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<span>Configurations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Configurations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In aircraft</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_aircraft-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In aircraft subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Advantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Practical_requirements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_requirements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Practical requirements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical_requirements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Aerodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Disadvantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structural_and_weight_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_and_weight_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Structural and weight considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_and_weight_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Center_of_gravity_and_landing_gear_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Center_of_gravity_and_landing_gear_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Center of gravity and landing gear considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Center_of_gravity_and_landing_gear_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerodynamic_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerodynamic_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Aerodynamic considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerodynamic_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propeller_ground_clearance_and_foreign_object_damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propeller_ground_clearance_and_foreign_object_damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Propeller ground clearance and foreign object damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propeller_ground_clearance_and_foreign_object_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propeller_efficiency_and_noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propeller_efficiency_and_noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Propeller efficiency and noise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propeller_efficiency_and_noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engine_cooling_and_exhaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engine_cooling_and_exhaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Engine cooling and exhaust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engine_cooling_and_exhaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Propeller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propeller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7.1</span> <span>Propeller</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propeller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7.2</span> <span>Engine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aircraft_loading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aircraft_loading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7.3</span> <span>Aircraft loading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aircraft_loading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/First_flight2.jpg/450px-First_flight2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/First_flight2.jpg/600px-First_flight2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6603" data-file-height="4280" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a>, a “pusher” aircraft designed in 1903</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Aeronautical" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeronautical">aeronautical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naval_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval engineering">naval engineering</a>, <b>pusher configuration</b> is the term used to describe a drivetrain of <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">air-</a> or <a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">watercraft</a> with <a href="/wiki/Propulsion" title="Propulsion">propulsion</a> device(s) after the <a href="/wiki/Engine" title="Engine">engine</a>(s). This is in contrast to the more conventional <a href="/wiki/Tractor_configuration" title="Tractor configuration">tractor configuration</a>, which places them in front. </p><p>Though the term is most commonly applied to aircraft, its most ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">propeller</a> example is a common <a href="/wiki/Outboard_motor" title="Outboard motor">outboard motor</a> for a small boat. </p><p>“Pusher configuration” describes the specific (propeller or <a href="/wiki/Ducted_fan" title="Ducted fan">ducted fan</a>) thrust device attached to a craft, either <a href="/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat">aerostats</a> (<a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airship</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Heavier-than-air_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavier-than-air aircraft">aerodynes</a> (aircraft, <a href="/wiki/Ground_effect_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground effect vehicle">WIG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paramotor" title="Paramotor">paramotor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rotorcraft" title="Rotorcraft">rotorcraft</a>) or others types such as <a href="/wiki/Hovercraft" title="Hovercraft">hovercraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airboat" title="Airboat">airboats</a>, and propeller-driven <a href="/wiki/Snowmobile" title="Snowmobile">snowmobiles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P%C3%A9naud%27s_flying_models_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/P%C3%A9naud%27s_flying_models_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-P%C3%A9naud%27s_flying_models_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/P%C3%A9naud%27s_flying_models_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-P%C3%A9naud%27s_flying_models_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/P%C3%A9naud%27s_flying_models_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-P%C3%A9naud%27s_flying_models_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="219" /></a><figcaption>1871 <i>Planophore</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Farman_MF.11_(SDASM_Archives_00079053).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Farman_MF.11_%28SDASM_Archives_00079053%29.jpg/220px-Farman_MF.11_%28SDASM_Archives_00079053%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Farman_MF.11_%28SDASM_Archives_00079053%29.jpg/330px-Farman_MF.11_%28SDASM_Archives_00079053%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Farman_MF.11_%28SDASM_Archives_00079053%29.jpg/440px-Farman_MF.11_%28SDASM_Archives_00079053%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Farman_MF.11" title="Farman MF.11">Farman MF.11</a>, showing the classic Farman configuration with engine between tail booms</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buhl_A-1_Autogiro_-_autogyro_with_rear_push_propeller_engine_-_designer_Etienne_Dormoy_and_pilot_James_Johnson_-_1931.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Buhl_A-1_Autogiro_-_autogyro_with_rear_push_propeller_engine_-_designer_Etienne_Dormoy_and_pilot_James_Johnson_-_1931.jpg/220px-Buhl_A-1_Autogiro_-_autogyro_with_rear_push_propeller_engine_-_designer_Etienne_Dormoy_and_pilot_James_Johnson_-_1931.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Buhl_A-1_Autogiro_-_autogyro_with_rear_push_propeller_engine_-_designer_Etienne_Dormoy_and_pilot_James_Johnson_-_1931.jpg/330px-Buhl_A-1_Autogiro_-_autogyro_with_rear_push_propeller_engine_-_designer_Etienne_Dormoy_and_pilot_James_Johnson_-_1931.