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<span>Toggle Physical and chemical properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_and_chemical_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Felsic_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Felsic_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Felsic magmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Felsic_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermediate_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermediate_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Intermediate magmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermediate_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mafic_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mafic_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Mafic magmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mafic_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultramafic_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultramafic_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Ultramafic magmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultramafic_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alkaline_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alkaline_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Alkaline magmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alkaline_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-silicate_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-silicate_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.6</span> <span>Non-silicate magmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-silicate_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magmatic_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magmatic_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Magmatic gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magmatic_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rheology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rheology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Rheology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rheology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Density</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decompression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Decompression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decompression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_water_and_carbon_dioxide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_water_and_carbon_dioxide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Effects of water and carbon dioxide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_water_and_carbon_dioxide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature_increase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature_increase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Temperature increase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature_increase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_melting_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_melting_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The melting process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_melting_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evolution of magmas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_of_magmas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution of magmas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_magmas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_magmas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Primary magmas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_magmas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parental_magma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parental_magma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Parental magma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parental_magma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migration_and_solidification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration_and_solidification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Migration and solidification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Migration_and_solidification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Migration and solidification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Migration_and_solidification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plutonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plutonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Plutonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plutonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Volcanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volcanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_energy_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_energy_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Use in energy production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_energy_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Magma</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">100 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%85%E1%88%8D%E1%8C%A5_%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%88%E1%89%B5" title="ቅልጥ አለት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቅልጥ አለት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="صهارة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صهارة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_hu%27%C5%A9" title="Tata hu'ũ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tata hu'ũ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maqma" title="Maqma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Maqma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A2m-chiu%E2%81%BF" title="Gâm-chiuⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gâm-chiuⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE" title="मैग्मा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मैग्मा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Μάγμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μάγμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magmo" title="Magmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Magmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%85%D8%A7" title="ماگما – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماگما" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma_(g%C3%A9ologie)" title="Magma (géologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Magma (géologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma_(stiente)" title="Magma (stiente) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Magma (stiente)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EA%B7%B8%EB%A7%88" title="마그마 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마그마" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B4%D5%A1" title="Մագմա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մագմա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE" title="मैग्मा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मैग्मा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvika" title="Kvika – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kvika" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%94" title="מאגמה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מאגמה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="მაგმა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მაგმა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE" title="മാഗ്മ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മാഗ്മ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="მაგმა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მაგმა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma_(gesteente)" title="Magma (gesteente) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Magma (gesteente)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE" title="माग्मा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="माग्मा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%82%B0%E3%83%9E" title="マグマ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マグマ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaalloo" title="Kaalloo – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kaalloo" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE" title="ਮੈਗਮਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੈਗਮਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%AF%D9%85%D8%A7" title="میگما – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="میگما" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%AB%D9%85%D8%A7" title="ماګما – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماګما" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma_(Vulkan)" title="Magma (Vulkan) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Magma (Vulkan)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magm%C4%83" title="Magmă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Magmă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninat%27uru" title="Ninat'uru – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ninat'uru" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="கற்குழம்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கற்குழம்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%94" title="หินหนืด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หินหนืด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Магма – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Магма" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%AF%D9%85%D8%A7" title="میگما – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="میگما" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BA%AFc_ma" title="Mắc ma – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mắc ma" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" title="Magma – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Magma" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" 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</nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hot semifluid material found beneath the surface of Earth</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Magma_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Magma (disambiguation)">Magma (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_poster.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Earth_poster.svg/350px-Earth_poster.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Earth_poster.svg/525px-Earth_poster.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Earth_poster.svg/700px-Earth_poster.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>Magma can be found in the mantle or molten crust.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Magma</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:μάγμα">μάγμα</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>mágma</i></span>)</i> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">thick <a href="/wiki/Unguent" title="Unguent">unguent</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-MerriamWebsterDict_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MerriamWebsterDict-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rocks</a> are formed.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magma (sometimes colloquially but incorrectly referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a></i>) is found beneath the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, and evidence of <a href="/wiki/Magmatism" title="Magmatism">magmatism</a> has also been discovered on other <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">natural satellites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">gas bubbles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eov_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eov-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Magma is produced by melting of the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> in various <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonic</a> settings, which on Earth include <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zone">subduction zones</a>, continental <a href="/wiki/Rift_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rift (geology)">rift zones</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Foulger_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foulger-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspots</a>. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in <a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">magma chambers</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or trans-crustal <a href="/wiki/Crystal_mush" title="Crystal mush">crystal-rich mush</a> zones.