span class="nowrap">⟨oe⟩</span>. </p><p>Eth and thorn both represented <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> or its <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/</span> in Old English. Eth fell out of use during the 13th century and was replaced by thorn. Thorn mostly fell out of use during the 14th century and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Th_(digraph)" title="Th (digraph)"><span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span></a>. Anachronistic usage of the scribal abbreviation <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EME_ye.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/EME_ye.svg/10px-EME_ye.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/EME_ye.svg/15px-EME_ye.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/EME_ye.svg/20px-EME_ye.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="9" data-file-height="21" /></a></span> (<span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">þe</i></span>, "the") has led to the modern mispronunciation of <i>thorn</i> as <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">y</a>⟩</span> in this context; see <i><a href="/wiki/Ye_olde" title="Ye olde">ye olde</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wynn, which represented the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>, was replaced by <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/W" title="W">w</a>⟩</span> during the 13th century. Due to its similarity to the letter <span class="nowrap">⟨p⟩</span>, it is mostly represented by <span class="nowrap">⟨w⟩</span> in modern editions of Old and Middle English texts even when the manuscript has wynn. </p><p>Under Norman influence, the continental <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a> replaced the <a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">insular script</a> that had been used for Old English. However, because of the significant difference in appearance between the old <a href="/wiki/Insular_G" title="Insular G">insular <i>g</i></a> and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_G" title="Carolingian G">Carolingian <i>g</i></a> (modern <i>g</i>), the former continued in use as a separate letter, known as <a href="/wiki/Yogh" title="Yogh">yogh</a>, written <span class="nowrap">⟨ȝ⟩</span>. This was adopted for use to represent a variety of sounds: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ],<span class="wrap"> </span>[j],<span class="wrap"> </span>[dʒ],<span class="wrap"> </span>[x],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ç]</span>, while the Carolingian <i>g</i> was normally used for [g]. Instances of yogh were eventually replaced by <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> and by <span class="nowrap">⟨gh⟩</span> in words like <i>night</i> and <i>laugh</i>. In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a>, yogh became indistinguishable from cursive <i>z</i>, and printers tended to use <span class="nowrap">⟨z⟩</span> when <i>yogh</i> was not available in their fonts; this led to new spellings (often giving rise to new pronunciations), as in <a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_(surname)" title="Mackenzie (surname)"><i>McKenzie</i></a>, where the <span class="nowrap">⟨z⟩</span> replaced a yogh, which had the pronunciation <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>. </p><p>Under continental influence, the letters <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨q⟩</span>, and <span class="nowrap">⟨z⟩</span>, which had not normally been used by Old English scribes, came to be commonly used in the writing of Middle English. Also, the newer Latin letter <span class="nowrap">⟨w⟩</span> was introduced (replacing wynn). The distinct letter forms <a href="/wiki/V" title="V"><span class="nowrap">⟨v⟩</span></a> and <a href="/wiki/U" title="U"><span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span></a> came into use but were still used interchangeably; the same applies to <a href="/wiki/J" title="J"><span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span></a> and <a href="/wiki/I" title="I"><span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salmon_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salmon-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (For example, spellings such as <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">wijf</i></span> and <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">paradijs</i></span> for "wife" and "paradise" can be found in Middle English.) </p><p>The consonantal <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span>/<span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span> was sometimes used to transliterate the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> letter <a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">yodh</a>, representing the <a href="/wiki/Palatal_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal approximant">palatal approximant</a> sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> (and transliterated in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> by <a href="/wiki/Iota" title="Iota">iota</a> and in Latin by <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span>); words like <i>Jerusalem</i>, <i>Joseph</i>, etc. would have originally followed the Latin pronunciation beginning with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, that is, the sound of <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> in <i>yes</i>. In some words, however, notably from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>, <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span>/<span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span> was used for the <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate consonant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʒ/</span>, as in <span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">joie</i></span> (modern "joy"), used in <a href="/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible">Wycliffe's Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-j-oed_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-j-oed-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was similar to the <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminate sound</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ddʒ]</span>, which had been represented as <span class="nowrap">⟨cg⟩</span> in Old English. By the time of Modern English, the sound came to be written as <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span>/<span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span> at the start of words (like "joy"), and usually as <span class="nowrap">⟨dg⟩</span> elsewhere (as in "bridge"). It could also be written, mainly in French loanwords, as <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span>, with the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G" title="Hard and soft G">soft G</a> convention (<i>age</i>, <i>page</i>, etc.