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Buhl_A-1_Autogiro_-_autogyro_with_rear_push_propeller_engine_-_designer_Etienne_Dormoy_and_pilot_James_Johnson_-_1931.jpg/440px-Buhl_A-1_Autogiro_-_autogyro_with_rear_push_propeller_engine_-_designer_Etienne_Dormoy_and_pilot_James_Johnson_-_1931.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buhl_A-1_Autogyro" class="mw-redirect" title="Buhl A-1 Autogyro">Buhl A-1 Autogyro</a>, the first pusher autogyro</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convair_B-36_Peacemaker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker.jpg/220px-Convair_B-36_Peacemaker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker.jpg/330px-Convair_B-36_Peacemaker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker.jpg/440px-Convair_B-36_Peacemaker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>The post-WWII <a href="/wiki/Convair_B-36" class="mw-redirect" title="Convair B-36">Convair B-36</a> was unusual in its size, era, number of engines, and combining both propeller and jet propulsion, with six <a href="/wiki/Radial_engine" title="Radial engine">radial</a> piston and four jet engines</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MQ-9_Reaper_in_flight_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/MQ-9_Reaper_in_flight_2.jpg/220px-MQ-9_Reaper_in_flight_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/MQ-9_Reaper_in_flight_2.jpg/330px-MQ-9_Reaper_in_flight_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/MQ-9_Reaper_in_flight_2.jpg/440px-MQ-9_Reaper_in_flight_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2898" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Typical of many <a href="/wiki/UAV" class="mw-redirect" title="UAV">UAVs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Atomics_MQ-9_Reaper" title="General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper">General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper</a> has a propeller at the extreme tail</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HAL_Saras.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/HAL_Saras.jpg/220px-HAL_Saras.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/HAL_Saras.jpg/330px-HAL_Saras.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/HAL_Saras.jpg/440px-HAL_Saras.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1430" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NAL_Saras" title="NAL Saras">NAL Saras</a>, with pushers mounted on pods on either side of the rear fuselage</figcaption></figure> <p>The rubber-powered "Planophore", designed by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_P%C3%A9naud" title="Alphonse Pénaud">Alphonse Pénaud</a> in 1871, was an early successful model aircraft with a pusher propeller. </p><p>Many early aircraft (especially biplanes) were "pushers", including the <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a> (1903), the <a href="/wiki/Santos-Dumont_14-bis" title="Santos-Dumont 14-bis">Santos-Dumont 14-bis</a> (1906), the <a href="/wiki/Voisin_1907_biplane" title="Voisin 1907 biplane">Voisin-Farman I</a> (1907), and the <a href="/wiki/Curtiss_Model_D" title="Curtiss Model D">Curtiss Model D</a> used by <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Burton_Ely" title="Eugene Burton Ely">Eugene Ely</a> for the first ship landing on January 18, 1911. <a href="/wiki/Henri_Farman" title="Henri Farman">Henri Farman</a>'s pusher <a href="/wiki/Farman_III" title="Farman III">Farman III</a> and its successors were so influential in Britain that pushers in general became known as the "Farman type".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other early pusher configurations were variations on this theme. </p><p>The classic "Farman" pusher had the propeller "mounted (just) behind the main lifting surface" with the engine fixed to the lower wing or between the wings, immediately forward of the propeller in a stub fuselage (that also contained the pilot) called a <a href="/wiki/Nacelle" title="Nacelle">nacelle</a>. The main difficulty with this type of pusher design was attaching the tail (empennage). This needed to be in the same general location as on a tractor aircraft, but its support structure had to avoid the propeller. </p><p>The earliest examples of pushers relied on a canard but this has serious aerodynamic implications that the early designers were unable to resolve. Typically, mounting the tail was done with a complex wire-braced framework that created a lot of drag. Well before the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, this drag was recognized as just one of the factors that would ensure that a Farman-style pusher would have an inferior performance to an otherwise similar <a href="/wiki/Tractor_configuration" title="Tractor configuration">tractor type</a>. </p><p>The U.S. Army banned pusher aircraft in late 1914 after several pilots died in crashes of aircraft of this type,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so from about 1912 onwards, the great majority of new U.S. landplane designs were tractor biplanes, with pushers of all types becoming regarded as old-fashioned on both sides of the Atlantic. However, new pusher designs continued to be designed right up to the armistice, such as the <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Vampire" title="Vickers Vampire">Vickers Vampire</a>, although few entered service after 1916.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At least up to the end of 1916, however, pushers (such as the <a href="/wiki/Airco_DH.2" title="Airco DH.2">Airco DH.2</a> fighter) were still favored as gun-carrying aircraft by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps" title="Royal Flying Corps">British Royal Flying Corps</a>, because a forward-firing gun could be used without being obstructed by the arc of the propeller. With the successful introduction of <a href="/wiki/Fokker" title="Fokker">Fokker</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Synchronization_gear" title="Synchronization gear">mechanism for synchronizing the firing of a machine gun with the blades of a moving propeller</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed quickly by the widespread adoption of synchronization gears by all the combatants in 1916 and 1917, the tractor configuration became almost universally favored, and pushers were reduced to the tiny minority of new aircraft designs that had a specific reason for using the arrangement. </p><p>Both the British and French continued to use pusher-configured bombers, though there was no clear preference either way until 1917. Such aircraft included (apart from the products of the Farman company) the <a href="/wiki/Voisin_(aircraft)" title="Voisin (aircraft)">Voisin</a> bombers (3,200 built), the <a href="/wiki/Vickers_F.B.5" title="Vickers F.B.5">Vickers F.B.5</a> "Gunbus", and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_F.E.2" title="Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2">Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2</a>; however, even these found themselves being shunted into training roles before disappearing entirely. Possibly the last fighter to use the Farman pusher configuration was the 1931 <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Type_161" title="Vickers Type 161">Vickers Type 161</a> COW gun fighter. </p><p>During the long eclipse of the configuration the use of pusher propellers continued in aircraft which derived a small benefit from the installation and could have been built as tractors. Biplane <a href="/wiki/Flying_boat" title="Flying boat">flying boats</a> had for some time often been fitted with engines located above the fuselage to offer maximum clearance from the water, often driving pusher propellers to avoid spray and the hazards involved by keeping them well clear of the cockpit. The <a href="/wiki/Supermarine_Walrus" title="Supermarine Walrus">Supermarine Walrus</a> was a late example of this layout. </p><p>The so-called <a href="/wiki/Push-pull_configuration" title="Push-pull configuration">push/pull layout</a>, combining the tractor and pusher configurations—that is, with one or more propellers facing forward and one or more others facing back—was another idea that continues to be used from time to time as a means of reducing the asymmetric effects of an outboard engine failure, such as on the <a href="/wiki/Farman_F.220" title="Farman F.220">Farman F.222</a>, but at the cost of a severely reduced efficiency on the rear propellers, which were often smaller and attached to lower-powered engines as a result. </p><p>By the late 1930s, the widespread adoption of all-metal stressed skin construction of aircraft meant, at least in theory, that the aerodynamic penalties that had limited the performance of pushers (and indeed any unconventional layout) were reduced; however, any improvement that boosts pusher performance also boosts the performance of conventional aircraft, and they remained a rarity in operational service—so the gap was narrowed but was closed entirely. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, experiments were conducted with pusher fighters by most of the major powers. Difficulties remained, particularly that a pilot having to bail out of a pusher was liable to pass through the propeller arc. This meant that of all the types concerned, only the relatively conventional Swedish <a href="/wiki/SAAB_21" title="SAAB 21">SAAB 21</a> of 1943 went into series production. Other problems related to the aerodynamics of canard layouts, which had been used on most of the pushers, proved more difficult to resolve.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the world's first <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seats</a> was (per force) designed for this aircraft, which later re-emerged <a href="/wiki/Saab_21R" title="Saab 21R">with a jet engine</a>. </p><p>The largest pusher <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">aircraft</a> to fly was the <a href="/wiki/Convair_B-36_Peacemaker" title="Convair B-36 Peacemaker">Convair B-36 "Peacemaker"</a> of 1946, which was also the largest bomber ever operated by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. It had six 3,800 hp (2,800 kW) 28-cylinder <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_R-4360_Wasp_Major" title="Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major">Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major</a> <a href="/wiki/Radial_engine" title="Radial engine">radial engines</a> mounted in the wing, each driving a pusher propeller located behind the trailing edge of the wing, plus four jet engines. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sparrow_Hawk_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Sparrow_Hawk_II.jpg/220px-Sparrow_Hawk_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Sparrow_Hawk_II.jpg/330px-Sparrow_Hawk_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Sparrow_Hawk_II.jpg/440px-Sparrow_Hawk_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1861" data-file-height="1234" /></a><figcaption>Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk II</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the vast majority of propeller-driven aircraft continue to use a tractor configuration, there has been in recent years something of a revival of interest in pusher designs: in light <a href="/wiki/Homebuilt_aircraft" title="Homebuilt aircraft">homebuilt aircraft</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Burt_Rutan" title="Burt Rutan">Burt Rutan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Canard_(aeronautics)" title="Canard (aeronautics)">canard</a> designs since 1975, ultralights such as the <a href="/wiki/Quad_City_Challenger" title="Quad City Challenger">Quad City Challenger</a> (1983), flexwings, <a href="/wiki/Paramotors" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramotors">paramotors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Powered_parachute" title="Powered parachute">powered parachutes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Autogyro" title="Autogyro">autogyros</a>. The configuration is also often used for <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>, due to requirements for a forward fuselage free of any engine interference. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Aero_Dynamics_Sparrow_Hawk" title="Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk">Aero Dynamics Sparrow Hawk</a> was another homebuilt aircraft constructed chiefly in the 1990s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Configurations">Configurations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Configurations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Airships are the oldest type of pusher aircraft, going back to Frenchman Henri Giffard's <a href="/wiki/Giffard_dirigible" title="Giffard dirigible">pioneering airship</a> of 1852. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_pusher_aircraft_by_configuration" title="List of pusher aircraft by configuration">List of pusher aircraft by configuration</a></div> <p>Pusher aircraft have been built in many different configurations. In the vast majority of fixed-wing aircraft, the propeller or propellers are still located just behind the trailing edge of the "main lifting surface", or below the wing (paramotors) with the engine being located behind the crew position. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydroplanes_-_Types_-_Gallaudet_-_D4_-_GALLAUDET_COAST_DEFENSE_SEAPLANE_-_NARA_-_31485555_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Hydroplanes_-_Types_-_Gallaudet_-_D4_-_GALLAUDET_COAST_DEFENSE_SEAPLANE_-_NARA_-_31485555_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Hydroplanes_-_Types_-_Gallaudet_-_D4_-_GALLAUDET_COAST_DEFENSE_SEAPLANE_-_NARA_-_31485555_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Hydroplanes_-_Types_-_Gallaudet_-_D4_-_GALLAUDET_COAST_DEFENSE_SEAPLANE_-_NARA_-_31485555_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Hydroplanes_-_Types_-_Gallaudet_-_D4_-_GALLAUDET_COAST_DEFENSE_SEAPLANE_-_NARA_-_31485555_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Hydroplanes_-_Types_-_Gallaudet_-_D4_-_GALLAUDET_COAST_DEFENSE_SEAPLANE_-_NARA_-_31485555_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Hydroplanes_-_Types_-_Gallaudet_-_D4_-_GALLAUDET_COAST_DEFENSE_SEAPLANE_-_NARA_-_31485555_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5088" data-file-height="2982" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gallaudet_D-4" title="Gallaudet D-4">Gallaudet D-4</a> with pusher prop rotating around the rear fuselage</figcaption></figure> <p>Conventional aircraft layout have a tail (<a href="/wiki/Empennage" title="Empennage">empennage</a>) for stabilization and control. The propeller may be close to the engine, as the usual direct drive: </p> <ul><li>The propeller may be ahead of the tail: inside the framework (<a href="/wiki/Farman_III" title="Farman III">Farman III</a>), in line with the fuselage (<a href="/wiki/RFB_Fantrainer" title="RFB Fantrainer">RFB Fantrainer</a>), between tail booms (<a href="/wiki/Cessna_Skymaster" title="Cessna Skymaster">Cessna Skymaster</a>), above the fuselage on wing (<a href="/wiki/Quad_City_Challenger" title="Quad City Challenger">Quad City Challenger</a>), on nacelle or axial pod (<a href="/wiki/Lake_Buccaneer" title="Lake Buccaneer">Lake Buccaneer</a>), or coaxially around rear fuselage (<a href="/wiki/Gallaudet_D-4" title="Gallaudet D-4">Gallaudet D-4</a>).</li> <li>The propeller may be located behind the vertical tail, under the horizontal tail (<a href="/wiki/Prescott_Pusher" title="Prescott Pusher">Prescott Pusher</a>).