<sup id="cite_ref-Sparks_2017_35–40_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sparks_2017_35–40-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During magma's storage in the crust, its composition may be modified by <a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)" title="Fractional crystallization (geology)">fractional crystallization</a>, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following its ascent through the crust, magma may feed a <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a> and be extruded as lava, or it may solidify underground to form an <a href="/wiki/Intrusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusion">intrusion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as a <a href="/wiki/Dike_(geology)" title="Dike (geology)">dike</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sill_(geology)" title="Sill (geology)">sill</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Laccolith" title="Laccolith">laccolith</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pluton" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluton">pluton</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Batholith" title="Batholith">batholith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshak_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshak-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the study of magma has relied on observing magma after its transition into a <a href="/wiki/Lava_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava flow">lava flow</a>, magma has been encountered <a href="/wiki/In_situ#Earth_and_atmospheric_sciences" title="In situ">in situ</a> three times during <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal drilling projects</a>, twice in Iceland (see <a href="#Use_in_energy_production">Use in energy production</a>) and once in Hawaii.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hawaii-wellfield-dacite_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hawaii-wellfield-dacite-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_and_chemical_properties">Physical and chemical properties</h2></div> <p>Magma consists of liquid rock that usually contains suspended solid crystals.<sup id="cite_ref-philpotts-ague-phenocrysts_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philpotts-ague-phenocrysts-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As magma approaches the surface and the <a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">overburden pressure</a> drops, dissolved gases bubble out of the liquid, so that magma near the surface consists of materials in solid, liquid, and gas <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">phases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-schmincke-2003_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schmincke-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition">Composition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Igneous_differentiation" title="Igneous differentiation">Igneous differentiation</a></div> <p>Most magma is rich in <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rare nonsilicate magma can form by local melting of nonsilicate mineral deposits<sup id="cite_ref-ChileIronOxideLava_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChileIronOxideLava-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or by separation of a magma into separate <a href="/wiki/Immiscible" class="mw-redirect" title="Immiscible">immiscible</a> silicate and nonsilicate liquid phases.<sup id="cite_ref-IronOxidelava_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IronOxidelava-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Silicate magmas are molten mixtures dominated by <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, the most abundant <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> in the Earth's crust, with smaller quantities of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, and minor amounts of many other elements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200919,_131_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200919,_131-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Petrologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrologist">Petrologists</a> routinely express the composition of a silicate magma in terms of the weight or <a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">molar mass</a> fraction of the oxides of the major elements (other than oxygen) present in the magma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009132–133_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009132–133-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because many of the properties of a magma (such as its viscosity and temperature) are observed to correlate with silica content, silicate magmas are divided into four chemical types based on silica content: <a href="#Felsic_magmas"><i>felsic</i></a>, <a href="#Intermediate_magmas"><i>intermediate</i></a>, <a href="#Mafic_magmas"><i>mafic</i></a>, and <a href="#Ultramafic_magmas"><i>ultramafic</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Felsic_magmas">Felsic magmas</h4></div> <p><i>Felsic</i> or <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicic</a> magmas have a silica content greater than 63%. They include <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">dacite</a> magmas. With such a high silica content, these magmas are extremely viscous, ranging from 10<sup>8</sup> <a href="/wiki/Centipoise" class="mw-redirect" title="Centipoise">cP</a> (10<sup>5</sup> Pa⋅s) for hot rhyolite magma at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) to 10<sup>11</sup> cP (10<sup>8</sup> Pa⋅s) for cool rhyolite magma at 800 °C (1,470 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For comparison, water has a viscosity of about 1 cP (0.001 Pa⋅s). Because of this very high viscosity, felsic lavas usually erupt explosively to produce <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock" title="Pyroclastic rock">pyroclastic</a> (fragmental) deposits. However, rhyolite lavas occasionally erupt effusively to form <a href="/wiki/Lava_spine" title="Lava spine">lava spines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">lava domes</a> or "coulees" (which are thick, short lava flows).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200970–77_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200970–77-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lavas typically fragment as they extrude, producing <a href="/wiki/Lava#Block_lava_flows" title="Lava">block lava flows</a>. These often contain <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke2003132_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke2003132-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Felsic lavas can erupt at temperatures as low as 800 °C (1,470 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200920_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200920-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unusually hot (>950 °C; >1,740 °F) rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Snake_River_Plain" title="Snake River Plain">Snake River Plain</a> of the northwestern United States.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intermediate_magmas">Intermediate magmas</h4></div> <p><i>Intermediate</i> or <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">andesitic</a> magmas contain 52% to 63% silica, and are lower in aluminium and usually somewhat richer in <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> than felsic magmas. Intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas, and may occur on steep <a href="/wiki/Composite_volcano" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite volcano">composite volcanoes</a>, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200321–24,_132,_143_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200321–24,_132,_143-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also commonly hotter, in the range of 850 to 1,100 °C (1,560 to 2,010 °F)). Because of their lower silica content and higher eruptive temperatures, they tend to be much less viscous, with a typical viscosity of 3.5 × 10<sup>6</sup> cP (3,500 Pa⋅s) at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). This is slightly greater than the viscosity of smooth <a href="/wiki/Peanut_butter" title="Peanut butter">peanut butter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–611_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–611-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intermediate magmas show a greater tendency to form <a href="/wiki/Phenocrysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenocrysts">phenocrysts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker <a href="/wiki/Groundmass" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundmass">groundmass</a>, including amphibole or pyroxene phenocrysts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue20091376–377_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue20091376–377-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mafic_magmas">Mafic magmas</h4></div> <p><i>Mafic</i> or <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> magmas have a silica content of 52% to 45%. They are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures of 1,100 to 1,200 °C (2,010 to 2,190 °F). Viscosities can be relatively low, around 10<sup>4</sup> to 10<sup>5</sup> cP (10 to 100 Pa⋅s), although this is still many orders of magnitude higher than water. This viscosity is similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Ketchup" title="Ketchup">ketchup</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–25_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–25-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basalt lavas tend to produce low-profile <a href="/wiki/Shield_volcano" title="Shield volcano">shield volcanoes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">flood basalts</a>, because the fluidal lava flows for long distances from the vent. The thickness of a basalt lava, particularly on a low slope, may be much greater than the thickness of the moving lava flow at any one time, because basalt lavas may "inflate" by supply of lava beneath a solidified crust.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200953-55,_59-64_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200953-55,_59-64-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most basalt lavas are of <i><a href="/wiki/%CA%BBA%CA%BB%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="ʻAʻā">ʻAʻā</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81hoehoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāhoehoe">pāhoehoe</a></i> types, rather than block lavas. Underwater, they can form <a href="/wiki/Pillow_lavas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pillow lavas">pillow lavas</a>, which are rather similar to entrail-type pahoehoe lavas on land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke2003128–132_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke2003128–132-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ultramafic_magmas">Ultramafic magmas</h4></div> <p><i>Ultramafic</i> magmas, such as <a href="/wiki/Picrite" class="mw-redirect" title="Picrite">picritic</a> basalt, <a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">komatiite</a>, and highly magnesian magmas that form <a href="/wiki/Boninite" title="Boninite">boninite</a>, take the composition and temperatures to the extreme. All have a silica content under 45%. Komatiites contain over 18% magnesium oxide, and are thought to have erupted at temperatures of 1,600 °C (2,910 °F). At this temperature there is practically no polymerization of the mineral compounds, creating a highly mobile liquid.<sup id="cite_ref-Condie1994_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Condie1994-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viscosities of komatiite magmas are thought to have been as low as 100 to 1000 cP (0.1 to 1 Pa⋅s), similar to that of light motor oil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most ultramafic lavas are no younger than the <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>, with a few ultramafic magmas known from the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> in Central America that are attributed to a hot <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plume</a>. No modern komatiite lavas are known, as the Earth's mantle has cooled too much to produce highly magnesian magmas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009399–400_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009399–400-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alkaline_magmas">Alkaline magmas</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_magma_series" title="Alkaline magma series">Alkaline magma series</a></div> <p>Some silicic magmas have an elevated content of <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali metal oxide">alkali metal oxides</a> (sodium and potassium), particularly in regions of <a href="/wiki/Continental_rifting" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental rifting">continental rifting</a>, areas overlying deeply <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subducted</a> <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">plates</a>, or at intraplate <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspots</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009139–148_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009139–148-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their silica content can range from ultramafic (<a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">nephelinites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basanite" title="Basanite">basanites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tephrite" title="Tephrite">tephrites</a>) to felsic (<a href="/wiki/Trachyte" title="Trachyte">trachytes</a>). They are more likely to be generated at greater depths in the mantle than subalkaline magmas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009606–607_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009606–607-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Olivine <a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">nephelinite</a> magmas are both ultramafic and highly alkaline, and are thought to have come from much deeper in the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> than other magmas.