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Habitability of yellow dwarf systems - Wikipedia

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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Habitable area</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitable_area-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_potential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_potential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Life potential</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_potential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Discoveries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Discoveries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Discoveries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kepler-452b" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kepler-452b"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Kepler-452b</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kepler-452b-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tau_Ceti_e" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tau_Ceti_e"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Tau Ceti e</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tau_Ceti_e-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kepler-22b" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kepler-22b"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Kepler-22b</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kepler-22b-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" 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height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Kepler-452b_artist_concept.jpg/401px-Kepler-452b_artist_concept.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Kepler-452b_artist_concept.jpg/534px-Kepler-452b_artist_concept.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4534" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption>Artistic interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Kepler-452b" title="Kepler-452b">Kepler-452b</a>, a potentially habitable exoplanet belonging to a <a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">yellow dwarf</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MarsCuriosityRover-Drilling-Sol170%2B%2B-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/MarsCuriosityRover-Drilling-Sol170%2B%2B-2.jpg/200px-MarsCuriosityRover-Drilling-Sol170%2B%2B-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/MarsCuriosityRover-Drilling-Sol170%2B%2B-2.jpg/300px-MarsCuriosityRover-Drilling-Sol170%2B%2B-2.jpg 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)#Habitability" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus#Potential_habitability" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Titan" title="Life on Titan">Titan</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddd; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"> Life outside the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">Potentially habitable exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_habitable_zone" title="Galactic habitable zone">Galactic habitable zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddd; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"> Habitability of...</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_binary_star_systems" title="Habitability of binary star systems">Binary star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_natural_satellites" title="Habitability of natural satellites">Natural satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_neutron_star_systems" title="Habitability of neutron star systems">Neutron star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_red_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of red dwarf systems">Red dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_K-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems">K-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yellow dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_F-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems">F-type main-sequence star systems</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_in_the_Universe" title="Template:Life in the Universe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_in_the_Universe" title="Template talk:Life in the Universe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_in_the_Universe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life in the Universe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Habitability of G V stars of G V stars systems</b> defines the suitability for life of <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">exoplanets</a> belonging to <a href="/wiki/Yellow_dwarf_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow dwarf star">yellow dwarf stars</a>. These systems are the object of study among the scientific community because they are considered the most suitable for harboring <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">living organisms</a>, together with those belonging to <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">K-type stars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yellow dwarfs comprise the <a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">G-type stars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main sequence</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Mass_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass (physics)">masses</a> between 0.9 and 1.1 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">M☉</a> and surface temperatures between 5000 and 6000 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>, like the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They are the third most common in the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> Galaxy and the only ones in which the <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">habitable zone</a> coincides completely with the ultraviolet habitable zone.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the habitable zone is farther away in more massive and luminous stars, the separation between the main star and the inner edge of this region is greater in yellow dwarfs than in <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orange_dwarfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange dwarfs">orange dwarfs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Therefore, planets located in this zone of G-type stars are safe from the intense stellar emissions that occur after their formation and are not as affected by the gravitational influence of their star as those belonging to smaller stellar bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Thus, all planets in the habitable zone of such stars exceed the <a href="/wiki/Tidal_locking" title="Tidal locking">tidal locking</a> limit and their <a href="/wiki/Rotation" title="Rotation">rotation</a> is therefore not synchronized with their <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, orbiting a yellow dwarf, represents the only known example of planetary habitability. For this reason, the main goal in the field of <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters" title="Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters">exoplanetology</a> is to find an <a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog planet</a> that meets its main characteristics, such as size, average temperature and location around a star similar to the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:10_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> However, technological limitations make it difficult to find these objects due to the infrequency of their <a href="/wiki/Transit_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit (astronomy)">transits</a>, a consequence of the distance that separates them from their stars or <a href="/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes" title="Semi-major and semi-minor axes">semi-major axis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yellow <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_star" title="Dwarf star">dwarf stars</a> correspond to the G-class stars of the <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main sequence</a>, with a mass between 0.9 and 1.1 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">M☉</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and surface temperatures between 5000 and 6000 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Since the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> itself is a yellow dwarf, of type G2V,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> these types of stars are also known as <a href="/wiki/Solar_analog" title="Solar analog">solar analogs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They rank third among the most common main sequence stars, after <a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star" title="K-type main-sequence star">orange</a> dwarfs, with a representativeness of 10% of the total <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They remain in the main sequence for approximately 10 billion years. After the Sun, the closest G-type star to the Earth is <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri" title="Alpha Centauri">Alpha Centauri A</a>, 4.4 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> away and belonging to a multiple star system.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>All stars go through a phase of intense activity after their formation due to their <a href="/wiki/Rotation" title="Rotation">rotation</a>, which is much faster at the beginning of their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The duration of this period varies according to the mass of the object: the least massive stars can remain in this state for up to 3 billion years, compared to 500 million for G-type stars.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Studies by the team of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Guinan" title="Edward Guinan">Edward Guinan</a>, an astrophysicist at <a href="/wiki/Villanova_University" title="Villanova University">Villanova University</a>, reveal that the Sun rotated ten times faster in its early days. Since the rotation speed of a star affects its <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, the Sun's <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV emissions</a> were hundreds of times more intense than they are today.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extension of this phase in red dwarfs, as well as the probable <a href="/wiki/Tidal_locking" title="Tidal locking">tidal locking</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> of their potentially habitable planets with respect to them, could wipe out the magnetic field of these planets, resulting in the loss of almost all their <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> to space by interaction with the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">stellar wind</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes" title="Semi-major and semi-minor axes">semi-major axis</a> of planetary objects belonging to the habitable zone of G-type stars is wide enough to allow planetary rotation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In addition, the duration of the period of intense stellar activity is too short to eliminate a significant part of the atmosphere on planets with masses similar to or greater than that of the Earth, which have a <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> capable of counteracting the effects of stellar winds.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habitable_area">Habitable area</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Habitable area"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">Circumstellar habitable zone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler-452b_System.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kepler-452b_System.jpg/350px-Kepler-452b_System.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kepler-452b_System.jpg/525px-Kepler-452b_System.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kepler-452b_System.jpg/700px-Kepler-452b_System.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Habitable zone of the stars <a href="/wiki/Kepler-186" title="Kepler-186">Kepler-186</a> (red dwarf), <a href="/wiki/Kepler-452" title="Kepler-452">Kepler-452</a> and the Sun (both yellow dwarfs)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">habitable zone</a> around yellow dwarfs varies according to their size and luminosity, although the inner boundary is usually at 0.84 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a> and the outer one at 1.67 in a G2V class dwarf like the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In a G5V class dwarf -smaller- of 0.95 <a href="/wiki/Solar_radius" title="Solar radius">R☉</a> the habitable zone would correspond to the region located between 0.8 and 1.58 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a> with respect to the star, while in a G0V type — larger — it would be located at a distance of between 1 and 2 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a> from the stellar body.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In orbits smaller than the inner boundary of the habitable zone, a process of water evaporation, hydrogen separation by <a href="/wiki/Photodissociation" title="Photodissociation">photolysis</a> and loss of hydrogen to space by <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamic_escape" title="Hydrodynamic escape">hydrodynamic escape</a> would be triggered.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Beyond the outer limit of the habitable zone, temperatures would be low enough to allow <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a>, which would lead to an increase in <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> and a feedback reduction of the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> until a permanent global glaciation would occur.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The size of the habitable zone is directly proportional to the mass and luminosity of its star, so the larger the star, the larger the habitable zone and the farther from its surface.