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_symbols">Other symbols</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other symbols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">scribal abbreviations</a> were also used. It was common for the <a href="/wiki/Lollardy" title="Lollardy">Lollards</a> to abbreviate the name of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> (as in Latin manuscripts) to <i><a href="/wiki/Christogram" title="Christogram">ihc</a></i>. The letters <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨m⟩</span> were often omitted and indicated by a <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macron</a> above an adjacent letter, so for example, <i>in</i> could be written as <i>ī</i>. A thorn with a superscript <span class="nowrap">⟨t⟩</span> or <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span> could be used for <i>that</i> and <i>the</i>; the thorn here resembled a <span class="nowrap">⟨Y⟩</span>, giving rise to the <i>ye</i> of "<a href="/wiki/Ye_Olde" class="mw-redirect" title="Ye Olde">Ye Olde</a>". Various forms of the <a href="/wiki/Ampersand" title="Ampersand">ampersand</a> replaced the word <i>and</i>. </p><p>Numbers were still always written using <a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman numerals</a>, except for some rare occurrences of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> during the 15th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letter-to-sound_correspondences">Letter-to-sound correspondences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Letter-to-sound correspondences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Middle English spelling was never fully standardised, the following table shows the pronunciations most usually represented by particular letters and <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> towards the end of the Middle English period, using the notation given in the article on <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English phonology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As explained above, single vowel letters had alternative pronunciations depending on whether they were in a position where their sounds had been subject to lengthening. Long vowel pronunciations were in flux due to the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Symbol</th> <th>Description and notes </th></tr> <tr> <th>a </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/</span>, or in lengthened positions <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span>, becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></span>ː]</span> by about 1500. Sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span> before <span class="nowrap">⟨l⟩</span> or nasals (see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs#Late_Middle_English" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Late Middle English diphthongs</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ai, ay </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>/</span> (alternatively denoted by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span>i/</span>; see <a href="/wiki/Vein%E2%80%93vain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Vein–vain merger"><i>vein–vain</i> merger</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>au, aw </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>b </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span>, but in later Middle English became silent in words ending <i>-mb</i> (while some words that never had a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> sound came to be spelt <i>-mb</i> by analogy; see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters#mb" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">reduction of /mb/</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>c </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>, but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> (earlier <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a>/</span>) before <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> (see <a href="/wiki/C" title="C">C</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_C" title="Hard and soft C">hard and soft C</a> for details). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ch </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>ck </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>, replaced earlier <span class="nowrap">⟨kk⟩</span> as the doubled form of <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span> (for the phenomenon of doubling, see above). </td></tr> <tr> <th>d </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>e </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>/</span>, or in lengthened positions <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span> or sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span>ː/</span> (see <b>ee</b>). For silent <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span>, see above. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ea </th> <td>Rare, for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span> (see <b>ee</b>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ee </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span>, becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>ː]</span> by about 1500; or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span>ː/</span>, becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eː]</span> by about 1500. In <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English#Orthography" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a> the latter vowel came to be commonly written <span class="nowrap">⟨ea⟩</span>. The two vowels <a href="/wiki/Meet-meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet-meat merger">later merged</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ei, ey </th> <td>Sometimes the same as <span class="nowrap">⟨ai⟩</span>; sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span>ː/</span> (see also <a href="/wiki/Fleece_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fleece merger"><i>fleece</i> merger</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ew </th> <td>Either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>u/</span> (see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs#Late_Middle_English" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Late Middle English diphthongs</a>; these later merged). </td></tr> <tr> <th>f </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>g </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a>/</span> before <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> (see <a href="/wiki/G" title="G"><span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span></a> for details). The <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> in initial <i>gn-</i> was still pronounced. </td></tr> <tr> <th>gh </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]</span>, post-vowel allophones of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span> (this was formerly one of the uses of <a href="/wiki/Yogh" title="Yogh">yogh</a>). The <span class="nowrap">⟨gh⟩</span> is often retained in Chancery spellings even though the sound was starting to be lost. </td></tr> <tr> <th>h </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span> (except for the allophones for which <span class="nowrap">⟨gh⟩</span> was used). Also used in several digraphs (<span class="nowrap">⟨ch⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span>, etc.). In some French loanwords, such as <i>horrible</i>, the <span class="nowrap">⟨h⟩</span> was silent. </td></tr> <tr> <th>i, j </th> <td>As a vowel, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/</span>, or in lengthened positions <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span>, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500. As a consonant, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a>/</span> ((corresponding to modern <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span>); see above). </td></tr> <tr> <th>ie </th> <td>Used sometimes for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span> (see <b>ee</b>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>k </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>, used particularly in positions where <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> would be softened. Also used in <span class="nowrap">⟨kn⟩</span> at the start of words; here both consonants were still pronounced. </td></tr> <tr> <th>l </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>m </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>n </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/</span>, including its allophone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>]</span> (before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>o </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>/</span>, or in lengthened positions <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span> or sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>ː/</span> (see <b>oo</b>). Sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/</span>, as in <i>sone</i> (modern <i>son</i>); the <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span> spelling was often used rather than <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> when adjacent to <i>i, m, n, v, w</i> for legibility, i.e. to avoid a succession of vertical strokes.