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="border:0px solid black;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th valign="top"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;"> <caption>Examples of magma compositions (wt%)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009145_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009145-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Component </th> <th>Nephelinite </th> <th>Tholeiitic picrite </th> <th>Tholeiitic basalt </th> <th>Andesite </th> <th>Rhyolite </th></tr> <tr> <td>SiO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>39.7 </td> <td>46.4 </td> <td>53.8 </td> <td>60.0 </td> <td>73.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>TiO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>2.8 </td> <td>2.0 </td> <td>2.0 </td> <td>1.0 </td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> </td> <td>11.4 </td> <td>8.5 </td> <td>13.9 </td> <td>16.0 </td> <td>14.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> </td> <td>5.3 </td> <td>2.5 </td> <td>2.6 </td> <td>1.9 </td> <td>0.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>FeO </td> <td>8.2 </td> <td>9.8 </td> <td>9.3 </td> <td>6.2 </td> <td>1.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>MnO </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>MgO </td> <td>12.1 </td> <td>20.8 </td> <td>4.1 </td> <td>3.9 </td> <td>0.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>CaO </td> <td>12.8 </td> <td>7.4 </td> <td>7.9 </td> <td>5.9 </td> <td>1.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Na<sub>2</sub>O </td> <td>3.8 </td> <td>1.6 </td> <td>3.0 </td> <td>3.9 </td> <td>3.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>K<sub>2</sub>O </td> <td>1.2 </td> <td>0.3 </td> <td>1.5 </td> <td>0.9 </td> <td>4.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> </td> <td>0.9 </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.4 </td> <td>0.2 </td> <td>0.0 </td></tr></tbody></table> </th> <th valign="top"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1279587269">.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:none;position:relative;width:100px;height:100px;border-radius:50%;background-color:yellowgreen;color:black;border:1px solid black}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie div{position:absolute;transform-origin:left bottom;background-color:#655;color:black;top:0;left:50%;width:50%;height:50%;border-radius:0 500%0 0}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie50{transform-origin:left center;height:100%;border-radius:0 100%100%0/50%}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie12-5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,100%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,32.49197%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie7{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,47.056428%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie1{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,6.2914667%0%,0 100%)}@supports(clip-path:circle(50%)){.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:block}}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:1em;flex-wrap:wrap}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend{list-style-type:none!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li{display:flex;align-items:baseline;gap:.5em;margin:0;margin-bottom:0.1em}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li>span{display:block;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend>li>.l-color{border:1px solid var(--color-base,black);width:.8em;height:.8em;flex-shrink:0}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-container{padding:.5em;padding-bottom:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-caption{margin-bottom:1em;font-size:94%}.mw-parser-output .thumbinner>.smooth-pie-container{flex-direction:column-reverse}@media screen and (min-width:641px){.mw-parser-output .thumbinner>.smooth-pie-container{width:min-content}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{break-inside:avoid-page}}body.mw-mf .mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-container{align-items:center}body.mw-mf .mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-legend-container{font-size:0.8125rem;line-height:1.5;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d)}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-legend{display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(auto-fill,minmax(190px,1fr));gap:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .thumbinner .smooth-pie-footer{margin-top:.5em}}</style> <div class="pie-thumb thumb t"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="smooth-pie-container" style=""> <div class="smooth-pie-legend-container"><div class="smooth-pie-caption">Tholeiitic basalt magma</div> <ol class="smooth-pie-legend"> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#1b7837;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">SiO<sub>2</sub> (53.8%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#7fbf7b;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (13.9%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#d9f0d3;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">FeO (9.3%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#762a83;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">CaO (7.9%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#af8dc3;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">MgO (4.1%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#e7d4e8;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Na<sub>2</sub>O (3%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#d73027;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (2.6%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#fc8d59;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">TiO<sub>2</sub> (2%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#fee090;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">K<sub>2</sub>O (1.5%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#4575b4;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> (0.4%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#91bfdb;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">MnO (0.2%)</span></li> </ol> </div> <div class="smooth-pie" style="width:200px;height:200px;background:#fff;color:#000;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;" title="Other (1.30%)" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="pie50" style="background:#1b7837;color:#000" title="SiO2 (53.8%)"></div> <div class="pie50" style="background:#1b7837;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.038turn)" title="SiO2 (53.8%)"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background:#7fbf7b;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.538turn)" title="Al2O3 (13.9%)"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background:#7fbf7b;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.552turn)" title="Al2O3 (13.9%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#d9f0d3;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.677turn)" title="FeO (9.3%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#d9f0d3;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.700turn)" title="FeO (9.3%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#762a83;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.770turn)" title="CaO (7.9%)"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background:#762a83;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.779turn)" title="CaO (7.9%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.849turn); background:#af8dc3;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 26.34646677% 0%, 0 100%)" title="MgO (4.1%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.890turn); background:#e7d4e8;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 19.07602022% 0%, 0 100%)" title="Na2O (3%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.920turn); background:#d73027;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 16.48317442% 0%, 0 100%)" title="Fe2O3 (2.6%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.946turn); background:#fc8d59;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 12.63293784% 0%, 0 100%)" title="TiO2 (2%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.966turn); background:#fee090;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 9.45278312% 0%, 0 100%)" title="K2O (1.5%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.981turn); background:#4575b4;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 2.51380343% 0%, 0 100%)" title="P2O5 (0.4%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.985turn); background:#91bfdb;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 1.25670321% 0%, 0 100%)" title="MnO (0.2%)"></div> </div> </div></div></div> </th> <th valign="top"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1279587269" /> <div class="pie-thumb thumb t"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="smooth-pie-container" style=""> <div class="smooth-pie-legend-container"><div class="smooth-pie-caption">Rhyolite magma</div> <ol class="smooth-pie-legend"> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#1b7837;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">SiO<sub>2</sub> (73.2%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#7fbf7b;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (14%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#d9f0d3;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">FeO (1.7%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#762a83;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">CaO (1.3%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#af8dc3;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">MgO (0.4%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#e7d4e8;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Na<sub>2</sub>O (3.9%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#d73027;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (0.6%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#fc8d59;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">TiO<sub>2</sub> (0.2%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#fee090;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">K<sub>2</sub>O (4.1%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#4575b4;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> (0%)</span></li> <li><span class="l-color" style="-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;background:#91bfdb;color:#000"></span><span class="l-label">MnO (0%)</span></li> </ol> </div> <div class="smooth-pie" style="width:200px;height:200px;background:#fff;color:#000;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;" title="Other (0.60%)" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="pie50" style="background:#1b7837;color:#000" title="SiO2 (73.2%)"></div> <div class="pie50" style="background:#1b7837;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.232turn)" title="SiO2 (73.2%)"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background:#7fbf7b;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.732turn)" title="Al2O3 (14%)"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background:#7fbf7b;color:#000; transform: rotate(0.747turn)" title="Al2O3 (14%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.872turn); background:#d9f0d3;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 10.72222363% 0%, 0 100%)" title="FeO (1.7%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.889turn); background:#762a83;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 8.18635505% 0%, 0 100%)" title="CaO (1.3%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.902turn); background:#af8dc3;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 2.51380343% 0%, 0 100%)" title="MgO (0.4%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.906turn); background:#e7d4e8;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 25.00696627% 0%, 0 100%)" title="Na2O (3.9%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.945turn); background:#d73027;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 3.77169816% 0%, 0 100%)" title="Fe2O3 (0.6%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.951turn); background:#fc8d59;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 1.25670321% 0%, 0 100%)" title="TiO2 (0.2%)"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.953turn); background:#fee090;color:#000; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 26.34646677% 0%, 0 100%)" title="K2O (4.1%)"></div> </div> </div></div></div> </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-silicate_magmas">Non-silicate