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Red dwarfs, the smallest of the main sequence, have a very small habitable zone close to them, which subjects any potentially habitable planets in the system to the effects of their star, including probable <a href="/wiki/Tidal_locking" title="Tidal locking">tidal locking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Even in a small yellow dwarf like <a href="/wiki/Tau_Ceti" title="Tau Ceti">Tau Ceti</a>, of type G8.5V, the locking limit is at 0.4237 AU versus the 0.522 AU that marks the inner boundary of the habitable zone, so any planetary object orbiting a G-class star in this region will far exceed the locking limit, and will have day-night cycles like Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In yellow dwarfs, this region coincides entirely with the ultraviolet habitability zone.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This area is determined by an inner limit beyond which exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> would be too high for <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and by an outer limit that provides the minimum levels for living things to carry out their biogenic processes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">solar system</a>, this region is located between 0.71 and 1.9 AU with respect to the Sun, compared to the 0.84-1.67 AU that mark the extremes of the habitable zone.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_potential">Life potential</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Life potential"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></div> <p>Given the length of the main sequence in G-type stars,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> the levels of ultraviolet radiation in their <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">habitable zone</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> the semi-major axis of the inner boundary of this region<sup id="cite_ref-:7_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and the distance to their <a href="/wiki/Tidal_locking" title="Tidal locking">tidal locking</a> limit,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> among other factors, yellow dwarfs are considered to be the most hospitable to life next to K-type stars.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>One goal in exoplanetary research is to find an object that has the main characteristics of our planet, such as <a href="/wiki/Radius" title="Radius">radius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, atmospheric composition and belonging to a star similar to the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:14_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In theory, these <a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analogs</a> should have comparable habitability conditions that would allow the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">extraterrestrial life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the serious problems for planetary habitability presented by red dwarf systems and stellar bodies of <a href="/wiki/F-type_main-sequence_star" title="F-type main-sequence star">type F</a> or higher, the only stars that might offer a bearable scenario for life would be those of <a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star" title="K-type main-sequence star">type K</a> and G.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Solar analogs used to be considered as the most likely candidates to host a solar-like planetary system, and as the best positioned to support carbon-based life forms and <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">liquid water oceans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Subsequent studies, such as <i>"Superhabitable Worlds"</i><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> by René Heller and John Armstrong, establish that <a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star" title="K-type main-sequence star">orange dwarfs</a> may be more suitable for life than G-type dwarfs, and host hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Superhabitable_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Superhabitable planet">superhabitable planets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, yellow dwarfs still represent the only stellar type for which there is evidence of their suitability for life. Moreover, while in other types of stars the habitable zone does not coincide entirely with the ultraviolet habitable zone, in G-class stars the habitable zone lies entirely within the limits of the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Finally, yellow dwarfs have a much shorter initial phase of intense <a href="/wiki/Solar_phenomena" title="Solar phenomena">stellar activity</a> than K-type stars, which allows planets belonging to solar analogs to preserve their primordial atmospheres more easily and to maintain them for much of the <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main sequence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discoveries">Discoveries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Discoveries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most of the exoplanets discovered have been detected by the <a href="/wiki/Kepler_space_telescope" title="Kepler space telescope">Kepler space telescope</a>, which uses the <a href="/wiki/Transit_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit (astronomy)">transit</a> method to find planets around other systems.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This procedure analyzes the brightness of stars to detect dips that indicate the passage of a planetary object in front of them from the perspective of the observatory.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It is the method that has been most successful in <a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">exoplanetary research</a>, together with the <a href="/wiki/Radial_velocity" title="Radial velocity">radial velocity</a> method,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> which consists of analyzing the vibrations caused in the stars by the gravitational effects of the planets orbiting them.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The use of these procedures with the limitations of current telescopes makes it difficult to find objects with orbits similar to the Earth's orbits or higher, which generates a bias in favor of planets with a short <a href="/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes" title="Semi-major and semi-minor axes">semi-major axis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> As a consequence, most of the exoplanets detected are either excessively hot<sup id="cite_ref-:15_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> or belong to low-mass stars, whose habitable zone is close to them and any object orbiting in this region will have a significantly shorter year than the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planetary bodies belonging to the habitable zone of yellow dwarfs, such as <a href="/wiki/Kepler-22b" title="Kepler-22b">Kepler-22b</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kepler-452b" title="Kepler-452b">Kepler-452b</a> or <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, take hundreds of days to complete an orbit around their star.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The higher luminosity of these stars, the scarcity of transits and the semi-major axis of their planets located in the habitable zone reduce the probabilities of detecting this class of objects and considerably increase the number of <i>false positives</i>, as in the cases of KOI-5123.01 and KOI-5927.01.