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>oa </th> <td>Rare, for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span> (became commonly used in Early Modern English). </td></tr> <tr> <th>oi, oy </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>i/</span> (see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs#Late_Middle_English" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Late Middle English diphthongs</a>; these later merged). </td></tr> <tr> <th>oo </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span>, becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>ː]</span> by about 1500; or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span>ː/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>ou, ow </th> <td>Either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>/</span>, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span>u/</span>. </td></tr> <tr> <th>p </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>qu </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>r </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>s </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span>, sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/</span> (formerly <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> was an allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>). Also appeared as <b>ſ</b> (<a href="/wiki/Long_s" title="Long s">long s</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>sch, sh </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>t </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>th </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/</span> (which had previously been allophones of a single phoneme), replacing earlier <a href="/wiki/Eth" title="Eth">eth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorn_(letter)" title="Thorn (letter)">thorn</a>, although thorn was still sometimes used. </td></tr> <tr> <th>u, v </th> <td>Used interchangeably. As a consonant, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</span>. As a vowel, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>u/</span> in "lengthened" positions (although it had generally not gone through the same lengthening process as other vowels – see <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels#ju" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Development of /juː/</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>w </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</span> (replaced Old English <a href="/wiki/Wynn" title="Wynn">wynn</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>wh </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">hw</a>/</span> (see <a href="/wiki/English_wh" class="mw-redirect" title="English wh">English <span class="nowrap">⟨wh⟩</span></a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>x </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>y </th> <td>As a consonant, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</span> (earlier this was one of the uses of yogh). Sometimes also <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>. As a vowel, the same as <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span>, where <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> is often preferred beside letters with downstrokes. </td></tr> <tr> <th>z </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/</span> (in Scotland sometimes used as a substitute for yogh; see above). </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_texts">Sample texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sample texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English literature</a></div> <p>Most of the following <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> translations are poetic <a href="/wiki/Sense-for-sense_translation" title="Sense-for-sense translation">sense-for-sense translations</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Word-for-word_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Word-for-word translation">word-for-word translations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ormulum,_12th_century"><span id="Ormulum.2C_12th_century"></span>Ormulum, 12th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ormulum, 12th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ormulum" title="Ormulum">Ormulum</a></div> <p>This passage explains the background to the <a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a> <small>(3494–501)</small>:<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td><div title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><div lang="enm">Forrþrihht anan se time comm<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>þatt ure Drihhtin wollde<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>ben borenn i þiss middellærd<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>forr all mannkinne nede<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>he chæs himm sone kinnessmenn<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>all swillke summ he wollde<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>and whær he wollde borenn ben<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>he chæs all att hiss wille.</div></div> </td> <td>Forthwith when the time came<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>that our Lord wanted<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>be born in this earth<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>for all mankind sake,<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>He chose kinsmen for Himself,<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>all just as he wanted,<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>and where He would be born<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>He chose all at His will. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epitaph_of_John_the_smyth,_died_1371"><span id="Epitaph_of_John_the_smyth.2C_died_1371"></span>Epitaph of John the smyth, died 1371</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Epitaph of John the smyth, died 1371"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Brightwell_Baldwin" title="Brightwell Baldwin">Brightwell Baldwin</a></div> <p>An epitaph from a <a href="/wiki/Monumental_brass" title="Monumental brass">monumental brass</a> in an Oxfordshire parish church:<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Utechin_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utechin-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><b>Original text</b> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Word-for-word_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Word-for-word translation">Word-for-word translation</a> into <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> </th> <th><b>Translation</b> <i>by Patricia Utechin</i><sup id="cite_ref-Utechin_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utechin-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><div title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><div lang="enm">man com & se how schal alle dede li: wen þow comes bad & bare<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>noth hab ven ve awaẏ fare: All ẏs wermēs þ<sup>t</sup> ve for care:—<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>bot þ<sup>t</sup> ve do for godẏs luf ve haue nothyng yare:<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>hundyr þis graue lẏs John þe smẏth god yif his soule heuen grit</div></div> </td> <td>Man, come and see how shall all dead lie: when thou comes bad and bare<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>naught have we away fare: all is worms that we for care:—<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>but that we do for God's love, we have nothing ready:<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heaven great </td> <td>Man, come and