magmas</h4></div> <p>Some lavas of unusual composition have erupted onto the surface of the Earth. These include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">Carbonatite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natrocarbonatite" title="Natrocarbonatite">natrocarbonatite</a> lavas are known from <a href="/wiki/Ol_Doinyo_Lengai" title="Ol Doinyo Lengai">Ol Doinyo Lengai</a> volcano in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, which is the sole example of an active carbonatite volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carbonatites in the geologic record are typically 75% carbonate minerals, with lesser amounts of silica-undersaturated silicate minerals (such as <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">micas</a> and olivine), <a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">apatite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pyrochlore" title="Pyrochlore">pyrochlore</a>. This may not reflect the original composition of the lava, which may have included <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a> that was subsequently removed by hydrothermal activity, though laboratory experiments show that a calcite-rich magma is possible. Carbonatite lavas show <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope_ratio" title="Stable isotope ratio">stable isotope ratios</a> indicating they are derived from the highly alkaline silicic lavas with which they are always associated, probably by separation of an immiscible phase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009396–397_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009396–397-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natrocarbonatite lavas of Ol Doinyo Lengai are composed mostly of sodium carbonate, with about half as much calcium carbonate and half again as much potassium carbonate, and minor amounts of halides, fluorides, and sulphates. The lavas are extremely fluid, with viscosities only slightly greater than water, and are very cool, with measured temperatures of 491 to 544 °C (916 to 1,011 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">Iron oxide</a> magmas are thought to be the source of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a> at <a href="/wiki/Kiruna" title="Kiruna">Kiruna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> which formed during the <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IronOxidelava_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IronOxidelava-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron oxide lavas of <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> age occur at the <a href="/wiki/El_Laco_(volcano)" class="mw-redirect" title="El Laco (volcano)">El Laco</a> volcanic complex on the Chile-Argentina border.<sup id="cite_ref-ChileIronOxideLava_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChileIronOxideLava-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron oxide lavas are thought to be the result of <a href="/wiki/Miscibility" title="Miscibility">immiscible</a> separation of iron oxide magma from a parental magma of <a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline_magma_series" title="Calc-alkaline magma series">calc-alkaline</a> or alkaline composition.<sup id="cite_ref-IronOxidelava_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IronOxidelava-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When erupted, the temperature of the molten iron oxide magma is about 700 to 800 °C (1,292 to 1,472 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Jonsson_etal_2013_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jonsson_etal_2013-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> lava flows up to 250 metres (820 feet) long and 10 metres (33 feet) wide occur at <a href="/wiki/Lastarria" title="Lastarria">Lastarria</a> volcano, Chile. They were formed by the melting of sulfur deposits at temperatures as low as 113 °C (235 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-ChileIronOxideLava_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChileIronOxideLava-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magmatic_gases">Magmatic gases</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">Volcanic gas</a></div> <p>The concentrations of different <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">gases</a> can vary considerably. <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">Water vapor</a> is typically the most abundant magmatic gas, followed by <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>. Other principal magmatic gases include <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">hydrogen chloride</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">hydrogen fluoride</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200342_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200342-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The solubility of magmatic gases in magma depends on pressure, magma composition, and temperature. Magma that is extruded as lava is extremely dry, but magma at depth and under great pressure can contain a dissolved water content in excess of 10%. Water is somewhat less soluble in low-silica magma than high-silica magma, so that at 1,100 °C and 0.5 <a href="/wiki/GPa" class="mw-redirect" title="GPa">GPa</a>, a basaltic magma can dissolve 8% <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</span> while a granite pegmatite magma can dissolve 11% <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009244–250_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009244–250-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, magmas are not necessarily saturated under typical conditions. </p> <table style="border:0px solid black; text-align: left;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th valign="top"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Water concentrations in magmas (wt%)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200344_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200344-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Magma composition </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</span> concentration<br />wt % </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/MORB" class="mw-redirect" title="MORB">MORB</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tholeiite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tholeiite">tholeiites</a>) </td> <td style="text-align: center;">0.1 – 0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Island tholeiite </td> <td style="text-align: center;">0.3 – 0.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Alkali basalts </td> <td style="text-align: center;">0.8 – 1.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Volcanic arc basalts </td> <td style="text-align: center;">2–4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Basanite" title="Basanite">Basanites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">nephelinites</a> </td> <td style="text-align: center;">1.5–2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Island arc andesites and dacites </td> <td style="text-align: center;">1–3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Continental margin andesites and dacites </td> <td style="text-align: center;">2–5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rhyolites </td> <td style="text-align: center;">up to 7 </td></tr></tbody></table> </th></tr></tbody></table> <p>Carbon dioxide is much less soluble in magmas than water, and frequently separates into a distinct fluid phase even at great depth. This explains the presence of carbon dioxide fluid inclusions in crystals formed in magmas at great depth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200344_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200344-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rheology">Rheology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viscosity_of_magma_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Viscosity_of_magma_EN.svg/220px-Viscosity_of_magma_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Viscosity_of_magma_EN.svg/330px-Viscosity_of_magma_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Viscosity_of_magma_EN.svg/440px-Viscosity_of_magma_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Graph showing <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithmic</a> variation of magma viscosity (η) with silica content for three temperatures</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a> is a key melt property in understanding the behaviour of magmas. Whereas temperatures in common silicate lavas range from about 800 °C (1,470 °F) for felsic lavas to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) for mafic lavas,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200920_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200920-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the viscosity of the same lavas ranges over seven orders of magnitude, from 10<sup>4</sup> cP (10 Pa⋅s) for mafic lava to 10<sup>11</sup> cP (10<sup>8</sup> Pa⋅s) for felsic magmas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200920_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200920-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The viscosity is mostly determined by composition but is also dependent on temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tendency of felsic lava to be cooler than mafic lava increases the viscosity difference. </p><p>The silicon ion is small and highly charged, and so it has a strong tendency to <a href="/wiki/Coordination_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordination (chemistry)">coordinate</a> with four oxygen ions, which form a tetrahedral arrangement around the much smaller silicon ion. This is called a <i>silica tetrahedron</i>. In a magma that is low in silicon, these silica tetrahedra are isolated, but as the silicon content increases, silica tetrahedra begin to partially polymerize, forming chains, sheets, and clumps of silica tetrahedra linked by bridging oxygen ions. These greatly increase the viscosity of the magma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200338–41_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200338–41-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Single_tet.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A single silica tetrahedron"><img alt="A single silica tetrahedron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Single_tet.png/119px-Single_tet.png" decoding="async" width="119" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Single_tet.png/179px-Single_tet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Single_tet.png/239px-Single_tet.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="678" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A single silica tetrahedron</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Double_tet.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Two silica tetrahedra joined by a bridging oxygen ion (tinted pink)"><img alt="Two silica tetrahedra joined by a bridging oxygen ion (tinted pink)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Double_tet.png/120px-Double_tet.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Double_tet.png/250px-Double_tet.png 1.5x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="693" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Two silica tetrahedra joined by a bridging oxygen ion (tinted pink)</div> </li> </ul> <p>The tendency towards polymerization is expressed as NBO/T, where NBO is the number of non-bridging oxygen ions and T is the number of network-forming ions. Silicon is the main network-forming ion, but in magmas high in sodium, aluminium also acts as a network former, and ferric iron can act as a network former when other network formers are lacking. Most other metallic ions reduce the tendency to polymerize and are described as network modifiers. In a hypothetical magma formed entirely from melted silica, NBO/T would be 0, while in a hypothetical magma so low in network formers that no polymerization takes place, NBO/T would be 4. Neither extreme is common in nature, but basalt magmas typically have NBO/T between 0.6 and 0.9, andesitic magmas have NBO/T of 0.3 to 0.5, and rhyolitic magmas have NBO/T of 0.02 to 0.2. Water acts as a network modifier, and dissolved water drastically reduces melt viscosity. Carbon dioxide neutralizes network modifiers, so dissolved carbon dioxide increases the viscosity. Higher-temperature melts are less viscous, since more thermal energy is available to break bonds between oxygen and network formers.<sup id="cite_ref-schmincke-2003_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schmincke-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most magmas contain solid crystals of various minerals, fragments of exotic rocks known as <a href="/wiki/Xenolith" title="Xenolith">xenoliths</a> and fragments of previously solidified magma. The crystal content of most magmas gives them <a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">thixotropic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shear_thinning" title="Shear thinning">shear thinning</a> properties.