</li> <li>Engines and propellers may be located on wings (<a href="/wiki/Piaggio_P.180_Avanti" title="Piaggio P.180 Avanti">Piaggio P.180 Avanti</a>) or on lateral pods (<a href="/wiki/Embraer/FMA_CBA_123_Vector" title="Embraer/FMA CBA 123 Vector">Embraer/FMA CBA 123 Vector</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RW-3_D-EKUM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/RW-3_D-EKUM.jpg/220px-RW-3_D-EKUM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/RW-3_D-EKUM.jpg/330px-RW-3_D-EKUM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/RW-3_D-EKUM.jpg/440px-RW-3_D-EKUM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5439" data-file-height="2091" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rhein_Flugzeugbau_RW_3_Multoplan" title="Rhein Flugzeugbau RW 3 Multoplan">Rhein Flugzeugbau RW 3 Multoplan</a> with propeller between the rudder and the fin</figcaption></figure> <p>The engine may be buried in a forward remote location, driving the propeller by drive shaft or belt: </p> <ul><li>The propeller may be located ahead of the tail, behind the wing (<a href="/wiki/Eipper_Quicksilver" title="Eipper Quicksilver">Eipper Quicksilver</a>) or inside the airframe (<a href="/wiki/Rhein_Flugzeugbau_RW_3_Multoplan" title="Rhein Flugzeugbau RW 3 Multoplan">Rhein Flugzeugbau RW 3 Multoplan</a>).</li> <li>The propeller may be located inside the tail, either cruciform or ducted fan (<a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_University_XAZ-1_Marvelette" title="Mississippi State University XAZ-1 Marvelette">Marvelette</a>).</li> <li>The propeller may be located at the rear, behind a conventional tail (<a href="/wiki/Bede_BD-5" title="Bede BD-5">Bede BD-5</a>).</li> <li>The propeller may be located above the fuselage such as on many small flying boats (<a href="/wiki/Lake_Buccaneer" title="Lake Buccaneer">Lake Buccaneer</a>)</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Miles_Libellula_M_35_UO235.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Miles_Libellula_M_35_UO235.jpg/220px-Miles_Libellula_M_35_UO235.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Miles_Libellula_M_35_UO235.jpg/330px-Miles_Libellula_M_35_UO235.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Miles_Libellula_M_35_UO235.jpg/440px-Miles_Libellula_M_35_UO235.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="195" /></a><figcaption>Progenitor to a large number of canard pushers, the experimental <a href="/wiki/Miles_M.35_Libellula" title="Miles M.35 Libellula">Miles M.35 Libellula</a> had its engine at the rear of the fuselage</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Canard_(aeronautics)" title="Canard (aeronautics)">canard</a> designs a smaller wing is sited forward of the aircraft's main wing. This class mainly uses a direct drive,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> either single-engine axial propeller,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or twin engines with a symmetrical layout,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or an in line layout (push-pull) as the <a href="/wiki/Rutan_Voyager" title="Rutan Voyager">Rutan Voyager</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lippisch_Delta_1_right_rear_NACA_aircraft_Circular_No.159.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Lippisch_Delta_1_right_rear_NACA_aircraft_Circular_No.159.jpg/220px-Lippisch_Delta_1_right_rear_NACA_aircraft_Circular_No.159.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Lippisch_Delta_1_right_rear_NACA_aircraft_Circular_No.159.jpg/330px-Lippisch_Delta_1_right_rear_NACA_aircraft_Circular_No.159.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Lippisch_Delta_1_right_rear_NACA_aircraft_Circular_No.159.jpg/440px-Lippisch_Delta_1_right_rear_NACA_aircraft_Circular_No.159.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lippisch_Delta_IV" title="Lippisch Delta IV">Lippisch Delta 1</a> tailless pusher</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Tailless_aircraft" title="Tailless aircraft">tailless aircraft</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lippisch_Delta_IV" title="Lippisch Delta IV">Lippisch Delta 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Westland-Hill_Pterodactyl" title="Westland-Hill Pterodactyl">Westland-Hill Pterodactyl</a> types I and IV, horizontal stabilizers at the rear of the aircraft are absent. <a href="/wiki/Flying_wing" title="Flying wing">Flying wings</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Northrop_YB-35" title="Northrop YB-35">Northrop YB-35</a> are tailless aircraft without a distinct fuselage. In these installations, the engines are either mounted in nacelles or the fuselage on tailless aircraft, or buried in the wing on flying wings, driving propellers behind the trailing edge of the wing, often by extension shaft. </p><p>Almost without exception, <a href="/wiki/Ultralight_trike" title="Ultralight trike">flexwing aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paramotor" title="Paramotor">paramotors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Powered_parachute" title="Powered parachute">powered parachutes</a> use a pusher configuration. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Knatchbull_M_(capt_the_Hon)_Collection_Q44287_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Knatchbull_M_%28capt_the_Hon%29_Collection_Q44287_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Knatchbull_M_%28capt_the_Hon%29_Collection_Q44287_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Knatchbull_M_%28capt_the_Hon%29_Collection_Q44287_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Knatchbull_M_%28capt_the_Hon%29_Collection_Q44287_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Knatchbull_M_%28capt_the_Hon%29_Collection_Q44287_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Knatchbull_M_%28capt_the_Hon%29_Collection_Q44287_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="989" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Voisin_III" title="Voisin III">Voisin III</a> bomber, the most numerous pusher design, with 3200 built</figcaption></figure> <p>Other craft with pusher configurations run on flat surfaces, land, water, snow, or ice. Thrust is provided by propellers and ducted fans, located to the rear of the vehicle. These include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hovercraft" title="Hovercraft">Hovercraft</a>, lifted by an air cushion, such as the 58-passenger <a href="/wiki/SR.N6" title="SR.N6">SR.N6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airboat" title="Airboat">Airboats</a>, flat bottomed vessels planing on water.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosledge" title="Aerosledge">Aerosledges</a>, also known as the aerosleigh, propeller-driven sledge, or propeller-driven <a href="/wiki/Snowmobile" title="Snowmobile">snowmobile</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_aircraft">In aircraft</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In aircraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages">Advantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The drive shaft of a pusher engine is in compression in normal operation,<sup id="cite_ref-Gunston_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunston-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which places less stress on it than being in tension in a tractor configuration. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (February 2025)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Pusher_configuration#Driveshaft_Stress" title="Talk:Pusher configuration">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Practical_requirements">Practical requirements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Practical requirements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G-LOAM_MotorFloater_first_flight.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/G-LOAM_MotorFloater_first_flight.jpg/220px-G-LOAM_MotorFloater_first_flight.