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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analgesic_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analgesic_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Analgesic research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analgesic_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catecholamine_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catecholamine_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Catecholamine research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catecholamine_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pineal_gland_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pineal_gland_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Pineal gland research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pineal_gland_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Awards and honors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_trainees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_trainees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research trainees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_trainees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Personal life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Political views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Julius Axelrod</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يوليوس أكسلرود – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يوليوس أكسلرود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="جولیوس اکسلراد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جولیوس اکسلراد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A1" title="জুলিয়াস অ্যাক্সেলরড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জুলিয়াস অ্যাক্সেলরড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Джуліус Аксельрад – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джуліус Аксельрад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82_%CE%86%CE%BE%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84" title="Τζούλιους Άξελροντ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζούλιους Άξελροντ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="جولیوس اکسلراد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جولیوس اکسلراد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A5%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A1,_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8" title="ॲक्सलरॉड, ज्यूल्यस – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="ॲक्सलरॉड, ज्यूल्यस" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%96%B4%EC%8A%A4_%EC%95%A1%EC%84%A4%EB%A1%9C%EB%93%9C" title="줄리어스 액설로드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="줄리어스 액설로드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%93" title="ג'וליוס אקסלרוד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'וליוס אקסלרוד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Джулиус Аксельрод – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джулиус Аксельрод" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iulius_Axelrod" title="Iulius Axelrod – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iulius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ჯულიუს აქსელროდი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯულიუს აქსელროდი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يوليوس اكسلرود – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="يوليوس اكسلرود" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="جولیوس اکسلراد – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جولیوس اکسلراد" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Жулиус Аксельрод – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Жулиус Аксельрод" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A5%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AD%E3%83%83%E3%83%89" title="ジュリアス・アクセルロッド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジュリアス・アクセルロッド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%88" title="جولیس ایکسلراڈ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جولیس ایکسلراڈ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81" title="Аксельрод, Джулиус – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аксельрод, Джулиус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%86%D8%B3_%D8%A6%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%86%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="یۆلیۆس ئەکسلۆرد – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یۆلیۆس ئەکسلۆرد" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%96%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Җулиус Акселрод – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Җулиус Акселрод" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Ҷулиус Акселрод – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷулиус Акселрод" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Julius Axelrod" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Julius Axelrod</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Axelrod01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Axelrod01.jpg/220px-Axelrod01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Axelrod01.jpg/330px-Axelrod01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Axelrod01.jpg/440px-Axelrod01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="927" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1912-05-30</span>)</span>May 30, 1912<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">December 29, 2004<span style="display:none">(2004-12-29)</span> (aged 92)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Bethesda,_Maryland" title="Bethesda, Maryland">Bethesda, Maryland</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">MS</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">Catecholamine</a> metabolism</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Sally Taub</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1938; died 1992)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">Two sons - Paul and Alfred</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a> (1979)<sup id="cite_ref-formemrs_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-formemrs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Brodie_(biochemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Brodie (biochemist)">Bernard Brodie</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Julius Axelrod</b> (May 30, 1912 – December 29, 2004)<sup id="cite_ref-formemrs_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-formemrs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was an American <a href="/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist">biochemist</a>. He won a share of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1970 along with <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Committee" title="Nobel Committee">Nobel Committee</a> honored him for his work on the release and reuptake of <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamine</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a>, a class of chemicals in the brain that include <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a>, and, as was later discovered, <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>. Axelrod also made major contributions to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_pineal_gland" title="History of the pineal gland">understanding</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a> and how it is regulated during the sleep-wake cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education_and_early_life">Education and early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Education and early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Axelrod was born in New York City, the son of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Jewish</a> immigrants from <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Poland</a>, Molly (née Leichtling) and Isadore Axelrod, a basket weaver.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received his bachelor's degree in biology from the <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">College of the City of New York</a> in 1933. Axelrod wanted to become a physician, but was rejected from every <a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">medical school</a> to which he applied. He worked briefly as a laboratory technician at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a>, then in 1935 he got a job with the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Health_and_Mental_Hygiene" title="New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene">New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene</a> testing <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_supplement" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin supplement">vitamin supplements</a> added to food. While working at the Department of Health, he attended night school and received his master's in sciences degree from <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> in 1941. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analgesic_research">Analgesic research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Analgesic research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1946, Axelrod took a position working under <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Brodie_(biochemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Brodie (biochemist)">Bernard Brodie</a> at <a href="/wiki/Goldwater_Memorial_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Goldwater Memorial Hospital">Goldwater Memorial Hospital</a>. The research experience and mentorship Axelrod received from Brodie would launch him on his research career. Brodie and Axelrod's research focused on how <a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">analgesics</a> (pain-killers) work. During the 1940s, users of non-<a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a> analgesics were developing a blood condition known as <a href="/wiki/Methemoglobinemia" title="Methemoglobinemia">methemoglobinemia</a>. Axelrod and Brodie discovered that <a href="/wiki/Acetanilide" title="Acetanilide">acetanilide</a>, the main ingredient of these pain-killers, was to blame. They found that one of the metabolites also was an analgesic. They recommended that this metabolite, <a href="/wiki/Acetaminophen" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetaminophen">acetaminophen</a> (paracetamol, Tylenol), be used instead. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catecholamine_research">Catecholamine research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Catecholamine research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Axelrod.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Julius Axelrod working at the blackboard on the structure of catecholamines" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Axelrod.jpg/220px-Axelrod.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Axelrod.jpg/330px-Axelrod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Axelrod.jpg/440px-Axelrod.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5754" data-file-height="4610" /></a><figcaption>Julius Axelrod working at the blackboard on the structure of catecholamines in 1976</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1949, Axelrod began work at the National Heart Institute, forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/National_Heart,_Lung,_and_Blood_Institute" title="National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute">National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute</a> (NHLBI), part of the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (NIH). He examined the mechanisms and effects of <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>, which led him to an interest in the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> and its main neurotransmitters, epinephrine and norepinephrine. During this time, Axelrod also conducted research on <a href="/wiki/Codeine" title="Codeine">codeine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">methamphetamine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ephedrine" title="Ephedrine">ephedrine</a> and performed some of the first experiments on <a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a>. Realizing that he could not advance his career without a PhD, he took a leave of absence from the NIH in 1954 to attend <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University_Medical_School" class="mw-redirect" title="George Washington University Medical School">George Washington University Medical School</a>. Allowed to submit some of his previous research toward his degree, he graduated one year later, in 1955. Axelrod then returned to the NIH and began some of the key research of his career. </p><p>Axelrod received his Nobel Prize for his work on the release, reuptake, and storage of the neurotransmitters <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a>, also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline. Working on <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase" title="Monoamine oxidase">monoamine oxidase</a> (MAO) inhibitors in 1957, Axelrod showed that catecholamine neurotransmitters do not merely stop working after they are released into the <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a>. Instead, neurotransmitters are recaptured ("reuptake") by the pre-synaptic nerve ending, and recycled for later transmissions. He theorized that epinephrine is held in tissues in an inactive form and is liberated by the nervous system when needed. This research laid the groundwork for later <a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor">selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors</a> (SSRIs), such as <a href="/wiki/Prozac" class="mw-redirect" title="Prozac">Prozac</a>, which block the reuptake of another neurotransmitter, serotonin. </p><p>In 1958, Axelrod also discovered and characterized the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Catechol-O-methyl_transferase" class="mw-redirect" title="Catechol-O-methyl transferase">catechol-O-methyl transferase</a>, which is involved in the breakdown of catecholamines.<sup id="cite_ref-urlEnzymatic_O-Methylation_of_Epinephrine_and_Other_Catechols_--_Axelrod_and_Tomchick_233_(3):_702_--_Journal_of_Biological_Chemistry_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlEnzymatic_O-Methylation_of_Epinephrine_and_Other_Catechols_--_Axelrod_and_Tomchick_233_(3):_702_--_Journal_of_Biological_Chemistry-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pineal_gland_research">Pineal gland research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pineal gland research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of Axelrod's later research focused on the pineal gland. He and his colleagues showed that the hormone <a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">melatonin</a> is generated from <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a>, as is the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>. The rates of synthesis and release follows the body's <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a> driven by the <a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>. Axelrod and colleagues went on to show that melatonin had wide-ranging effects throughout the central nervous system, allowing the pineal gland to function as a biological clock. He was elected a Fellow of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He continued to work at the National Institute of Mental Health at the NIH until his death in 2004. </p><p>Many of his papers and awards are held at the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library of Medicine">National Library of Medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Awards and honors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Axelrod was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a> in 1967 and the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1970. He was elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1979" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1979">Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1979</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-formemrs_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-formemrs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1992, he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Ralph_W._Gerard_Prize_in_Neuroscience" title="Ralph W. Gerard Prize in Neuroscience">Ralph W. Gerard Prize in Neuroscience</a>. He was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_trainees">Research trainees</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Research trainees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Snyder" class="mw-redirect" title="Solomon Snyder">Solomon Snyder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Kopin" title="Irwin Kopin">Irwin Kopin</a>, Ronald W. Holz, Rudi Schmid, Bruce R. Conklin, Ron M. Burch, Juan M. Saavedra, Marty Zatz, Michael Brownstein, Chris Felder, Lewis Landsberg, Robert Kanterman, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wurtman" title="Richard Wurtman">Richard J. Wurtman</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Axelrod injured his left eye when an <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> bottle in the lab exploded; he would wear an <a href="/wiki/Eyepatch" title="Eyepatch">eyepatch</a> for the rest of his life. Although he became an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a> early in life and resented the strict upbringing of his parents' <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, he identified with Jewish culture and joined several international fights against <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His wife of 53 years, Sally Taub Axelrod, died in 1992. At his death, on December 29, 2004, he was survived by two sons, Paul and Alfred, and three grandchildren. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_views">Political views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Political views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After receiving the Nobel Prize in 1970, Axelrod used his visibility to advocate several science policy issues. In 1973 U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> created an agency with the specific goal of curing cancer. Axelrod, along with fellow Nobel-laureates <a href="/wiki/Marshall_W._Nirenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshall W. Nirenberg">Marshall W. Nirenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Anfinsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Anfinsen">Christian Anfinsen</a>, organized a petition by scientists opposed to the new agency, arguing that by focusing solely on cancer, public funding would not be available for research into other, more solvable, medical problems. Axelrod also lent his name to several protests against the imprisonment of scientists in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Axelrod was a member of the Board of Sponsors of the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a> and the International Academy of Science, Munich. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">List of Jewish Nobel laureates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-formemrs-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-formemrs_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-formemrs_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-formemrs_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFIversen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Iversen, L. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Jewish+Recipients+of+the+Nobel+Prize&rft.pub=Fau.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fau.edu%2Flibrary%2Fnobel20.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlEnzymatic_O-Methylation_of_Epinephrine_and_Other_Catechols_--_Axelrod_and_Tomchick_233_(3):_702_--_Journal_of_Biological_Chemistry-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlEnzymatic_O-Methylation_of_Epinephrine_and_Other_Catechols_--_Axelrod_and_Tomchick_233_(3):_702_--_Journal_of_Biological_Chemistry_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomchickAxelrod1958" class="citation journal cs1">Tomchick, Robert; Axelrod, Julius (September 1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/233/3/702">"Enzymatic O-Methylation of Epinephrine and Other Catechols – Axelrod and Tomchick 233 (3): 702 – Journal of Biological Chemistry"</a>. <i>Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. <b>233</b> (3): 702–705. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2964731-3">10.1016/S0021-9258(18)64731-3</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biological+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Enzymatic+O-Methylation+of+Epinephrine+and+Other+Catechols+%E2%80%93+Axelrod+and+Tomchick+233+%283%29%3A+702+%E2%80%93+Journal+of+Biological+Chemistry&rft.volume=233&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=702-705&rft.date=1958-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2818%2964731-3&rft.aulast=Tomchick&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Axelrod%2C+Julius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jbc.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F233%2F3%2F702&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf">"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Academy of Arts and Sciences<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 28,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+of+Members%2C+1780%E2%80%932010%3A+Chapter+A&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fpublications%2FBookofMembers%2FChapterA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oculus.nlm.nih.gov/axelrod">"Julius Axelrod Papers 1910-2004 (bulk 1946-1999)"</a>. National Library of Medicine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Julius+Axelrod+Papers+1910-2004+%28bulk+1946-1999%29&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Medicine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foculus.nlm.nih.gov%2Faxelrod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Julius+Axelrod&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. <i>search.amphilsoc.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.amphilsoc.org&rft.atitle=APS+Member+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3DJulius%2BAxelrod%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraver2008" class="citation book cs1">Craver, Carl F. (2008). "Axelrod, Julius". <i>Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>. Vol. 19. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 122.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Axelrod%2C+Julius&rft.btitle=Complete+Dictionary+of+Scientific+Biography&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Craver&rft.aufirst=Carl+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/HH/">The Julius Axelrod Papers</a> – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2007" class="citation journal cs1">Snyder, S. H. (2007). "Julius Axelrod". <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>151</b> (1): 81–90. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18175546">18175546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Julius+Axelrod&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-90&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18175546&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInsel2006" class="citation journal cs1">Insel, T. R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1232794">"Introduction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cellular_and_Molecular_Neurobiology" title="Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology">Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (4–6): 4 p preceding 343, 343–1055. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10571-006-9074-4">10.1007/s10571-006-9074-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16758321">16758321</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264005277">264005277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cellular+and+Molecular+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4%E2%80%936&rft.pages=4+p+preceding+343%2C+343-1055&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264005277%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16758321&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10571-006-9074-4&rft.aulast=Insel&rft.aufirst=T.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1232794&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Julius Axelrod (1912-2004)". <i>Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology</i>. <b>49</b> (2): 251–252. 2005. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16247945">16247945</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Physiology+and+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Julius+Axelrod+%281912-2004%29&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=251-252&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16247945&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIversen1992" class="citation journal cs1">Iversen, L. (1992). "Remembrance: Leslie L. Iversen, Merck Sharp & Dohme Research Laboratories, Neuroscience Research Centre, Harlow, England. "The Axelrod Lab, 1964-1965"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Endocrinology</i>. <b>131</b> (1): 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fendo.131.1.1612020">10.1210/endo.131.1.1612020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1612020">1612020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Endocrinology&rft.atitle=Remembrance%3A+Leslie+L.