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, most magmas do not behave like Newtonian fluids, in which the rate of flow is proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a>. Instead, a typical magma is a <a href="/wiki/Bingham_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Bingham fluid">Bingham fluid</a>, which shows considerable resistance to flow until a stress threshold, called the yield stress, is crossed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200339–40_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200339–40-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results in <a href="/wiki/Plug_flow" title="Plug flow">plug flow</a> of partially crystalline magma. A familiar example of plug flow is toothpaste squeezed out of a toothpaste tube. The toothpaste comes out as a semisolid plug, because shear is concentrated in a thin layer in the toothpaste next to the tube, and only here does the toothpaste behave as a fluid. Thixotropic behavior also hinders crystals from settling out of the magma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200940_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200940-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the crystal content reaches about 60%, the magma ceases to behave like a fluid and begins to behave like a solid. Such a mixture of crystals with melted rock is sometimes described as <i>crystal mush</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200916_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200916-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Magma is typically also <a href="/wiki/Viscoelasticity" title="Viscoelasticity">viscoelastic</a>, meaning it flows like a liquid under low stresses, but once the applied stress exceeds a critical value, the melt cannot dissipate the stress fast enough through relaxation alone, resulting in transient fracture propagation. Once stresses are reduced below the critical threshold, the melt viscously relaxes once more and heals the fracture.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3></div> <p>Temperatures of molten lava, which is magma extruded onto the surface, are almost all in the range 700 to 1,400 °C (1,300 to 2,600 °F), but very rare <a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">carbonatite</a> magmas may be as cool as 490 °C (910 °F),<sup id="cite_ref-Weidendorfer2017_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weidendorfer2017-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">komatiite</a> magmas may have been as hot as 1,600 °C (2,900 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magma has occasionally been encountered during drilling in geothermal fields, including drilling in Hawaii that penetrated a dacitic magma body at a depth of 2,488 m (8,163 ft). The temperature of this magma was estimated at 1,050 °C (1,920 °F). Temperatures of deeper magmas must be inferred from theoretical computations and the geothermal gradient.<sup id="cite_ref-hawaii-wellfield-dacite_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hawaii-wellfield-dacite-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most magmas contain some solid crystals suspended in the liquid phase. This indicates that the temperature of the magma lies between the <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidus (chemistry)">solidus</a>, which is defined as the temperature at which the magma completely solidifies, and the <a href="/wiki/Liquidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquidus">liquidus</a>, defined as the temperature at which the magma is completely liquid.<sup id="cite_ref-philpotts-ague-phenocrysts_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philpotts-ague-phenocrysts-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calculations of solidus temperatures at likely depths suggests that magma generated beneath areas of rifting starts at a temperature of about 1,300 to 1,500 °C (2,400 to 2,700 °F). Magma generated from mantle plumes may be as hot as 1,600 °C (2,900 °F). The temperature of magma generated in subduction zones, where water vapor lowers the melting temperature, may be as low as 1,060 °C (1,940 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009593–597_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009593–597-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Density">Density</h3></div> <p>Magma densities depend mostly on composition, iron content being the most important parameter.<sup id="cite_ref-mg_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mg-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Density (kg/m<sup>3</sup>) </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basaltic</a> magma</td> <td>2650–2800 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">Andesitic</a> magma</td> <td>2450–2500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">Rhyolitic</a> magma</td> <td>2180–2250 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Magma expands slightly at lower pressure or higher temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-mg_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mg-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When magma approaches the surface, its dissolved gases begin to bubble out of the liquid. These bubbles had significantly reduced the density of the magma at depth and helped drive it toward the surface in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200350_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200350-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <p>The temperature within the interior of the earth is described by the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">geothermal gradient</a>, which is the rate of temperature change with depth. The geothermal gradient is established by the balance between heating through <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> in the Earth's interior and heat loss from the surface of the earth. The geothermal gradient averages about 25 °C/km in the Earth's upper crust, but this varies widely by region, from a low of 5–10 °C/km within oceanic trenches and subduction zones to 30–80 °C/km along <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a> or near <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plumes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gradient becomes less steep with depth, dropping to just 0.25 to 0.3 °C/km in the mantle, where slow convection efficiently transports heat. The average geothermal gradient is not normally steep enough to bring rocks to their melting point anywhere in the crust or upper mantle, so magma is produced only where the geothermal gradient is unusually steep or the melting point of the rock is unusually low. However, the ascent of magma towards the surface in such settings is the most important process for transporting heat through the crust of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue20096–13_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue20096–13-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rocks may melt in response to a decrease in pressure,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to a change in composition (such as an addition of water),<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to an increase in temperature,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or to a combination of these processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009591–599_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009591–599-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other mechanisms, such as melting from a <a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">meteorite impact</a>, are less important today, but impacts during the <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">accretion</a> of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of the early Earth was probably a <a href="/wiki/Magma_ocean" title="Magma ocean">magma ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decompression">Decompression</h3></div> <p>Decompression melting occurs because of a decrease in pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the most important mechanism for producing magma from the upper mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009593_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009593-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidus (chemistry)">solidus</a> temperatures of most rocks (the temperatures below which they are completely solid) increase with increasing pressure in the absence of water. <a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">Peridotite</a> at depth in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a> may be hotter than its solidus temperature at some shallower level. If such rock rises during the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">convection</a> of solid mantle, it will cool slightly as it expands in an <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic process</a>, but the cooling is only about 0.3 °C per kilometer. Experimental studies of appropriate <a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">peridotite</a> samples document that the solidus temperatures increase by 3 °C to 4 °C per kilometer. If the rock rises far enough, it will begin to melt. Melt droplets can coalesce into larger volumes and be intruded upwards. This process of melting from the upward movement of solid mantle is critical in the evolution of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009591–599_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009591–599-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridges" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-ocean ridges">mid-ocean ridges</a>, making it by far the most important source of magma on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009593_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009593-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also causes <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor. Intraplate volcanism is attributed to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plumes</a> or to intraplate extension, with the importance of each mechanism being a topic of continuing research.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_water_and_carbon_dioxide">Effects of water and carbon dioxide</h3></div> <p>The change of rock composition most responsible for the creation of magma is the addition of water. Water lowers the solidus temperature of rocks at a given pressure. For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers, peridotite begins to melt near 800 °C in the presence of excess water, but near 1,500 °C in the absence of water.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water is driven out of the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> in <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zone">subduction zones</a>, and it causes melting in the overlying mantle. Hydrous magmas with the composition of basalt or andesite are produced directly and indirectly as results of dehydration during the subduction process. Such magmas, and those derived from them, build up <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arcs</a> such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Ring of Fire">Pacific Ring of Fire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These magmas form rocks of the <a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Calc-alkaline">calc-alkaline</a> series, an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009374–380_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009374–380-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With low density and viscosity, hydrous magmas are highly buoyant and will move upwards in Earth's mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-Hydrous-magma_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hydrous-magma-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The addition of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> is relatively a much less important cause of magma formation than the addition of water, but genesis of some <a href="/wiki/Normative_mineralogy" title="Normative mineralogy">silica-undersaturated</a> magmas has been attributed to the dominance of carbon dioxide over water in their mantle source regions. In the presence of carbon dioxide, experiments document that the peridotite solidus temperature decreases by about 200 °C in a narrow pressure interval at pressures corresponding to a depth of about 70 km. At greater depths, carbon dioxide can have more effect: at depths to about 200 km, the temperatures of initial melting of a carbonated peridotite composition were determined to be 450 °C to 600 °C lower than for the same composition with no carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magmas of rock types such as <a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">nephelinite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">carbonatite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">kimberlite</a> are among those that may be generated following an influx of carbon dioxide into mantle at depths greater than about 70 km.