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/G-LOAM_MotorFloater_first_flight.jpg/330px-G-LOAM_MotorFloater_first_flight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/G-LOAM_MotorFloater_first_flight.jpg/440px-G-LOAM_MotorFloater_first_flight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1305" /></a><figcaption>Flexwing microlight with engine and propeller at the pilot's back</figcaption></figure> <p>Placing the cockpit forward of the wing to balance the weight of the engine(s) aft improves visibility for the crew. In military aircraft, front armament could be used more easily on account of the gun not needing to synchronize itself with the propeller, although the risk that spent casings fly into the props at the back somewhat offset this advantage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Aircraft where the engine is carried by, or very close to, the pilot (such as paramotors, powered parachutes, autogyros, and flexwing trikes) place the engine behind the pilot to minimize the danger to the pilot's arms and legs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These two factors mean that this configuration was widely used for early combat aircraft, and remains popular today among <a href="/wiki/Ultralight_aviation" title="Ultralight aviation">ultralight aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicles</a> (UAVs), and <a href="/wiki/Radio-controlled_airplane" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio-controlled airplane">radio-controlled airplanes</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aerodynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A pusher may have a shorter fuselage and hence a reduction in both fuselage wetted area and weight.<sup id="cite_ref-Aircraft_Design_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aircraft_Design-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to tractor layout, a pusher propeller at the end of the fuselage is stabilizing.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A pusher needs less stabilizing vertical tail area<sup id="cite_ref-ask_don_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ask_don-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hence presents less <a href="/wiki/Weathervane_effect" title="Weathervane effect">weathercock effect</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at takeoff roll, it is generally less sensitive to crosswind.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When there is no tail within the slipstream, unlike a tractor, there is no rotating propwash around the fuselage inducing a side force to the fin. At takeoff, a canard pusher pilot does not have to apply rudder input to balance this moment.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Efficiency can be gained by mounting a propeller behind the fuselage, because it re-energizes the <a href="/wiki/Boundary_layer" title="Boundary layer">boundary layer</a> developed on the body, and reduces the <a href="/wiki/Form_drag" class="mw-redirect" title="Form drag">form drag</a> by keeping the flow attached to the fuselage. However, it is usually a minor gain compared to the airframe's detrimental effect on propeller efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-ask_don_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ask_don-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wing profile drag may be reduced due to the absence of prop-wash over any section of the wing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safety">Safety</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Pusher_configuration" title="Special:EditPage/Pusher configuration">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The engine is mounted behind the crew and passenger compartments, so fuel oil and coolant leaks will vent behind the aircraft, and any engine fire will be directed behind the aircraft. Similarly, propeller failure is less likely to directly endanger the crew.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A pusher ducted fan system offers a supplementary safety feature attributed to enclosing the rotating fan in the duct, therefore making it an attractive option for various advanced UAV configurations or for small/personal air vehicles or for aircraft models.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structural_and_weight_considerations">Structural and weight considerations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Structural and weight considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saab_J_21A-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Saab_J_21A-3.jpg/220px-Saab_J_21A-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Saab_J_21A-3.jpg/330px-Saab_J_21A-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Saab_J_21A-3.jpg/440px-Saab_J_21A-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/SAAB_21" title="SAAB 21">SAAB J 21</a> fighter, with the pusher propeller mounted between two fuselage booms</figcaption></figure> <p>A pusher design with an empennage behind the propeller is structurally more complex than a similar tractor type. The increased weight and <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a> degrades performance compared with a similar tractor type. Modern aerodynamic knowledge and construction methods may reduce but never eliminate the difference. A remote or buried engine requires a drive shaft and associated bearings, supports, and torsional vibration control, and adds weight and complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-Technicalities_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Technicalities-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Center_of_gravity_and_landing_gear_considerations">Center of gravity and landing gear considerations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Center of gravity and landing gear considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To maintain a safe <a href="/wiki/Center_of_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of gravity">center of gravity</a> (CG) position, there is a limit to how far aft an engine can be installed.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forward location of the crew may balance the engine weight and will help determine the CG. As the CG location must be kept within defined limits for safe operation load distribution must be evaluated before each flight.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to a generally high thrust line needed for propeller ground clearance, negative (down) pitching moments, and in some cases the absence of prop-wash over the tail, a higher speed and a longer roll may be required for takeoff compared to tractor aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Burt_Rutan" title="Burt Rutan">Rutan</a> answer to this problem is to lower the nose of the aircraft at rest such that the empty center of gravity is then ahead of the main wheels. In <a href="/wiki/Autogyro" title="Autogyro">autogyros</a>, a high thrust line results in a control hazard known as <a href="/wiki/Power_push-over" title="Power push-over">power push-over</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aerodynamic_considerations">Aerodynamic considerations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aerodynamic considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supermarine_Walrus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Supermarine_Walrus.jpg/220px-Supermarine_Walrus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Supermarine_Walrus.jpg/330px-Supermarine_Walrus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Supermarine_Walrus.jpg/440px-Supermarine_Walrus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="292" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Supermarine_Walrus" title="Supermarine Walrus">Supermarine Walrus</a> pusher flying boat is a typical flying boat, with the engine mounted high to avoid spray; however, throttle changes then induce pitch changes.</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to the generally-high thrust line to ensure ground clearance, a low-wing pusher layout may suffer power-change-induced pitch changes, also known as pitch/power coupling. Pusher seaplanes with especially high thrust lines and tailwheels may find the vertical tail masked from the airflow, severely reducing control at low speeds, such as when taxiing. The absence of prop-wash over the wing reduces the lift and increases takeoff roll length.