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The ground-based and orbital observatories projected for the next ten years may increase the discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analogs</a> in yellow dwarf systems.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kepler-452b">Kepler-452b</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Kepler-452b"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kepler-452b" title="Kepler-452b">Kepler-452b</a></div> <p>Kepler-452b lies 1400 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a> from Earth, in the <a href="/wiki/Cygnus_(constellation)" title="Cygnus (constellation)">Cygnus</a> constellation.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Its <a href="/wiki/Radius" title="Radius">radius</a> of about 1.6 <a href="/wiki/Earth_radius" title="Earth radius">R<sub>⊕</sub></a><sup id="cite_ref-:17_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> places it right on the boundary separating <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">telluric planets</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mini-Neptune" title="Mini-Neptune">mini-Neptunes</a> established by the team of Courtney Dressing, a researcher at the <a href="/wiki/Harvard%E2%80%93Smithsonian_Center_for_Astrophysics" title="Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics">Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics</a> (CfA).<sup id="cite_ref-:18_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> If the planet's density is similar to Earth's, its mass will be about 5 <a href="/wiki/Earth_mass" title="Earth mass">M<sub>⊕</sub></a> and its gravity twice as great.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> A G2V-type yellow dwarf like the Sun belongs to Kepler-452, with an estimated age of 6 billion years (6 <a href="/wiki/Billion_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Billion years">Ga</a>) versus the solar system's 4.5 <a href="/wiki/Billion_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Billion years">Ga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mass of its star is slightly higher than that of the Sun, 1.04 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">M<sub>☉</sub></a>, so despite the fact that it completes an orbit around it every 385 days versus 365 terrestrial days, it is warmer than the Earth. If it has similar <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> and atmospheric composition, the average surface temperature will be around 29 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Jon Jenkins of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ames_Research_Center" title="Ames Research Center">Ames Research Center</a>, it is not known whether Kepler-452b is a <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planet</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ocean_world" title="Ocean world">ocean world</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Mini-Neptune" title="Mini-Neptune">mini-Neptune</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> If it is an Earth-like telluric object, it is likely to have a higher concentration of clouds, intense volcanic activity, and is about to suffer an uncontrolled <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> due to the constant increase in the luminosity of its star, after having remained throughout the main sequence in its habitable zone.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Doug Caldwell, a <a href="/wiki/Search_for_extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Search for extraterrestrial intelligence">SETI</a> Institute scientist and member of the Kepler mission, estimates that Kepler-452b may be undergoing the same process that the Earth will undergo in a billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tau_Ceti_e">Tau Ceti e</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Tau Ceti e"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tau_Ceti_e" title="Tau Ceti e">Tau Ceti e</a></div> <p>Tau Ceti e orbits a G8.5V-type star in the constellation <a href="/wiki/Cetus" title="Cetus">Cetus</a>, 12 light-years from Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It has a radius of 1.59 R<sub>⊕</sub> and a mass of 4.29 M<sub>⊕</sub>, so like Kepler-452b it lies at the separation boundary between terrestrial and <a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">gaseous planets</a>. With an <a href="/wiki/Orbital_period" title="Orbital period">orbital period</a> of only 168 days, its temperature assuming an Earth-like atmospheric composition and albedo would be about 50 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The planet is located just at the inner edge of the habitable zone and receives about 60% more light than Earth. Its size may also imply a higher concentration of gases in its atmosphere, making it a <i><a href="/wiki/Super-Earth" title="Super-Earth">super-Venus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> type object. Otherwise, it could be the first <a href="/wiki/Thermoplanet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoplanet">thermoplanet</a> discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kepler-22b">Kepler-22b</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Kepler-22b"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kepler-22b" title="Kepler-22b">Kepler-22b</a></div> <p>Kepler-22b is at a distance of 600 light-years, in the Cygnus constellation.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_48-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It completes one orbit around its G5V-type star every 290 days.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Its radius is 2.35 R<sub>⊕</sub> and its estimated mass, for an Earth-like density, would be 20.36 M<sub>⊕</sub>. If the planet's atmosphere and albedo were similar to Earth's, its surface temperature would be around 22 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was the first exoplanet found by the <a href="/wiki/Kepler_space_telescope" title="Kepler space telescope">Kepler telescope</a> belonging to the habitability zone of its star.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Because of its size, considering the limit established by Courtney Dressing's team, its probability to be a <a href="/wiki/Mini-Neptune" title="Mini-Neptune">mini-Neptune</a> is very high.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_48-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">Circumstellar habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhabitable_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Superhabitable planet">Superhabitable planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_natural_satellites" title="Habitability of natural satellites">Habitability of natural satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_red_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of red dwarf systems">Habitability of red dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_K-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_F-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">List of potentially habitable exoplanets</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:8-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Perryman, 2011, p. 285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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Retrieved october 8th, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuccinoLemarchand2006" class="citation journal cs1">Buccino, Andrea P.; Lemarchand, Guillermo A. 