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009259–261,_394–397_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009259–261,_394–397-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature_increase">Temperature increase</h3></div> <p>Increase in temperature is the most typical mechanism for formation of magma within continental crust. Such temperature increases can occur because of the upward intrusion of magma from the mantle. Temperatures can also exceed the solidus of a crustal rock in continental crust thickened by compression at a <a href="/wiki/Plate_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate boundary">plate boundary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009597–599_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009597–599-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plate boundary between the Indian and Asian continental masses provides a well-studied example, as the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> just north of the boundary has crust about 80 kilometers thick, roughly twice the thickness of normal continental crust. Studies of electrical <a href="/wiki/Resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistivity">resistivity</a> deduced from <a href="/wiki/Magnetotellurics" title="Magnetotellurics">magnetotelluric data</a> have detected a layer that appears to contain <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> melt and that stretches for at least 1,000 kilometers within the middle crust along the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Granite and <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a> are types of igneous rock commonly interpreted as products of the melting of continental crust because of increases in temperature. Temperature increases also may contribute to the melting of <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> dragged down in a subduction zone.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_melting_process">The melting process</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diopside-anorthite_phase_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Diopside-anorthite_phase_diagram.png/250px-Diopside-anorthite_phase_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Diopside-anorthite_phase_diagram.png/330px-Diopside-anorthite_phase_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Diopside-anorthite_phase_diagram.png/500px-Diopside-anorthite_phase_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="612" /></a><figcaption>Phase diagram for the diopside-anorthite system</figcaption></figure><p>When rocks melt, they do so over a range of temperature, because most rocks are made of several <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a>, which all have different melting points. The temperature at which the first melt appears (the solidus) is lower than the melting temperature of any one of the pure minerals. This is similar to the lowering of the melting point of ice when it is mixed with salt. The first melt is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Eutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectic</a></i> and has a composition that depends on the combination of minerals present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009195–197_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009195–197-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Anorthite" title="Anorthite">anorthite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diopside" title="Diopside">diopside</a>, which are two of the predominant minerals in <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, begins to melt at about 1274 °C. This is well below the melting temperatures of 1392 °C for pure diopside and 1553 °C for pure anorthite. The resulting melt is composed of about 43 wt% anorthite.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As additional heat is added to the rock, the temperature remains at 1274 °C until either the anorthite or diopside is fully melted. The temperature then rises as the remaining mineral continues to melt, which shifts the melt composition away from the eutectic. For example, if the content of anorthite is greater than 43%, the entire supply of diopside will melt at 1274 °C., along with enough of the anorthite to keep the melt at the eutectic composition. Further heating causes the temperature to slowly rise as the remaining anorthite gradually melts and the melt becomes increasingly rich in anorthite liquid. If the mixture has only a slight excess of anorthite, this will melt before the temperature rises much above 1274 °C. If the mixture is almost all anorthite, the temperature will reach nearly the melting point of pure anorthite before all the anorthite is melted. If the anorthite content of the mixture is less than 43%, then all the anorthite will melt at the eutectic temperature, along with part of the diopside, and the remaining diopside will then gradually melt as the temperature continues to rise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009195–197_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009195–197-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of eutectic melting, the composition of the melt can be quite different from the source rock. For example, a mixture of 10% anorthite with diopside could experience about 23% partial melting before the melt deviated from the eutectic, which has the composition of about 43% anorthite. This effect of partial melting is reflected in the compositions of different magmas. A low degree of partial melting of the upper mantle (2% to 4%) can produce highly alkaline magmas such as <a href="/wiki/Melilitite" class="mw-redirect" title="Melilitite">melilitites</a>, while a greater degree of partial melting (8% to 11%) can produce alkali olivine basalt.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oceanic magmas likely result from partial melting of 3% to 15% of the source rock.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline_magma_series" title="Calc-alkaline magma series">calk-alkaline</a> <a href="/wiki/Granitoid" title="Granitoid">granitoids</a> may be produced by a high degree of partial melting, as much as 15% to 30%.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-magnesium magmas, such as <a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">komatiite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Picrite" class="mw-redirect" title="Picrite">picrite</a>, may also be the products of a high degree of partial melting of mantle rock.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009400_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009400-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain chemical elements, called <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_element" title="Incompatible element">incompatible elements</a>, have a combination of <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic charge">ionic charge</a> that is unlike that of the more abundant elements in the source rock. The ions of these elements fit rather poorly in the structure of the minerals making up the source rock, and readily leave the solid minerals to become highly concentrated in melts produced by a low degree of partial melting. Incompatible elements commonly include <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a>, which are large and weakly charged (the large-ion lithophile elements, or LILEs), as well as elements whose ions carry a high charge (the high-field-strength elements, or HSFEs), which include such elements as <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare-earth elements">rare-earth elements</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinides</a>. Potassium can become so enriched in melt produced by a very low degree of partial melting that, when the magma subsequently cools and solidifies, it forms unusual potassic rock such as <a href="/wiki/Lamprophyre" title="Lamprophyre">lamprophyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lamproite" title="Lamproite">lamproite</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">kimberlite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-albarede_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-albarede-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When enough rock is melted, the small globules of melt (generally occurring between mineral grains) link up and soften the rock. Under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent of partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melt rapidly separates from its source rock once the degree of partial melting exceeds 30%. However, usually much less than 30% of a magma source rock is melted before the heat supply is exhausted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009400,_599_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009400,_599-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">Pegmatite</a> may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>-composition magmas are <a href="/wiki/Eutectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic">eutectic</a> (or cotectic) melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of partial melting of the crust, as well as by <a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)" title="Fractional crystallization (geology)">fractional crystallization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_magmas">Evolution of magmas</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fractional_crystallization.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fractional_crystallization.svg/400px-Fractional_crystallization.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fractional_crystallization.svg/600px-Fractional_crystallization.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fractional_crystallization.svg/800px-Fractional_crystallization.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagrams showing the principles behind <a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)" title="Fractional crystallization (geology)">fractional crystallisation</a> in a magma. While cooling, the magma evolves in composition because different minerals crystallize from the melt. <b>1</b>: <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> crystallizes; <b>2</b>: olivine and <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a> crystallize; <b>3</b>: pyroxene and <a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">plagioclase</a> crystallize; <b>4</b>: plagioclase crystallizes. At the bottom of the magma reservoir, a <a href="/wiki/Cumulate_rock" title="Cumulate rock">cumulate rock</a> forms.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Igneous_differentiation" title="Igneous differentiation">Igneous differentiation</a></div> <p>Most <a href="/wiki/Magmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Magmas">magmas</a> are fully melted only for small parts of their histories. More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-schmincke-2003_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schmincke-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009321_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009321-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As magma cools, minerals typically <a href="/wiki/Crystallize" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystallize">crystallize</a> from the melt at different temperatures. This resembles the original melting process in reverse. However, because the melt has usually separated from its original source rock and moved to a shallower depth, the reverse process of crystallization is not precisely identical. For example, if a melt was 50% each of diopside and anorthite, then anorthite would begin crystallizing from the melt at a temperature somewhat higher than the eutectic temperature of 1274 °C. This shifts the remaining melt towards its eutectic composition of 43% diopside. The eutectic is reached at 1274 °C, the temperature at which diopside and anorthite begin crystallizing together. If the melt was 90% diopside, the diopside would begin crystallizing first until the eutectic was reached.