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pusher engines mounted on the wing may obstruct sections of the wing <a href="/wiki/Trailing_edge" title="Trailing edge">trailing edge</a>, reducing the total width available for control surfaces such as flaps and ailerons. When a propeller is mounted in front of the tail, changes in engine power alter the airflow over the tail and can give strong pitch or yaw changes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Propeller_ground_clearance_and_foreign_object_damage">Propeller ground clearance and foreign object damage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Propeller ground clearance and foreign object damage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the pitch rotation at takeoff, the propeller diameter may have to be reduced (with a loss of efficiency<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) or landing gear made longer<sup id="cite_ref-Aircraft_Design_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aircraft_Design-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and heavier. Many pushers<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have ventral fins or skids beneath the propeller to prevent the propeller from striking the ground, at an added cost in drag and weight.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> On tailless pushers such as the <a href="/wiki/Rutan_Long-EZ" title="Rutan Long-EZ">Rutan Long-EZ</a>, the propeller arc is very close to the ground while flying nose-high during takeoff or landing. Objects on the ground kicked up by the wheels can pass through the propeller disc, causing damage or accelerated wear to the blades; in extreme cases, the blades may strike the ground. </p><p>When an airplane flies in <a href="/wiki/Icing_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Icing conditions">icing conditions</a>, ice can accumulate on the wings. If an airplane with wing-mounted pusher engines experiences icing, the props will ingest shredded chunks of ice, endangering the propeller blades and parts of the airframe that can be struck by ice violently redirected by the props. In early pusher combat aircraft, spent ammunition casings caused similar problems, and devices for collecting them had to be devised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Propeller_efficiency_and_noise">Propeller efficiency and noise</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Propeller efficiency and noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The propeller passes through the fuselage wake, wing wake, and other flight surface downwashes—moving asymmetrically through a disk of irregular airspeed. This reduces propeller efficiency and causes vibration inducing structural propeller fatigue<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and noise. </p><p>Prop efficiency is usually at least 2–5% less and in some cases more than 15% less than an equivalent tractor installation.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Full-scale wind tunnel investigation of the canard <a href="/wiki/Rutan_VariEze" title="Rutan VariEze">Rutan VariEze</a> showed a propeller efficiency of 0.75 compared to 0.85 for a tractor configuration, a loss of 12%.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pusher props are noisy,<sup id="cite_ref-Technicalities_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Technicalities-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and cabin noise may be higher than tractor equivalent (<a href="/wiki/Cessna_XMC" title="Cessna XMC">Cessna XMC</a> vs <a href="/wiki/Cessna_152" title="Cessna 152">Cessna 152</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1000aircraftphotos.com_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1000aircraftphotos.com-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Propeller noise may increase because the engine exhaust flows through the props. This effect may be particularly pronounced when using turboprop engines due to the large volume of exhaust they produce.<sup id="cite_ref-ask_don_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ask_don-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Engine_cooling_and_exhaust">Engine cooling and exhaust</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Engine cooling and exhaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Power-plant cooling design is more complex in pusher engines than for the tractor configuration, where the propeller forces air over the engine or radiator. Some aviation engines have experienced cooling problems when used as pushers.<sup id="cite_ref-1000aircraftphotos.com_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1000aircraftphotos.com-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To counter this, auxiliary fans may be installed, adding additional weight. The engine of a pusher exhausts forward of the propeller, and in this case, the exhaust may contribute to corrosion or other damage to the propeller. This is usually minimal, and may be mainly visible in the form of soot stains on the blades. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safety_2">Safety</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Propeller">Propeller</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Propeller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piaggio_P_180_Avanti_2004_by-RaBoe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Piaggio_P_180_Avanti_2004_by-RaBoe.jpg/220px-Piaggio_P_180_Avanti_2004_by-RaBoe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Piaggio_P_180_Avanti_2004_by-RaBoe.jpg/330px-Piaggio_P_180_Avanti_2004_by-RaBoe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Piaggio_P_180_Avanti_2004_by-RaBoe.jpg/440px-Piaggio_P_180_Avanti_2004_by-RaBoe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Piaggio_P.180_Avanti" title="Piaggio P.180 Avanti">Piaggio P.180 Avanti</a> with engines mounted on the wing trailing edge, away from passengers, allowing safer boarding.</figcaption></figure> <p>In case of propeller/tail proximity, a blade break can hit the tail or produce destructive vibrations, leading to a loss of control.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crew members risk striking the propeller while attempting to <a href="/wiki/Parachute" title="Parachute">bail out</a> of a single-engined airplane with a pusher prop.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one early ejector seat was designed specifically to counter this risk.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some modern light aircraft include a <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_Recovery_Systems#Products" title="Ballistic Recovery Systems">parachute system</a> that saves the entire aircraft, thus averting the need to bail out.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Engine">Engine</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Engine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Engine location in the pusher configuration might endanger the aircraft's occupants in a crash or crash-landing in which engine momentum projects through the cabin. For example, with the engine placed directly behind the cabin, during a nose-on impact, the engine momentum may carry the engine through the firewall and cabin, and might injure some cabin occupants.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Aircraft_loading">Aircraft loading</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Aircraft loading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spinning propellers are always a hazard on ground working, such as loading or embarking the airplane. The tractor configuration leaves the rear of the plane as relatively safe working area, while a pusher is dangerous to approach from behind, while a spinning propeller may suck in things and people nearby in front of it with fatal results to both the plane and the people sucked in.