+Iversen%2C+Merck+Sharp+%26+Dohme+Research+Laboratories%2C+Neuroscience+Research+Centre%2C+Harlow%2C+England.+%22The+Axelrod+Lab%2C+1964-1965%22&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1210%2Fendo.131.1.1612020&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1612020&rft.aulast=Iversen&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaavedra1988" class="citation journal cs1">Saavedra, Juan M. (1988). "Special issue: Tribute to Julius Axelrod on the occasion of his 75th birthday". <i><a href="/wiki/Cellular_and_Molecular_Neurobiology" title="Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology">Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology</a></i>. <b>8</b> (1): 1–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00712919">10.1007/bf00712919</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3042140">3042140</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11440945">11440945</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cellular+and+Molecular+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Special+issue%3A+Tribute+to+Julius+Axelrod+on+the+occasion+of+his+75th+birthday&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-138&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11440945%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3042140&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00712919&rft.aulast=Saavedra&rft.aufirst=Juan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnon1970" class="citation journal cs1">Anon (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F228304a0">"Nobel Prizes: Neurophysiologists Honoured (Ulf von Euler, Julius Axelrod, Bernard Katz)"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>228</b> (5269): 304. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F228304a0">10.1038/228304a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4319740">4319740</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43451577">43451577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Nobel+Prizes%3A+Neurophysiologists+Honoured+%28Ulf+von+Euler%2C+Julius+Axelrod%2C+Bernard+Katz%29&rft.volume=228&rft.issue=5269&rft.pages=304&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43451577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4319740&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F228304a0&rft.au=Anon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F228304a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulius+Axelrod" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1970/axelrod-bio.html">Nobel Prize Biography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/history_of_neuroscience/hon_vol_1/c2.pdf">Autobiography (for Society for Neuroscience; 2.2MB pdf)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120307154525/http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/history_of_neuroscience/hon_vol_1/c2.pdf">Archived</a> March 7, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oculus.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/f/findaid/findaid-idx?c=nlmfindaid;id=navbarbrowselink;cginame=findaid-idx;cc=nlmfindaid;view=reslist;subview=standard;didno=axelrod">Julius Axelrod Papers (1910–2004)</a> – National Library of Medicine finding aid</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A35661-2004Dec29.html">Obituary</a> at <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">washingtonpost.com</a></li> <li>Kanigel, Robert, "Apprentice to Genius" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-4757-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-4757-5">0-8018-4757-5</a>.</li> <li>Sabbatini, R.M.E.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n17/history/neurons5_i.htm">Neurons and synapses. The history of its discovery IV. Chemical transmission</a>. <i>Brain & Mind</i>, 2004.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/axelrod-julius.pdf">National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192225/http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/PDF_Archive/1991%20pdfs/19910219.pdf">Interview with Dr. Axelrod in the NIH Record</a>, Feb. 19, 1991</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julius_Axelrod&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/396">Julius Axelrod</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil Behring</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Finsen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Alphonse Laveran</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Emil Kocher</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Albrecht Kossel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3bert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" class="mw-redirect" title="Róbert Bárány">Róbert Bárány</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1915</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1917</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1918</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Jules Bordet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1921</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Otto Meyerhof</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1925</span></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Johannes Fibiger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Christiaan Eijkman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1931: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Warburg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Adrian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1934: <a href="/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William Murphy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Hans Spemann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Heymans</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Henrik Dam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Edward Doisy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Muller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">Carl Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Paul Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Hench</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Lipmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Weller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Robbins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Theorell" title="Hugo Theorell">Hugo Theorell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Cournand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Edward Tatum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Burnet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Konrad Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Feodor_Lynen" title="Feodor Lynen">Feodor Lynen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Rous</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Charles B. Huggins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> / <a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Hartline</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Khorana</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Julius Axelrod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland_Jr." title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.">Earl Sutherland Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Albert Claude</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Christian de Duve</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Palade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Temin</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Blumberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Daniel Gajdusek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew Schally</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Werner Arber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_O._Smith" title="Hamilton O. Smith">Hamilton O. Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Allan_MacLeod_Cormack" title="Allan MacLeod Cormack">Allan Cormack</a> / <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Godfrey Hounsfield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Snell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Sune Bergström</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bengt_I._Samuelsson" title="Bengt I. Samuelsson">Bengt I. Samuelsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">John Vane</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Jerne</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges Köhler</a> / <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Michael Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">James W. Black</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_H._Hitchings" title="George H. Hitchings">George H. Hitchings</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Varmus" title="Harold E. Varmus">Harold E. Varmus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> / <a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Erwin Neher</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Bert Sakmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Edmond_H._Fischer" title="Edmond H. Fischer">Edmond Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Krebs" title="Edwin G. Krebs">Edwin G. Krebs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> / <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Sharp</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman" title="Alfred G. Gilman">Alfred G. Gilman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Martin Rodbell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_F._Wieschaus" title="Eric F. Wieschaus">Eric F. Wieschaus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Doherty">Peter C. Doherty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rolf_M._Zinkernagel" title="Rolf M. Zinkernagel">Rolf M. Zinkernagel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Robert F. Furchgott</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Louis Ignarro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Ferid Murad</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Günter Blobel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Leland_H._Hartwell" title="Leland H. Hartwell">Leland H. Hartwell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Tim Hunt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Paul Nurse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> / <a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">H. Robert Horvitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John E. Sulston</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Andrew Fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edwards_(physiologist)" title="Robert Edwards (physiologist)">Robert G. Edwards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (<i>posthumously</i>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/John_Gurdon" title="John Gurdon">John Gurdon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Shinya Yamanaka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James Rothman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Randy Schekman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas C. Südhof">Thomas C. Südhof</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> / <a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/William_C._Campbell_(scientist)" title="William C. Campbell (scientist)">William C. Campbell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_%C5%8Cmura" title="Satoshi Ōmura">Satoshi Ōmura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/Yoshinori_Ohsumi" title="Yoshinori Ohsumi">Yoshinori Ohsumi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Jeffrey C. Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Michael Rosbash</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Michael W. Young</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">James P. Allison</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Tasuku Honjo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Gregg_L._Semenza" title="Gregg L. Semenza">Gregg L. Semenza</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Ratcliffe" title="Peter J. Ratcliffe">Peter J. Ratcliffe</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Kaelin_Jr." title="William Kaelin Jr.">William Kaelin Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter" title="Harvey J. Alter">Harvey J. Alter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Houghton_(virologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Houghton (virologist)">Michael Houghton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Rice" title="Charles M. Rice">Charles M. Rice</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">David Julius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Ardem Patapoutian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a> / <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ambros" title="Victor Ambros">Victor Ambros</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ruvkun" title="Gary Ruvkun">Gary Ruvkun</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1970_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1970_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1970 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1970_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1970 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1970_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1970 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1970_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1970 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Federico_Leloir" title="Luis Federico Leloir">Luis Federico Leloir</a> (Argentina)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1970_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1970 Nobel Prize in Literature">1970</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a> (Soviet Union)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a> (<a href="/wiki/1970_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1970 Nobel Peace Prize">1970</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman Borlaug</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Hannes Alfvén</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Louis Néel</a> (France)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Julius Axelrod</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Economic Sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1965_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1965 Nobel Prize winners">1965</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1966_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1966 Nobel Prize winners">1966</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1967_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1967 Nobel Prize winners">1967</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1968_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1968 Nobel Prize winners">1968</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1969_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1969 Nobel Prize winners">1969</a></dd> <dd><b>1970 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1971_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1971 Nobel Prize winners">1971</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1972_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1972 Nobel Prize winners">1972</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1973_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1973 Nobel Prize winners">1973</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1974_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1974 Nobel Prize winners">1974</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1975_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1975 Nobel Prize winners">1975</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110106#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110106#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110106#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/129884480">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79096797">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35011254">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000080229&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p067876188">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90179208">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012782376105171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14716756">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA12029917?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Axelrod, Julius A."><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=7103117978">Scopus</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/788905">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd129884480.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/083005110">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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