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009200_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009200-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the crystals remained suspended in the melt, the crystallization process would not change the overall composition of the melt plus solid minerals. This situation is described as <i>equillibrium crystallization</i>. However, in a series of experiments culminating in his 1915 paper, <i>Crystallization-differentiation in silicate liquids</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bowen1915_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowen1915-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Norman_L._Bowen" title="Norman L. Bowen">Norman L. Bowen</a> demonstrated that crystals of <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> and diopside that crystallized out of a cooling melt of <a href="/wiki/Forsterite" title="Forsterite">forsterite</a>, diopside, and silica would sink through the melt on geologically relevant time scales. Geologists subsequently found considerable field evidence of such <i><a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)" title="Fractional crystallization (geology)">fractional crystallization</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009321_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009321-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When crystals separate from a magma, then the residual magma will differ in composition from the parent magma. For instance, a magma of gabbroic composition can produce a residual melt of <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granitic</a> composition if early formed crystals are separated from the magma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009378_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009378-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gabbro may have a <a href="/wiki/Liquidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquidus">liquidus</a> temperature near 1,200 °C,<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the derivative granite-composition melt may have a liquidus temperature as low as about 700 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_element" title="Incompatible element">Incompatible elements</a> are concentrated in the last residues of magma during fractional crystallization and in the first melts produced during partial melting: either process can form the magma that crystallizes to <a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">pegmatite</a>, a rock type commonly enriched in incompatible elements. <a href="/wiki/Bowen%27s_reaction_series" title="Bowen's reaction series">Bowen's reaction series</a> is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009321_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009321-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Magma composition can be determined by processes other than partial melting and fractional crystallization. For instance, magmas commonly interact with rocks they intrude, both by melting those rocks and by reacting with them. Assimilation near the roof of a magma chamber and fractional crystallization near its base can even take place simultaneously. Magmas of different compositions can mix with one another. In rare cases, melts can separate into two immiscible melts of contrasting compositions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009340–345,_347–356_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009340–345,_347–356-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_magmas">Primary magmas</h3></div> <p>When rock melts, the liquid is a <i>primary magma</i>. Primary magmas have not undergone any differentiation and represent the starting composition of a magma.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, it is difficult to unambiguously identify primary magmas,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009316_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009316-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though it has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Boninite" title="Boninite">boninite</a> is a variety of andesite crystallized from a primary magma.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Dyke" title="Great Dyke">Great Dyke</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> has also been interpreted as rock crystallized from a primary magma.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Leucosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leucosomes">leucosomes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Migmatite" title="Migmatite">migmatites</a> as primary magmas is contradicted by zircon data, which suggests leucosomes are a residue (a <a href="/wiki/Cumulate_rock" title="Cumulate rock">cumulate rock</a>) left by extraction of a primary magma.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parental_magma">Parental magma</h3></div> <p>When it is impossible to find the primitive or primary magma composition, it is often useful to attempt to identify a parental magma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009316_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009316-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A parental magma is a magma composition from which the observed range of magma chemistries has been derived by the processes of <a href="/wiki/Igneous_differentiation" title="Igneous differentiation">igneous differentiation</a>. It need not be a primitive melt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"Parental_magma"_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"Parental_magma"-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For instance, a series of basalt flows are assumed to be related to one another. A composition from which they could reasonably be produced by fractional crystallization is termed a <i>parental magma</i>. Fractional crystallization models would be produced to test the hypothesis that they share a common parental magma.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Migration_and_solidification">Migration and solidification</h2></div> <p>Magma develops within the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> where the temperature and pressure conditions favor the molten state. After its formation, magma buoyantly rises toward the Earth's surface, due to its lower density than the source rock.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200980_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200980-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As it migrates through the crust, magma may collect and reside in <a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">magma chambers</a> (though recent work suggests that magma may be stored in trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones rather than dominantly liquid magma chambers <sup id="cite_ref-Sparks_2017_35–40_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sparks_2017_35–40-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Magma can remain in a chamber until it either cools and crystallizes to form <a href="/wiki/Intrusive_rock" title="Intrusive rock">intrusive rock</a>, it erupts as a <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a>, or it moves into another magma chamber.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plutonism">Plutonism</h3></div> <p>When magma cools it begins to form solid mineral phases. Some of these settle at the bottom of the magma chamber forming <a href="/wiki/Cumulate_rock" title="Cumulate rock">cumulates</a> that might form mafic <a href="/wiki/Layered_intrusion" title="Layered intrusion">layered intrusions</a>. Magma that cools slowly within a magma chamber usually ends up forming bodies of plutonic rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">gabbro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">diorite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>, depending upon the composition of the magma. Alternatively, if the magma is erupted it forms <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">volcanic rocks</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">andesite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a> (the extrusive equivalents of gabbro, diorite and granite, respectively).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanism">Volcanism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">Volcanism</a></div> <p>Magma that is extruded onto the surface during a volcanic eruption is called <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>. Lava cools and solidifies relatively quickly compared to underground bodies of magma. This fast cooling does not allow crystals to grow large, and a part of the melt does not crystallize at all, becoming glass. Rocks largely composed of volcanic glass include <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">scoria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a>. </p><p>Before and during volcanic eruptions, <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatiles</a> such as CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O partially leave the melt through a process known as <a href="/wiki/Exsolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Exsolution">exsolution</a>. Magma with low water content becomes increasingly <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a>. If massive exsolution occurs when magma heads upwards during a volcanic eruption, the resulting eruption is usually explosive.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_energy_production">Use in energy production</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Iceland_Deep_Drilling_Project" title="Iceland Deep Drilling Project">Iceland Deep Drilling Project</a>, while drilling several 5,000 m holes in an attempt to harness the heat in the volcanic bedrock below the surface of Iceland, struck a pocket of magma at 2,100 m in 2009. Because this was only the third time in recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the hole, naming it IDDP-1.<sup id="cite_ref-Geothermics_Magazine,_Vol._49_(January_2014)_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geothermics_Magazine,_Vol._49_(January_2014)-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A cemented steel case was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the bottom close to the magma. The high temperatures and pressure of the magma steam were used to generate 36 MW of power, making IDDP-1 the world's first magma-enhanced geothermal system.<sup id="cite_ref-Geothermics_Magazine,_Vol._49_(January_2014)_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geothermics_Magazine,_Vol._49_(January_2014)-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-MerriamWebsterDict-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MerriamWebsterDict_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/magma">"magma"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=magma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fmagma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMagma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowen1947" class="citation journal cs1">Bowen, Norman L. (1947). 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(1979-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/petrology/article-abstract/20/3/487/1515390">"Crystallization and Layering of the Skaergaard Intrusion"</a>. <i>Journal of Petrology</i>. <b>20</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">487–</span>554. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979JPet...20..487M">1979JPet...20..487M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpetrology%2F20.3.487">10.1093/petrology/20.3.487</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3530">0022-3530</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Petrology&rft.atitle=Crystallization+and+Layering+of+the+Skaergaard+Intrusion&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E487-%3C%2Fspan%3E554&rft.date=1979-08-01&rft.issn=0022-3530&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpetrology%2F20.3.487&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979JPet...20..487M&rft.aulast=MCBIRNEY&rft.aufirst=A.+R.&rft.au=NOYES%2C+R.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fpetrology%2Farticle-abstract%2F20%2F3%2F487%2F1515390&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMagma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marshak-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marshak_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarshak,_Stephen2016" class="citation book cs1">Marshak, Stephen (2016). <i>Essentials of Geology</i> (5th ed.). 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Physorg (December 16, 2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agu.org/meetings/fm08/fm08-sessions/fm08_V23A.html">Puna Dacite Magma at Kilauea: Unexpected Drilling Into an Active Magma Posters</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606070122/http://www.agu.org/meetings/fm08/fm08-sessions/fm08_V23A.html">Archived</a> 2011-06-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2008 Eos Trans. 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241044499">"Geological, Geographical and Legal Considerations for the Conservation of Unique Iron Oxide and Sulphur Flows at El Laco and Lastarria Volcanic Complexes, Central Andes, Northern Chile"</a>. <i>Geoheritage</i>. <b>3</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">99–</span>315. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Geohe...3..299G">2011Geohe...3..299G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12371-011-0045-x">10.1007/s12371-011-0045-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129179725">129179725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoheritage&rft.atitle=Geological%2C+Geographical+and+Legal+Considerations+for+the+Conservation+of+Unique+Iron+Oxide+and+Sulphur+Flows+at+El+Laco+and+Lastarria+Volcanic+Complexes%2C+Central+Andes%2C+Northern+Chile&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E315&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129179725%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12371-011-0045-x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Geohe...3..299G&rft.au=Guij%C3%B3n%2C+R.&rft.au=Henr%C3%ADquez%2C+F.&rft.au=Naranjo%2C+J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F241044499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMagma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IronOxidelava-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IronOxidelava_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IronOxidelava_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IronOxidelava_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarlov,_D.E.