see how all dead men shall lie: when that comes bad and bare,<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>we have nothing when we away fare: all that we care for is worms:—<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>except for that which we do for God's sake, we have nothing ready:<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heavenly peace </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wycliffe's_Bible,_1384"><span id="Wycliffe.27s_Bible.2C_1384"></span>Wycliffe's Bible, 1384</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Wycliffe's Bible, 1384"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible">Wycliffe's Bible</a>, (1384): </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Luke</a> 8:1–3 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>First version </th> <th>Second version </th> <th>Translation </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm"><sup>1</sup>And it was don aftirward, and Jhesu made iorney by citees and castelis, prechinge and euangelysinge þe rewme of God, <sup>2</sup>and twelue wiþ him; and summe wymmen þat weren heelid of wickide spiritis and syknessis, Marie, þat is clepid Mawdeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis wenten <sup>3</sup> out, and Jone, þe wyf of Chuse, procuratour of Eroude, and Susanne, and manye oþere, whiche mynystriden to him of her riches.</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm"><sup>1</sup>And it was don aftirward, and Jhesus made iourney bi citees and castels, prechynge and euangelisynge þe rewme of <sup>2</sup>God, and twelue wiþ hym; and sum wymmen þat weren heelid of wickid spiritis and sijknessis, Marie, þat is clepid Maudeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis <sup>3</sup>wenten out, and Joone, þe wijf of Chuse, þe procuratoure of Eroude, and Susanne, and many oþir, þat mynystriden to hym of her ritchesse.</i></span> </td> <td><sup>1</sup>And it was done afterwards, that Jesus made a journey by cities and castles, preaching and evangelising the realm of <sup>2</sup>God: and with him (the) Twelve; and some women that were healed of wicked spirits and sicknesses; Mary who is called Magdalene, from whom <sup>3</sup>seven devils went out; and Joanna the wife of Chuza, the procurator of Herod; and Susanna, and many others, who ministered to Him out of her riches. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chaucer,_1390s"><span id="Chaucer.2C_1390s"></span>Chaucer, 1390s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Chaucer, 1390s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is the very beginning of the <a href="/wiki/General_Prologue" title="General Prologue">General Prologue</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>. The text was written in a dialect associated with London and spellings associated with the then-emergent Chancery Standard. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"> <caption>First 18 lines of the General Prologue </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:center">Original in Middle English </th> <th style="text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Word-for-word_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Word-for-word translation">Word-for-word translation</a> into <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th style="text-align:center">Translation into Modern U.K. English prose<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote</i></span> </td> <td>When [that] April with his showers sweet </td> <td>When April with its sweet showers </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">The droȝte of March hath perced to the roote</i></span> </td> <td>The drought of March has pierced to the root </td> <td>has drenched March's drought to the roots, </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">And bathed every veyne in swich licour,</i></span> </td> <td>And bathed every vein in such <a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">liquor</a>, </td> <td>filling every capillary with nourishing sap </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Of which vertu engendred is the flour;</i></span> </td> <td>From which goodness is engendered the flower; </td> <td>prompting the flowers to grow, </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth</i></span> </td> <td>When <a href="/wiki/Zephyrus" title="Zephyrus">Zephyrus</a> even with his sweet breath </td> <td>and when Zephyrus with his sweet breath </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Inspired hath in every holt and heeth</i></span> </td> <td>Inspired has in every holt and heath </td> <td>has coaxed in every wood and dale, to sprout </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne</i></span> </td> <td>The tender crops; and the young sun </td> <td>the tender plants, as the springtime sun </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,</i></span> </td> <td>Has in <a href="/wiki/Aries_(astrology)" title="Aries (astrology)">the Ram</a> his half-course run, </td> <td>passes halfway through the sign of <a href="/wiki/Aries_(astrology)" title="Aries (astrology)">Aries</a>, </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">And smale foweles maken melodye,</i></span> </td> <td>And small birds make melodies, </td> <td>and small birds that chirp melodies, </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">That slepen al the nyght with open ye</i></span> </td> <td>That sleep all night with open eyes </td> <td>sleep all night with half-open eyes </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages);</i></span> </td> <td>(So Nature prompts them in their courage); </td> <td>their spirits thus aroused by Nature; </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages</i></span> </td> <td>Then folk long to go on pilgrimages. </td> <td>it is at these times that people desire to go on pilgrimages </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes</i></span> </td> <td>And pilgrims (<a href="/wiki/Palmer_(Pilgrim)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmer (Pilgrim)">palmers</a>) [for] to seek new <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/strand" class="extiw" title="wikt:strand">strands</a> </td> <td>and pilgrims (<a href="/wiki/Palmer_(pilgrim)" title="Palmer (pilgrim)">palmers</a>) seek new shores </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;</i></span> </td> <td>To far-off shrines (<a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">hallows</a>), respected (couth, known) in sundry lands; </td> <td>and distant shrines venerated in other places. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">And specially from every shires ende</i></span> </td> <td>And specially from every shire's end </td> <td>Particularly from every county </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende,</i></span> </td> <td>Of England, to Canterbury they went, </td> <td>from England, they go to Canterbury, </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">The hooly blisful martir for to seke</i></span> </td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Becket" title="Thomas Becket">holy blissful martyr</a> [for] to seek, </td> <td>in order to visit the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Becket" title="Thomas Becket">holy blessed martyr</a>, </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke.</i></span> </td> <td>That has helped them, when [that] they were sick. </td> <td>who has helped them when they were sick. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gower,_1390"><span id="Gower.2C_1390"></span>Gower, 1390</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Gower, 1390"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is the beginning of the Prologue from <i><a href="/wiki/Confessio_Amantis" title="Confessio Amantis">Confessio Amantis</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/John_Gower" title="John Gower">John Gower</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Original in Middle English </th> <th>Near word-for-word translation into Modern English: </th> <th>Translation into Modern English: (by Richard Brodie)<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td> <dl><dd></dd> <dd>Of hem that written ous tofore</dd> <dd>The bokes duelle, and we therfore</dd> <dd>Ben tawht of that was write tho:</dd> <dd>Forthi good is that we also</dd> <dd>In oure tyme among ous hiere</dd> <dd>Do wryte of newe som matiere,</dd> <dd>Essampled of these olde wyse</dd> <dd>So that it myhte in such a wyse,</dd> <dd>Whan we ben dede and elleswhere,</dd> <dd>Beleve to the worldes eere</dd> <dd>In tyme comende after this.