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(2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astrobio.net/topic/deep-space/cosmic-evolution/planets-in-the-habitable-zone-around-most-stars-calculate-researchers/">Planets in the habitable zone around most stars, calculate researchers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160915105859/http://www.astrobio.net/topic/deep-space/cosmic-evolution/planets-in-the-habitable-zone-around-most-stars-calculate-researchers/">Archived</a> 2016-09-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Astrobiology Magazine</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Astrobio. (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astrobio.net/topic/deep-space/alien-life/stars-choose-the-life-around-them/">Stars Choose the Life Around Them</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305013332/http://www.astrobio.net/topic/deep-space/alien-life/stars-choose-the-life-around-them/">Archived</a> 2016-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Astrobiology Magazine</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ulmschneider, 2006 p. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:9_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heller and Armstrong, 2014 p. 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulterPhillips" class="citation web cs1">Coulter, Dauna; Phillips, Tony. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120331174028/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2012/29mar_goldilocks/">"Getting to Know the Goldilocks Planet"</a>. NASA Science. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2012/29mar_goldilocks/">the original</a> on 2012-03-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Getting+to+Know+the+Goldilocks+Planet&amp;rft.pub=NASA+Science&amp;rft.aulast=Coulter&amp;rft.aufirst=Dauna&amp;rft.au=Phillips%2C+Tony&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.nasa.gov%2Fscience-news%2Fscience-at-nasa%2F2012%2F29mar_goldilocks%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWall" class="citation news cs1">Wall, Mike. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/28190-alien-earths-search-kepler-mission.html">"Search for the First True Alien Earth Heats Up"</a>. Space.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603070229/https://www.space.com/28190-alien-earths-search-kepler-mission.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Search+for+the+First+True+Alien+Earth+Heats+Up&amp;rft.aulast=Wall&amp;rft.aufirst=Mike&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F28190-alien-earths-search-kepler-mission.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are several ways to classify stars. One of them is according to the <i>luminosity class</i>: Class V corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">dwarfs</a> — belonging to the main sequence; Class III to the <a href="/wiki/Giant_star" title="Giant star">giants</a>; and Class I to the <a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">supergiants</a>. (Ulmschneider, 2006, p. 54)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidpath2009" class="citation book cs1">Ridpath, Ian (2009). <i>Diccionario de astronomía</i>. Complutense. p.&#160;312. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8489784703" title="Special:BookSources/978-8489784703"><bdi>978-8489784703</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Diccionario+de+astronom%C3%ADa&amp;rft.pages=312&amp;rft.pub=Complutense&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-8489784703&amp;rft.aulast=Ridpath&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakedaTajitsuHondaKawanomoto2012" class="citation journal cs1">Takeda, Yoichi; Tajitsu, Akito; Honda, Satoshi; Kawanomoto, Satoshi (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nao.ac.jp/contents/about-naoj/reports/annual-report/en/2012/e_web_006.pdf">"Detection of Low-Level Activities in Solar-Analog Stars from the Emission Strengths of Ca II 3934 Line"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Astronomical Society of Japan</i>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1207.0176">1207.0176</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221207171359/https://www.nao.ac.jp/contents/about-naoj/reports/annual-report/en/2012/e_web_006.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-12-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Astronomical+Society+of+Japan&amp;rft.atitle=Detection+of+Low-Level+Activities+in+Solar-Analog+Stars+from+the+Emission+Strengths+of+Ca+II+3934+Line&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1207.0176&amp;rft.aulast=Takeda&amp;rft.aufirst=Yoichi&amp;rft.au=Tajitsu%2C+Akito&amp;rft.au=Honda%2C+Satoshi&amp;rft.au=Kawanomoto%2C+Satoshi&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nao.ac.jp%2Fcontents%2Fabout-naoj%2Freports%2Fannual-report%2Fen%2F2012%2Fe_web_006.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The closest yellow dwarf to the Sun that does not belong to a multiple system is <a href="/wiki/Tau_Ceti" title="Tau Ceti">Tau Ceti</a>, 12 light-years away.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoi" class="citation news cs1">Choi, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/14659-red-dwarf-stars-planets-habitable-zones.html">"Red Dwarf Stars May Be Best Chance for Habitable Alien Planets"</a>. Space.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200311213452/https://www.space.com/14659-red-dwarf-stars-planets-habitable-zones.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Red+Dwarf+Stars+May+Be+Best+Chance+for+Habitable+Alien+Planets&amp;rft.aulast=Choi&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F14659-red-dwarf-stars-planets-habitable-zones.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchirber" class="citation news cs1">Schirber, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/living-with-a-red-dwarf/">"Living with a Red Dwarf"</a>. <i>Astrobiology Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210621043207/https://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/living-with-a-red-dwarf/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Astrobiology+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=Living+with+a+Red+Dwarf&amp;rft.aulast=Schirber&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astrobio.net%2Fnews-exclusive%2Fliving-with-a-red-dwarf%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The tidal locking of a planet with respect to its star is due to the proximity between both bodies, which synchronizes the <a href="/wiki/Rotation" title="Rotation">rotational motion</a> of the planetary body with its orbit. Thus, the object would always show the same face to its star, having a diurnal and a nocturnal hemisphere. The low rotation can substantially reduce the planet's <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, its main protection against the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">stellar winds</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Tidal_locking" title="Tidal locking">tidal locking</a> limit for a G5-type star is at about 0.6 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a>, while the inner boundary of the habitable zone is at 0.8 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">AU</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kasting, Whitmire, and Reynolds, 1993, pp.114-115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuntzGuinan2009" class="citation journal cs1">Cuntz, Manfred; Guinan, Edward F. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=7277688&amp;fileId=S1743921309993036">"Biological Damage due to Photospheric, Chromospheric and Flare Radiation in the Environments of Main-Sequence Stars"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union</i>. <b>5</b> (S264): 419–426. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0911.1982">0911.1982</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1743921309993036">10.1017/S1743921309993036</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119183429">119183429</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160422035553/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&amp;aid=7277688&amp;fileId=S1743921309993036">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-04-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+International+Astronomical+Union&amp;rft.atitle=Biological+Damage+due+to+Photospheric%2C+Chromospheric+and+Flare+Radiation+in+the+Environments+of+Main-Sequence+Stars&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.issue=S264&amp;rft.pages=419-426&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0911.1982&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119183429%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1743921309993036&amp;rft.aulast=Cuntz&amp;rft.aufirst=Manfred&amp;rft.au=Guinan%2C+Edward+F.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Faction%2FdisplayAbstract%3FfromPage%3Donline%26aid%3D7277688%26fileId%3DS1743921309993036&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kasting, Whitmire, and Reynolds, 1993, p. 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kasting, Whitmire, and Reynolds, 1993, 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchirber" class="citation news cs1">Schirber, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/6560-life-thrive-red-dwarf-star.html">"Can Life Thrive Around a Red Dwarf Star?"</a>. Space.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200424230243/https://www.space.com/6560-life-thrive-red-dwarf-star.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-04-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Can+Life+Thrive+Around+a+Red+Dwarf+Star%3F&amp;rft.aulast=Schirber&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F6560-life-thrive-red-dwarf-star.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423172723/http://phl.upr.edu/projects/habitable-exoplanets-catalog/results">"HEC: Graphical Catalog Results"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phl.upr.edu/projects/habitable-exoplanets-catalog/results">the original</a> on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=HEC%3A+Graphical+Catalog+Results&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphl.upr.edu%2Fprojects%2Fhabitable-exoplanets-catalog%2Fresults&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perryman, 2011, p. 294</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedd" class="citation news cs1">Redd, Nola Taylor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/22437-main-sequence-stars.html">"Main Sequence Stars: Definition &amp; Life Cycle"</a>. Space.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180224053558/https://www.space.com/22437-main-sequence-stars.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-02-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Main+Sequence+Stars%3A+Definition+%26+Life+Cycle&amp;rft.aulast=Redd&amp;rft.aufirst=Nola+Taylor&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F22437-main-sequence-stars.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ulmschneider, 2006, p. 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowell" class="citation news cs1">Howell, Elizabeth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/17738-exoplanets.html">"Exoplanets: Worlds Beyond Our Solar System"</a>. Space.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190527073717/https://www.space.com/17738-exoplanets.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Exoplanets%3A+Worlds+Beyond+Our+Solar+System&amp;rft.aulast=Howell&amp;rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F17738-exoplanets.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlotner" class="citation news cs1">Plotner, Tammy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.universetoday.com/91237/planetary-habitability-index-proposes-a-less-earth-centric-view-in-search-of-life/">"Planetary Habitability Index Proposes A Less "Earth-Centric" View In Search Of Life"</a>. <i>Universe Today</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602045603/https://www.universetoday.com/91237/planetary-habitability-index-proposes-a-less-earth-centric-view-in-search-of-life/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Universe+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Planetary+Habitability+Index+Proposes+A+Less+%22Earth-Centric%22+View+In+Search+Of+Life&amp;rft.aulast=Plotner&amp;rft.aufirst=Tammy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.universetoday.com%2F91237%2Fplanetary-habitability-index-proposes-a-less-earth-centric-view-in-search-of-life%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perryman, 2011, p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellerArmstrong2014" class="citation journal cs1">Heller, René; Armstrong, John (January 2014). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Astrobiology+Magazine&amp;rft.atitle=NASA+Kepler+Results+Usher+in+a+New+Era+of+Astronomy&amp;rft.aulast=Wall&amp;rft.aufirst=Mike&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astrobio.net%2Ftopic%2Fexploration%2Fmissions%2Fnasa-kepler-results-usher-in-a-new-era-of-astronomy%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellerArmstrong2014" class="citation journal cs1">Heller, René; Armstrong, John (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014AsBio..14...50H">"Superhabitable Worlds"</a>. <i>Astrobiology</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 50–66. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1401.2392">1401.2392</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014AsBio..14...50H">2014AsBio..14...50H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fast.2013.1088">10.1089/ast.2013.1088</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24380533">24380533</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1824897">1824897</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Astrobiology&amp;rft.atitle=Superhabitable+Worlds&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=50-66&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1824897%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014AsBio..14...50H&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1401.2392&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24380533&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fast.2013.1088&amp;rft.aulast=Heller&amp;rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&amp;rft.au=Armstrong%2C+John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F2014AsBio..14...50H&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKastingWhitmireReynolds1993" class="citation journal cs1">Kasting, James F.; Whitmire, Daniel P.; Reynolds, Ray T. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11536936">"Habitable Zones around main Sequence Stars"</a>. <i>Icarus</i>. <b>1</b> (101): 101–128. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Icar..101..108K">1993Icar..101..108K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Ficar.1993.1010">10.1006/icar.1993.1010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11536936">11536936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Icarus&amp;rft.atitle=Habitable+Zones+around+main+Sequence+Stars&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft.issue=101&amp;rft.pages=101-128&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11536936&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Ficar.1993.1010&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993Icar..101..108K&amp;rft.aulast=Kasting&amp;rft.aufirst=James+F.&amp;rft.au=Whitmire%2C+Daniel+P.&amp;rft.au=Reynolds%2C+Ray+T.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F11536936&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerryman2011" class="citation book cs1">Perryman, Michael (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xekY6FuKuAcC&amp;q=Perryman+Michael+The+Exoplanet+Handbook."><i>The Exoplanet Handbook</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76559-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76559-6"><bdi>978-0-521-76559-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Exoplanet+Handbook&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-76559-6&amp;rft.aulast=Perryman&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxekY6FuKuAcC%26q%3DPerryman%2BMichael%2BThe%2BExoplanet%2BHandbook.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlmschneider2006" class="citation book cs1">Ulmschneider, Peter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VHztCAAAQBAJ&amp;dq=tidal+locking+%22G+stars%22&amp;pg=PA61"><i>Intelligent Life in the Universe: Principles and Requirements Behind Its Emergence (Advances in Astrobiology and Biogeophysics)</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3540328360" title="Special:BookSources/978-3540328360"><bdi>978-3540328360</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Intelligent+Life+in+the+Universe%3A+Principles+and+Requirements+Behind+Its+Emergence+%28Advances+in+Astrobiology+and+Biogeophysics%29&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.isbn=978-3540328360&amp;rft.aulast=Ulmschneider&amp;rft.aufirst=Peter&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVHztCAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtidal%2Blocking%2B%2522G%2Bstars%2522%26pg%3DPA61&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitability+of+yellow+dwarf+systems" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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title="Biomolecule">Biomolecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">Biosignature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drake_equation" title="Drake equation">Drake equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">Extraterrestrial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_sample_curation" title="Extraterrestrial sample curation">Extraterrestrial sample curation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">Extremophiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry" title="Hypothetical types of biochemistry">Hypothetical types of biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">List of microorganisms tested in outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean planet">Ocean planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_protection" title="Planetary protection">Planetary protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Search for extraterrestrial intelligence">Search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_000593" title="Yamato 000593">Yamato meteorite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">Planetary<br />habitability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">Circumstellar habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_habitable_zone" title="Galactic habitable zone">Galactic habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_binary_star_systems" title="Habitability of binary star systems">Habitability of binary star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_natural_satellites" title="Habitability of natural satellites">Habitability of natural satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_neutron_star_systems" title="Habitability of neutron star systems">Habitability of neutron star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_red_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of red dwarf systems">Habitability of red dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_K-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Habitability of yellow dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_F-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitable_zone_for_complex_life" title="Habitable zone for complex life">Habitable zone for complex life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">List of potentially habitable exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholin" title="Tholin">Tholin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhabitable_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Superhabitable planet">Superhabitable planet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Space<br /> missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Earth orbit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Flyer_Unit#Experimentation_data" title="Space Flyer Unit">BIO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_17#Biological_cosmic_ray_experiment" title="Apollo 17">BIOCORE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolab" title="Biolab">Biolab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_(satellite)" title="Bion (satellite)">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BIOPAN" title="BIOPAN">BIOPAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosatellite_program" title="Biosatellite program">Biosatellite program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_Microorganisms_in_the_Stratosphere" title="Exposing Microorganisms in the Stratosphere">E-MIST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exobiology_Radiation_Assembly" title="Exobiology Radiation Assembly">ERA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EuCROPIS" title="EuCROPIS">Eu:CROPIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Duration_Exposure_Facility#EXOSTACK" title="Long Duration Exposure Facility">EXOSTACK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EXPOSE" title="EXPOSE">EXPOSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_4#Lunar_lander" title="Chang&#39;e 4">Lunar Micro Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O/OREOS" title="O/OREOS">O/OREOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OREOcube" title="OREOcube">OREOcube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanpopo_(mission)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanpopo (mission)">Tanpopo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_Production_System" title="Vegetable Production System">VEGGIE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Mars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beagle_2" title="Beagle 2">Beagle 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fobos-Grunt" title="Fobos-Grunt">Fobos-Grunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)"><i>Curiosity</i> rover</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_2020" title="Mars 2020">Mars 2020</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)" title="Perseverance (rover)"><i>Perseverance</i> rover</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianwen-1" title="Tianwen-1">Tianwen-1</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhurong_(rover)" title="Zhurong (rover)"><i>Zhurong</i> rover</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_Gas_Orbiter" title="Trace Gas Orbiter">Trace Gas Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_lander_biological_experiments" title="Viking lander biological experiments">Viking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Comets and<br />asteroids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hayabusa2" title="Hayabusa2">Hayabusa2</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSIRIS-REx" title="OSIRIS-REx">OSIRIS-REx</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)">Rosetta</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Heliocentric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BioSentinel" title="BioSentinel">BioSentinel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dragonfly_(Titan_space_probe)" title="Dragonfly (Titan space probe)">Dragonfly</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin_(rover)" title="Rosalind Franklin (rover)"><i>Rosalind Franklin</i> rover</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Enceladus_mission" title="Breakthrough Enceladus mission">Breakthrough Enceladus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRUIE" title="BRUIE">BRUIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAESAR_(spacecraft)" title="CAESAR (spacecraft)">CAESAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Explorer" title="Enceladus Explorer">Enceladus Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Life_Finder" title="Enceladus Life Finder">Enceladus Life Finder‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Life_Signatures_and_Habitability" title="Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability">Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Orbilander" title="Enceladus Orbilander">Enceladus Orbilander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Lander_(NASA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Europa Lander (NASA)">Europa Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExoLance" title="ExoLance">ExoLance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_of_Enceladus_and_Titan" title="Explorer of Enceladus and Titan">Explorer of Enceladus and Titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icebreaker_Life" title="Icebreaker Life">Icebreaker Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_Enceladus_and_Titan" title="Journey to Enceladus and Titan">Journey to Enceladus and Titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace-P" title="Laplace-P">Laplace-P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_Investigation_For_Enceladus" title="Life Investigation For Enceladus">Life Investigation For Enceladus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sample_return_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars sample return mission">Mars sample return mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanus_(Titan_orbiter)" title="Oceanus (Titan orbiter)">Oceanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THEO" title="THEO">THEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trident_(spacecraft)" title="Trident (spacecraft)">Trident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Cancelled and <br />undeveloped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology_Field_Laboratory" title="Astrobiology Field Laboratory">Astrobiology Field Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beagle_3" title="Beagle 3">Beagle 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_Oxidant_and_Life_Detection" title="Biological Oxidant and Life Detection">Biological Oxidant and Life Detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazachok" title="Kazachok">Kazachok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_Interplanetary_Flight_Experiment" title="Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment">Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Astrobiology_Explorer-Cacher" title="Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher">Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MELOS" title="MELOS">MELOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Light_(spacecraft)" title="Northern Light (spacecraft)">Northern Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Red_Dragon" title="SpaceX Red Dragon">Red Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_Planet_Finder" title="Terrestrial Planet Finder">Terrestrial Planet Finder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Institutions<br />and programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology_Society_of_Britain" title="Astrobiology Society of Britain">Astrobiology Society of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology_Science_and_Technology_for_Exploring_Planets" title="Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets">Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Initiatives" title="Breakthrough Initiatives">Breakthrough Initiatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Listen" title="Breakthrough Listen">Breakthrough Listen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Message" class="mw-redirect" title="Breakthrough Message">Breakthrough Message</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot" title="Breakthrough Starshot">Breakthrough Starshot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan_Institute" title="Carl Sagan Institute">Carl Sagan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Life_Detection_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Life Detection Science">Center for Life Detection Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Astrobiology_Network_Association" title="European Astrobiology Network Association">European Astrobiology Network Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MERMOZ" title="MERMOZ">MERMOZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Astrobiology_Institute" title="NASA Astrobiology Institute">NASA Astrobiology Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_for_Exoplanet_System_Science" title="Nexus for Exoplanet System Science">Nexus for Exoplanet System Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_Worlds_Exploration_Program" title="Ocean Worlds Exploration Program">Ocean Worlds Exploration Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Astrobiology_Center" title="Spanish Astrobiology Center">Spanish Astrobiology Center‎</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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