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Harlov, D.E.; et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235632335">"Apatite–monazite relations in the Kiirunavaara magnetite–apatite ore, northern Sweden"</a>. <i>Chemical Geology</i>. <b>191</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">47–</span>72. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ChGeo.191...47H">2002ChGeo.191...47H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0009-2541%2802%2900148-1">10.1016/s0009-2541(02)00148-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Geology&rft.atitle=Apatite%E2%80%93monazite+relations+in+the+Kiirunavaara+magnetite%E2%80%93apatite+ore%2C+northern+Sweden&rft.volume=191&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0009-2541%2802%2900148-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002ChGeo.191...47H&rft.au=Harlov%2C+D.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F235632335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMagma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200919,_131-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200919,_131_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhilpottsAgue2009">Philpotts & Ague 2009</a>, pp. 19, 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009132–133-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue2009132–133_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhilpottsAgue2009">Philpotts & Ague 2009</a>, pp. 132–133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCasqWright1987" class="citation book cs1">Casq, R.A.F.; Wright, J.V. 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Geological Society of America Special Papers. <b>212</b>: <span class="nowrap">119–</span>145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FSPE212-p119">10.1130/SPE212-p119</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8137-2212-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8137-2212-8"><bdi>0-8137-2212-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Society+of+America+Special+Paper&rft.atitle=Physical+features+of+rhyolite+lava+flows+in+the+Snake+River+Plain+volcanic+province%2C+southwestern+Idaho&rft.volume=212&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FSPE212-p119&rft.isbn=0-8137-2212-8&rft.aulast=Bonnichsen&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Kauffman%2C+D.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMagma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke200321–24,_132,_143-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke200321–24,_132,_143_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmincke2003">Schmincke 2003</a>, pp. 21–24, 132, 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–611-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–611_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhilpottsAgue2009">Philpotts & Ague 2009</a>, pp. 23–611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTakeuchi2011" class="citation journal cs1">Takeuchi, Shingo (5 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011JB008243">"Preeruptive magma viscosity: An important measure of magma eruptibility"</a>. <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>116</b> (B10): B10201. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JGRB..11610201T">2011JGRB..11610201T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011JB008243">10.1029/2011JB008243</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Preeruptive+magma+viscosity%3A+An+important+measure+of+magma+eruptibility&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=B10&rft.pages=B10201&rft.date=2011-10-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2011JB008243&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011JGRB..11610201T&rft.aulast=Takeuchi&rft.aufirst=Shingo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2011JB008243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMagma" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue20091376–377-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue20091376–377_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhilpottsAgue2009">Philpotts & Ague 2009</a>, pp. 1376–377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–25-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200923–25_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhilpottsAgue2009">Philpotts & Ague 2009</a>, pp. 23–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200953-55,_59-64-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhilpottsAgue200953-55,_59-64_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhilpottsAgue2009">Philpotts & Ague 2009</a>, p. 53-55, 59-64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmincke2003128–132-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmincke2003128–132_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmincke2003">Schmincke 2003</a>, pp. 128–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Condie1994-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Condie1994_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArndt,_N.T.1994" class="citation book cs1">Arndt, N.T. 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFBF00;">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)" title="Fractional crystallization (geology)">Fractional crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_differentiation#Assimilation" title="Igneous differentiation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_differentiation#Magma_mixing" title="Igneous differentiation">Magma mixing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Magma_mingling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magma mingling (page does not exist)">Magma mingling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exsolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Exsolution">Exsolution</a> of gases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">Outgassing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_melting" title="Partial melting">Partial melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorogenic_magmatism" title="Anorogenic magmatism">Anorogenic magmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_melting" title="Flux melting">Flux melting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #FFBF00;">Surface manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">Igneous rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal systems">Geothermal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">Geothermal gradient</a> anomalies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">Volcanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_volcanic_eruptions120" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Template:Types of volcanic eruptions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Template talk:Types of volcanic eruptions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Types of volcanic eruptions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_volcanic_eruptions120" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">Types of volcanic eruptions</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Magmatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_eruption" title="Hawaiian eruption">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pel%C3%A9an_eruption" title="Peléan eruption">Peléan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plinian_eruption" title="Plinian eruption">Plinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strombolian_eruption" title="Strombolian eruption">Strombolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanian_eruption" title="Vulcanian eruption">Vulcanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phreatomagmatic_eruption" title="Phreatomagmatic eruption">Phreatomagmatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subglacial_eruption" title="Subglacial eruption">Subglacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_eruption" title="Submarine eruption">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surtseyan_eruption" title="Surtseyan eruption">Surtseyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phreatic" title="Phreatic">Phreatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phreatic_eruption" title="Phreatic eruption">Phreatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effusive_eruption" title="Effusive eruption">Effusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive_eruption" title="Explosive eruption">Explosive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flank_eruption" title="Flank eruption">Flank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_eruption" title="Lateral eruption">Lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">Limnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaerial_eruption" title="Subaerial eruption">Subaerial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4168516-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Magmas"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh93003913">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562243">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="magma"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph122541&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007563585805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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[\"CITEREFGroveChatterjeeParmanMedard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuijón,_R.Henríquez,_F.Naranjo,_J.A.2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaase1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarlov,_D.E.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisInger1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerzbergAsimowArndtNiu2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHomrighausenGeldmacherHoernleRooney2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesPricePriceDeCarli2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonssonTrollHögdahlHarris2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellerKrafft1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurodaShirakiUrano1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuthJahnsTuttle1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMCBIRNEYNOYES1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshak,_Stephen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoecherSamsonMiller2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsbornTait1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPedoneAiuppaGiudiceGrassa2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilpottsAgue2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPinkertonBagdassarov2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards,_M._A.Duncan,_R._A.Courtillot,_V._E.1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmincke2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoenbergNäglerGnosKramers2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSparksCashman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpera2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakeuchi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeplowMarshHulenSpielman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThyTegnerLesher2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTonksMelosh1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnsworth2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWadsworthWitcherVossenHess2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeidendorferSchmidtMattsson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilfred_Allan_Elders,_Guðmundur_Ómar_Friðleifsson_and_Bjarni_Pálsson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWyllieHuang1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZouZindler1996\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Chem2\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite Merriam-Webster\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 43,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 14,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 8,\n [\"Etymology\"] = 1,\n [\"Grc-transl\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Magmatic processes\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Pie chart\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 53,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sup\"] = 1,\n [\"Types of volcanic eruptions\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Wikt-lang\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nvalue too small\t0\tP\u003Csub\u003E2\u003C/sub\u003EO\u003Csub\u003E5\u003C/sub\u003E (0%)\nvalue too small\t0\tMnO (0%)\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-65bf7dbd64-mn2sr","timestamp":"20250325193241","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Magma","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magma","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q42278","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q42278","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-25T15:43:11Z","dateModified":"2024-10-31T19:47:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/07\/Earth_poster.svg","headline":"mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles and solids that is found beneath the surface of the Earth"}</script> </body> </html>