</dd> <dd>Bot for men sein, and soth it is,</dd> <dd>That who that al of wisdom writ</dd> <dd>It dulleth ofte a mannes wit</dd> <dd>To him that schal it aldai rede,</dd> <dd>For thilke cause, if that ye rede,</dd> <dd>I wolde go the middel weie</dd> <dd>And wryte a bok betwen the tweie,</dd> <dd>Somwhat of lust, somewhat of lore,</dd> <dd>That of the lasse or of the more</dd> <dd>Som man mai lyke of that I wryte:</dd></dl> </td> <td> <dl><dd></dd> <dd>Of them that wrote us before</dd> <dd>The books dwell, and we therefore</dd> <dd>Been taught of that was written then:</dd> <dd>For it is good that we also</dd> <dd>In our time among us here</dd> <dd>Do write some new matter,</dd> <dd>Exampled by these old ways</dd> <dd>So that it might in such a way,</dd> <dd>When we be dead and elsewhere,</dd> <dd>Be left to the world's ear</dd> <dd>In time coming after this.</dd> <dd>But for men say, and so it is,</dd> <dd>That who that all of wisdom writes</dd> <dd>It dulls often a man's wit</dd> <dd>To him that shall it every day read,</dd> <dd>For that like cause, if that you read,</dd> <dd>I would go the middle way</dd> <dd>And write a book between the two,</dd> <dd>Somewhat of lust, somewhat of lore,</dd> <dd>That of the less or of the more</dd> <dd>Some man may like of that I write:</dd></dl> </td> <td> <dl><dd></dd> <dd>Of those who wrote before our lives</dd> <dd>Their precious legacy survives;</dd> <dd>From what was written then, we learn,</dd> <dd>And so it's well that we in turn,</dd> <dd>In our allotted time on earth</dd> <dd>Do write anew some things of worth,</dd> <dd>Like those we from these sages cite,</dd> <dd>So that such in like manner might,</dd> <dd>When we have left this mortal sphere,</dd> <dd>Remain for all the world to hear</dd> <dd>In ages following our own.</dd> <dd>But it is so that men are prone</dd> <dd>To say that when one only reads</dd> <dd>Of wisdom all day long, one breeds</dd> <dd>A paucity of wit, and so</dd> <dd>If you agree I'll choose to go</dd> <dd>Along a kind of middle ground</dd> <dd>Sometimes I'll write of things profound,</dd> <dd>And sometimes for amusement's sake</dd> <dd>A lighter path of pleasure take</dd> <dd>So all can something pleasing find.</dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Translation in Modern English: (by J. Dow)</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Of those who wrote before we were born, books survive, </p><p>So we are taught what was written by them when they were alive. So it's good that we, in our times here on earth, write of new matters – Following the example of our forefathers – So that, in such a way, we may leave our knowledge to the world after we are dead and gone. But it's said, and it is true, that if one only reads of wisdom all day long It often dulls one's brains. So, if it's alright with you, I'll take the middle route and write a book between the two – Somewhat of amusement, and somewhat of fact. </p><p> In that way, somebody might, more or less, like that.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Medulla_Grammatice" title="Medulla Grammatice">Medulla Grammatice</a></i> (collection of glossaries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_creole_hypothesis" title="Middle English creole hypothesis">Middle English creole hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_Dictionary" title="Middle English Dictionary">Middle English Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Linguistic_Atlas_of_Early_Middle_English" title="A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English">A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon Horobin, <i>Introduction to Middle English</i>, Edinburgh 2016, s. 1.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFuster-MárquezCalvo_García_de_Leonardo2011" class="citation book cs1">Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QQLBqKjxuvAC"><i>A Practical Introduction to the History of English</i></a>. [València]: Universitat de València. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788437083216" title="Special:BookSources/9788437083216"><bdi>9788437083216</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Introduction+to+the+History+of+English&rft.place=%5BVal%C3%A8ncia%5D&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Universitat+de+Val%C3%A8ncia&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9788437083216&rft.aulast=Fuster-M%C3%A1rquez&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft.au=Calvo+Garc%C3%ADa+de+Leonardo%2C+Juan+Jos%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQQLBqKjxuvAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorobinSmith2002" class="citation book cs1">Horobin, Simon; Smith, Jeremy (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LDBF5TJZHzQC&dq=middle+english&pg=PP9"><i>An Introduction to Middle English</i></a>. Oup USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521950-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521950-0"><bdi>978-0-19-521950-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Middle+English&rft.pub=Oup+USA&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521950-0&rft.aulast=Horobin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Smith%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLDBF5TJZHzQC%26dq%3Dmiddle%2Benglish%26pg%3DPP9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson,_David.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Carlson, David. (2004). "The Chronology of Lydgate's Chaucer References". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chaucer_Review" title="The Chaucer Review">The Chaucer Review</a></i>. <b>38</b> (3): 246–254. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.691.7778">10.1.1.691.7778</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcr.2004.0003">10.1353/cr.2004.0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162332574">162332574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chaucer+Review&rft.atitle=The+Chronology+of+Lydgate%27s+Chaucer+References&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=246-254&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.691.7778%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162332574%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcr.2004.0003&rft.au=Carlson%2C+David.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name "tales of Canterbury" appears within the surviving texts of Chaucer's work.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johannesson2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Johannesson2_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohannessonCooper2023" class="citation book cs1">Johannesson, Nils-Lennart; Cooper, Andrew (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/SELIM/article/download/20530/16515"><i>Ormulum</i></a>. Early English text society. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289043-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289043-6"><bdi>978-0-19-289043-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ormulum&rft.series=Early+English+text+society&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-19-289043-6&rft.aulast=Johannesson&rft.aufirst=Nils-Lennart&rft.au=Cooper%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freunido.uniovi.es%2Findex.php%2FSELIM%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F20530%2F16515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaugh1951" class="citation book cs1">Baugh, Albert (1951). <i>A History of the English Language</i>. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 110–130 (Danelaw), 131–132 (Normans).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=London&rft.pages=110-130+%28Danelaw%29%2C+131-132+%28Normans%29&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Baugh&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen1919" class="citation book cs1">Jespersen, Otto (1919). <i>Growth and Structure of the English Language</i>. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growth+and+Structure+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pages=58-82&rft.pub=B.+G.+Teubner&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Jespersen&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1995" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (1995). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00crys"><i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00crys_012/page/n35">32</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40179-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40179-1"><bdi>978-0-521-40179-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-40179-1&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeencyclo00crys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCrum1987" class="citation book cs1">McCrum, Robert (1987). <i>The Story of English</i>. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 70–71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+English&rft.place=London&rft.pages=70-71&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=McCrum&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-OiNxknXdY"><i>Birth of a Language</i></a>. BBC. 27 December 2014. Event occurs at 35:00–37:20 – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Birth+of+a+Language&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2014-12-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dh-OiNxknXdY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter1950" class="citation book cs1">Potter, Simeon (1950). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ourlanguage00pott"><i>Our Language</i></a></span>. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ourlanguage00pott/page/33">33</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Language&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=Simeon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fourlanguage00pott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasonKaufman1988" class="citation book cs1">Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufman, Terrence (1988). <i>Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics</i>. Anthropology: Linguistics (1. paperback print ed.). Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. 303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07893-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07893-2"><bdi>978-0-520-07893-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+contact%2C+creolization%2C+and+genetic+linguistics&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=Anthropology%3A+Linguistics&rft.pages=303&rft.edition=1.+paperback+print&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07893-2&rft.aulast=Thomason&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Grey&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+Terrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCrumCranMacNeil1986" class="citation book cs1">McCrum, Robert; Cran, William; MacNeil, Robert (1986). <i>The Story of English</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a> (published 2002). p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200231-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200231-5"><bdi>978-0-14-200231-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+English&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-14-200231-5&rft.aulast=McCrum&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Cran%2C+William&rft.au=MacNeil%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaarlundEmonds2016" class="citation journal cs1">Faarlund, Jan Terje; Emonds, Joseph E. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22105832-00601002">"English as North Germanic"</a>. <i>Language Dynamics and Change</i>. <b>6</b> (1). Brill: 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22105832-00601002">10.1163/22105832-00601002</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2210-5824">2210-5824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Dynamics+and+Change&rft.atitle=English+as+North+Germanic&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22105832-00601002&rft.issn=2210-5824&rft.aulast=Faarlund&rft.aufirst=Jan+Terje&rft.au=Emonds%2C+Joseph+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%252F22105832-00601002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2022" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Mary Anne (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/elldr/files/2022/09/Wright2022.pdf"><i>The Old Norse Influence on English, the 'Viking Hypothesis', and Middle English Word Order Parallels with Icelandic</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (2nd ed.). Newcastle University: English Language & Linguistics Dissertation Repository (ELLDR). p. 11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Norse+Influence+on+English%2C+the+%27Viking+Hypothesis%27%2C+and+Middle+English+Word+Order+Parallels+with+Icelandic&rft.place=Newcastle+University&rft.pages=11&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=English+Language+%26+Linguistics+Dissertation+Repository+%28ELLDR%29&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Mary+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.ncl.ac.uk%2Felldr%2Ffiles%2F2022%2F09%2FWright2022.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1901" class="citation journal cs1">White, Taylor (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/periodicals/TPRSNZ1901-34.2.8.1.9">"A Philological Study in Natural History"</a>. <i>Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand</i>. <b>34</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+and+Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+New+Zealand&rft.atitle=A+Philological+Study+in+Natural+History&rft.volume=34&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Taylor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpaperspast.natlib.govt.nz%2Fperiodicals%2FTPRSNZ1901-34.2.8.1.9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://deaf-server.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/book/garder">https://deaf-server.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/book/garder</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation is required to prevent link rot. (August 2024)">bare URL</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuster-MárquezCalvo_García_de_Leonardo2011" class="citation book cs1">Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QQLBqKjxuvAC"><i>A Practical Introduction to the History of English</i></a>. [València]: Universitat de València. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788437083216" title="Special:BookSources/9788437083216"><bdi>9788437083216</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Introduction+to+the+History+of+English&rft.place=%5BVal%C3%A8ncia%5D&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Universitat+de+Val%C3%A8ncia&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9788437083216&rft.aulast=Fuster-M%C3%A1rquez&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft.au=Calvo+Garc%C3%ADa+de+Leonardo%2C+Juan+Jos%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQQLBqKjxuvAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, <i>Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue,</i> 2008, pp. 89–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurchfield1987" class="citation book cs1">Burchfield, Robert W. (1987). "Ormulum". In Strayer, Joseph R. (ed.). <i>Dictionary of the Middle Ages</i>. Vol. 9. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-18275-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-18275-9"><bdi>978-0-684-18275-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ormulum&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=280&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-684-18275-9&rft.aulast=Burchfield&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 280</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hcmc.uvic.ca/makingEME/about.html">"Making Early Middle English: About the Conference"</a>. <i>hcmc.uvic.ca</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hcmc.uvic.ca&rft.atitle=Making+Early+Middle+English%3A+About+the+Conference&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhcmc.uvic.ca%2FmakingEME%2Fabout.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontgomeryDurantFabbFurniss2007" class="citation book cs1">Montgomery, Martin; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Furniss, Tom; Mills, Sara (24 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=isd_AgAAQBAJ&dq=great+vowel+shift+londoners&pg=PA56"><i>Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-28025-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-28025-4"><bdi>978-1-134-28025-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ways+of+Reading%3A+Advanced+Reading+Skills+for+Students+of+English+Literature&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007-01-24&rft.isbn=978-1-134-28025-4&rft.aulast=Montgomery&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Durant%2C+Alan&rft.au=Fabb%2C+Nigel&rft.au=Furniss%2C+Tom&rft.au=Mills%2C+Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Disd_AgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgreat%2Bvowel%2Bshift%2Blondoners%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wright_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wright_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright,_L.2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wright, L. (2012). "About the evolution of Standard English". <i>Studies in English Language and Literature</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 99ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138006935" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138006935"><bdi>978-1138006935</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=About+the+evolution+of+Standard+English&rft.btitle=Studies+in+English+Language+and+Literature&rft.pages=99ff&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1138006935&rft.au=Wright%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1983" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(philosopher)" title="James Franklin (philosopher)">Franklin, James</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/mental.pdf">"Mental furniture from the philosophers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Et Cetera</i>. <b>40</b>: 177–191<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Et+Cetera&rft.atitle=Mental+furniture+from+the+philosophers&rft.volume=40&rft.pages=177-191&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maths.unsw.edu.au%2F~jim%2Fmental.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. 'Sawles Warde' (The protection <i>of the soul</i>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">'<i><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a><b></b></i></span><i><b> <span class="reference-text">cf. 'Ancrene Wisse' (The </span></b></i><b>Anchoresses</b> Guide) </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer, O., van Kemenade, A., Koopman, W., van der Wurff, W., <i>The Syntax of Early English</i>, CUP 2000, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow-2005-p23-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p23_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p23_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow-2005-p38-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p38_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow-2005-pp27-28-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-pp27-28_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 27–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow-2005-p28-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p28_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p28_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow-2005-pp28-29-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-pp28-29_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 28–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burrow-2005-p29-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burrow-2005-p29_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fulk, R.D., <i>An Introduction to Middle English</i>, Broadview Press, 2012, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStratmann1891" class="citation book cs1">Stratmann, Francis Henry (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/middleenglishdic00stra"><i>A Middle-English dictionary</i></a>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7114246M">7114246M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Middle-English+dictionary&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1891&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7114246M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Stratmann&rft.aufirst=Francis+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmiddleenglishdic00stra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayhewSkeat1888" class="citation book cs1">Mayhew, AL; Skeat, Walter W (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10625/10625-h/main.html"><i>A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Dictionary+of+Middle+English+from+A.D.+1150+to+1580&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Mayhew&rft.aufirst=AL&rft.au=Skeat%2C+Walter+W&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F10625%2F10625-h%2Fmain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBooth1831" class="citation book cs1">Booth, David (1831). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesengli01bootgoog"><i>The Principles of English Composition</i></a>. Cochrane and Pickersgill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+English+Composition.&rft.pub=Cochrane+and+Pickersgill&rft.date=1831&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesengli01bootgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorobin2016" class="citation book cs1">Horobin, Simon (9 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sjVYDwAAQBAJ"><i>Introduction to Middle English</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474408462" title="Special:BookSources/9781474408462"><bdi>9781474408462</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Middle+English&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2016-09-09&rft.isbn=9781474408462&rft.aulast=Horobin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsjVYDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cambridge-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cambridge_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardWaller1907–21" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Ward, AW; Waller, AR (1907–21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/211/1905.html">"The Cambridge History of English and American Literature"</a>. Bartleby<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Oct 4,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+English+and+American+Literature&rft.pub=Bartleby&rft.date=1907%2F1921&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=AW&rft.au=Waller%2C+AR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F211%2F1905.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ye%5B2%5D">ye[2]</a> retrieved February 1, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salmon-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Salmon_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salmon, V., (in) Lass, R. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of the English Language</i>, Vol. III, CUP 2000, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-j-oed-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-j-oed_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"J", <i>Oxford English Dictionary,</i> 2nd edition (1989)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"J" and "jay", <i>Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged</i> (1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For certain details, see "Chancery Standard spelling" in Upward, C., Davidson, G., <i>The History of English Spelling</i>, Wiley 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Algeo, J., Butcher, C., <i>The Origins and Development of the English Language</i>, Cengage Learning 2013, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1878" class="citation book cs1">Holt, Robert, ed. (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ormulum00holtgoog"><i>The Ormulum: with the notes and glossary of Dr R. M. White. </i>Two vols<i><span></span></i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ormulum%3A+with+the+notes+and+glossary+of+Dr+R.+M.+White.+Two+vols&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Formulum00holtgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span> Internet Archive: <a href="//archive.org/details/ormulum00holtgoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:ormulum00holtgoog">Volume 1</a>; <a href="//archive.org/details/ormulum01holtgoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:ormulum01holtgoog">Volume 2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertram2003" class="citation journal cs1">Bertram, Jerome (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxoniensia.org/volumes/2003/bertram.pdf">"Medieval Inscriptions in Oxfordshire"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Oxoniensia</i>. <b>LXVVIII</b>: 30. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0308-5562">0308-5562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxoniensia&rft.atitle=Medieval+Inscriptions+in+Oxfordshire&rft.volume=LXVVIII&rft.pages=30&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0308-5562&rft.aulast=Bertram&rft.aufirst=Jerome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxoniensia.org%2Fvolumes%2F2003%2Fbertram.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Utechin-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Utechin_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Utechin_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUtechin1990" class="citation book cs1">Utechin, Patricia (1990) [1980]. <i>Epitaphs from Oxfordshire</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Robert Dugdale. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-946976-04-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-946976-04-1"><bdi>978-0-946976-04-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epitaphs+from+Oxfordshire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=39&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Robert+Dugdale&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-946976-04-1&rft.aulast=Utechin&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This Wikipedia translation closely mirrors the translation found here: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/canterburytaless0000chau"><i>Canterbury Tales (selected)</i></a></span>. Translated by Foster Hopper, Vincent (revised ed.). Barron's Educational Series. 1970. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/canterburytaless0000chau/page/2">2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812000399" title="Special:BookSources/9780812000399"><bdi>9780812000399</bdi></a>. <q>when april, with his.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canterbury+Tales+%28selected%29&rft.pages=2&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational+Series&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780812000399&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcanterburytaless0000chau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweet2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sweet" title="Henry Sweet">Sweet, Henry</a> (2005). <i>First Middle English Primer (updated)</i>. Evolution Publishing: <a href="/wiki/Bristol,_Pennsylvania" title="Bristol, Pennsylvania">Bristol, Pennsylvania</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-889758-70-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-889758-70-1"><bdi>978-1-889758-70-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+Middle+English+Primer+%28updated%29&rft.pub=Evolution+Publishing%3A+Bristol%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-889758-70-1&rft.aulast=Sweet&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodie2005" class="citation web cs1">Brodie, Richard (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130329074902/http://www.richardbrodie.com/Prologue.html">"Prologue"</a>. <i>John Gower's 'Confessio Amantis' Modern English Version</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.richardbrodie.com/Prologue.html">the original</a> on Mar 29, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 15,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Gower%27s+%27Confessio+Amantis%27+Modern+English+Version&rft.atitle=Prologue&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Brodie&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.richardbrodie.com%2FPrologue.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li>Brunner, Karl (1962) <i>Abriss der mittelenglischen Grammatik</i>; 5. Auflage. Tübingen: M. Niemeyer (1st ed. Halle (Saale): M. Niemeyer, 1938)</li> <li>Brunner, Karl (1963) <i>An Outline of Middle English Grammar</i>; translated by Grahame Johnston. Oxford: Blackwell</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrowTurville-Petre2005" class="citation book cs1">Burrow, J. A.; Turville-Petre, Thorlac (2005). <i>A Book of Middle English</i> (3 ed.). Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Book+of+Middle+English&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft.au=Turville-Petre%2C+Thorlac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauno_Frans_Mustanoja" title="Tauno Frans Mustanoja">Mustanoja, Tauno</a> (1960) "A Middle English Syntax. 1. Parts of Speech". Helsinki : Société néophilologique.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_English&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has several original texts related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Middle_English_works" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Middle English works">Middle English works</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/concise/concise.html">A. L. Mayhew and Walter William Skeat. <i>A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222235404/http://victorcauchi.fortunecity.com/EuCmp/o/oldeng.htm">Middle English Glossary</a> (archived 22 February 2012)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver_Farrar_Emerson1915" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Farrar_Emerson" title="Oliver Farrar Emerson">Oliver Farrar Emerson</a>, ed. (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/amiddleenglishr01emergoog"><i>A Middle English Reader</i></a>. Macmillan – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Middle+English+Reader&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1915&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famiddleenglishr01emergoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddle+English" class="Z3988"></span> With grammatical introduction, notes, and glossary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://incubator.miraheze.org/wiki/Wp/enm/Mayne_Page">Middle English encyclopedia</a> on Miraheze</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:History_of_English" title="Template:History of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_English" title="Template talk:History of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_English" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">Proto-West-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Phonological_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩"><i>A</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping"><i>H</i>-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩"><i>Ng</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization"><i>T</i>-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩"><i>Th</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩"><i>Wh</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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