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view"><span title="The material near this tag may be giving undue weight to a viewpoint or idea. (April 2021)">undue weight?</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Pusher_configuration#undue" title="Talk:Pusher configuration">discuss</a></i>]</sup> Even more hazardous are unloading operations, especially mid-air, such as dropping supplies on parachute or skydiving operations, which are next to impossible with a pusher configuration airplane, especially if propellers are mounted on fuselage or sponsons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ducted_fan" title="Ducted fan">Ducted fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pusher_aircraft_by_configuration" title="List of pusher aircraft by configuration">List of pusher aircraft by configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pusher_aircraft_by_configuration_and_date" title="List of pusher aircraft by configuration and date">List of pusher aircraft by configuration and date</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Aircraft Factory">Royal Aircraft Factory</a> referred to all the early pushers they built as Farman Experimentals - or F.E.s.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See stability issues of the <a href="/wiki/Curtiss-Wright_XP-55_Ascender" title="Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender">Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An exception is the <a href="/wiki/Raptor_Aircraft_Raptor" title="Raptor Aircraft Raptor">Raptor Aircraft Raptor</a> whose Audi V6 diesel engine drives the propeller via <a href="/wiki/Propeller_speed_reduction_unit" title="Propeller speed reduction unit">PRSU</a> belts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Canard aircraft: wartime <a href="/wiki/Curtiss-Wright_XP-55_Ascender" title="Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender">Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender</a> and Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kyushu_J7W" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyushu J7W">Kyushu J7W</a> (with a drive shaft), <a href="/wiki/Ambrosini_SS.4" title="Ambrosini SS.4">Ambrosini SS.4</a>; Rutan <a href="/wiki/Rutan_VariEze" title="Rutan VariEze">VariEze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rutan_Long-EZ" title="Rutan Long-EZ">Long-EZ</a>, <a href="/wiki/AASI_Jetcruzer" title="AASI Jetcruzer">AASI Jetcruzer</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Canard symmetrical layout: <a href="/wiki/Wright_Flyer" title="Wright Flyer">Wright Flyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beechcraft_Starship" title="Beechcraft Starship">Beechcraft Starship</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Because of less weathercock stability</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the case of the Cozy IV, a side-by-side four-seater, an absent copilot must be balanced with 20 kg (40 lb) in the nose of the aircraft (Cafe Aircraft Performance Report)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dornier_Do_335" title="Dornier Do 335">Dornier Do 335</a>, <a href="/wiki/LearAvia_Lear_Fan" title="LearAvia Lear Fan">LearAvia Lear Fan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prescott_Pusher" title="Prescott Pusher">Prescott Pusher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grob_GF_200" title="Grob GF 200">Grob GF 200</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beechcraft_Starship" title="Beechcraft Starship">Beechcraft Starship</a>, Vmax Probe</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The only approved prop for the Rutan pushers is wood, which is more resistant to fatigue damage.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crash of <a href="/wiki/Ambrosini_SS.4" title="Ambrosini SS.4">Ambrosini SS.4</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110710222219/http://www.aqpl43.dsl.pipex.com/MUSEUM/TRANSPORT/propsleigh/propsleigh.htm">"Propeller-Driven Sleighs"</a>. The Museum of RetroTechnology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aqpl43.dsl.pipex.com/MUSEUM/TRANSPORT/propsleigh/propsleigh.htm">the original</a> on 10 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Propeller-Driven+Sleighs&rft.pub=The+Museum+of+RetroTechnology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aqpl43.dsl.pipex.com%2FMUSEUM%2FTRANSPORT%2Fpropsleigh%2Fpropsleigh.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Dictionary/Propeller_Design/DI62.htm">"Propeller Configurations"</a>. <i>www.centennialofflight.net</i>. US Centennial of Flight Commission. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140121003417/http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Dictionary/Propeller_Design/DI62.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-01-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.centennialofflight.net&rft.atitle=Propeller+Configurations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.centennialofflight.net%2Fessay%2FDictionary%2FPropeller_Design%2FDI62.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuttman2009" class="citation book cs1">Guttman, Jon (10 September 2009). <i>Pusher Aces of World War 1</i>. Illustrated by Harry Dempsey. Oxford, England: Osprey Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">6–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846034176" title="Special:BookSources/9781846034176"><bdi>9781846034176</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pusher+Aces+of+World+War+1&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2009-09-10&rft.isbn=9781846034176&rft.aulast=Guttman&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLuna2010" class="citation web cs1">Luna, Andres D. (29 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airliners.net/photo/Embraer/Embraer-FMA-CBA-123-Vector-IA-70/1880962/L/">"Aviation Photo #1880962: Embraer-FMA CBA-123 Vector - Embraer"</a>. <i>Airliners.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912081733/http://www.airliners.net/photo/Embraer/Embraer-FMA-CBA-123-Vector-IA-70/1880962/L/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Airliners.net&rft.atitle=Aviation+Photo+%231880962%3A+Embraer-FMA+CBA-123+Vector+-+Embraer&rft.date=2010-05-29&rft.aulast=Luna&rft.aufirst=Andres+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airliners.net%2Fphoto%2FEmbraer%2FEmbraer-FMA-CBA-123-Vector-IA-70%2F1880962%2FL%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunston-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gunston_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunston2004" class="citation book cs1">Gunston, Bill (10 May 2004). <i>The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 480. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521841405" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521841405"><bdi>978-0521841405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Aerospace+Dictionary&rft.pages=480&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004-05-10&rft.isbn=978-0521841405&rft.aulast=Gunston&rft.aufirst=Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aircraft_Design-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aircraft_Design_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aircraft_Design_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaymer1989" class="citation book cs1">Raymer, Daniel P. (1989). <i>Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach</i>. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics. pp. <span class="nowrap">222–</span>223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781600869112" title="Special:BookSources/9781600869112"><bdi>9781600869112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aircraft+Design%3A+A+Conceptual+Approach&rft.place=Reston%2C+Virginia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E222-%3C%2Fspan%3E223&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+%26+Astronautics&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9781600869112&rft.aulast=Raymer&rft.aufirst=Daniel+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoerner1975" class="citation book cs1">Hoerner, Sighard (1975). "XIII Directional characteristics of aeroplanes: IV Influence of Propulsion". <i>Fluid-Dynamic Lift: Practical Information on Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic Lift</i>. Vol. 76. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975STIA...7632167H">1975STIA...7632167H</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XIII+Directional+characteristics+of+aeroplanes%3A+IV+Influence+of+Propulsion&rft.btitle=Fluid-Dynamic+Lift%3A+Practical+Information+on+Aerodynamic+and+Hydrodynamic+Lift&rft.pages=17&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975STIA...7632167H&rft.aulast=Hoerner&rft.aufirst=Sighard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ask_don-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ask_don_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ask_don_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ask_don_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStackhouse" class="citation web cs1">Stackhouse, Don. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111121020132/http://djaerotech.com/dj_askjd/dj_questions/propeffects.html">"Don discusses propeller effects in detail..."</a> Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.djaerotech.com/dj_askjd/dj_questions/propeffects.html">the original</a> on 21 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Don+discusses+propeller+effects+in+detail...&rft.aulast=Stackhouse&rft.aufirst=Don&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.djaerotech.com%2Fdj_askjd%2Fdj_questions%2Fpropeffects.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoskam1999" class="citation book cs1">Roskam, Jan (1999). <i>Airplane Design Part II: Preliminary Configuration Design and Integration of the Propulsion System</i>. Vol. 2. Lawrence, Kansas: Design, Analysis and Research Corporation. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781884885433" title="Special:BookSources/9781884885433"><bdi>9781884885433</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Airplane+Design+Part+II%3A+Preliminary+Configuration+Design+and+Integration+of+the+Propulsion+System&rft.place=Lawrence%2C+Kansas&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Design%2C+Analysis+and+Research+Corporation&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781884885433&rft.aulast=Roskam&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520124243/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1992/1992%20-%201611.html">"Grob tests highlight exhaust problem"</a>, <i>Flight International</i>: 11, 24–30 June 1992, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1992/1992%20-%201611.html">the original</a> on 20 May 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Flight+International&rft.atitle=Grob+tests+highlight+exhaust+problem&rft.pages=11&rft.date=1992-06-24%2F1992-06-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Fpdfarchive%2Fview%2F1992%2F1992%2520-%25201611.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown1987" class="citation techreport cs1">Brown, Philip W. (1 October 1987). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://saemobilus.sae.org/content/871801/"><i>Flight test Results for Several Light, Canard-Configured airplanes</i></a></span> (Technical report). NASA Langley Research Center. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4271%2F871801">10.4271/871801</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2688-3627">2688-3627</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0148-7191">0148-7191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Flight+test+Results+for+Several+Light%2C+Canard-Configured+airplanes&rft.pub=NASA+Langley+Research+Center&rft.date=1987-10-01&rft.issn=0148-7191&rft.eissn=2688-3627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4271%2F871801&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Philip+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsaemobilus.sae.org%2Fcontent%2F871801%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStinton1983" class="citation book cs1">Stinton, Darrol (1983). "Propeller Effects". <i>The Design of the Aeroplane</i>. St Albans, Hertfordshire, England: Granada Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">304–</span>307. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780632018772" title="Special:BookSources/9780632018772"><bdi>9780632018772</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Propeller+Effects&rft.btitle=The+Design+of+the+Aeroplane&rft.place=St+Albans%2C+Hertfordshire%2C+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E304-%3C%2Fspan%3E307&rft.pub=Granada+Publishing&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780632018772&rft.aulast=Stinton&rft.aufirst=Darrol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbregoBulaga2002" class="citation web cs1">Abrego, Anita I.; Bulaga, Robert W. (23 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111018033811/http://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/publications/files/Abrego2_AHS02.pdf">"Performance study of a ducted fan system"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Helicopter Society International, Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/publications/files/Abrego2_AHS02.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Performance+study+of+a+ducted+fan+system&rft.pub=American+Helicopter+Society+International%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002-01-23&rft.aulast=Abrego&rft.aufirst=Anita+I.&rft.au=Bulaga%2C+Robert+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov%2Fpublications%2Ffiles%2FAbrego2_AHS02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Technicalities-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Technicalities_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Technicalities_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGarrison2009" class="citation web cs1">Garrison, Peter (29 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flyingmag.com/technicalities-2">"Technicalities"</a>. Flying. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120329185615/http://www.flyingmag.com/technicalities-2">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Technicalities&rft.pub=Flying&rft.date=2009-06-29&rft.aulast=Garrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flyingmag.com%2Ftechnicalities-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHassenaur1996" class="citation magazine cs1">Hassenaur, Donald P. (1 January 1996). "Propeller Drive Systems and Torsional Vibration". <i>Alternative Engines</i>. Vol. 1. compiled by Mick Myal. Phoenix, Arizona: Fiesta Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">167–</span>172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780964361324" title="Special:BookSources/9780964361324"><bdi>9780964361324</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alternative+Engines&rft.atitle=Propeller+Drive+Systems+and+Torsional+Vibration&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E172&rft.date=1996-01-01&rft.isbn=9780964361324&rft.aulast=Hassenaur&rft.aufirst=Donald+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcClellan2006" class="citation web cs1">McClellan, J. Mac (24 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flyingmag.com/pilot-reports/turboprops/flashback-1981-look-back-lear-fan?page=0,1">"Flashback to 1981: A Look Back at the Lear Fan"</a>. Flying. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110905231551/http://www.flyingmag.com/pilot-reports/turboprops/flashback-1981-look-back-lear-fan?page=0,1">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flashback+to+1981%3A+A+Look+Back+at+the+Lear+Fan&rft.pub=Flying&rft.date=2006-06-24&rft.aulast=McClellan&rft.aufirst=J.+Mac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flyingmag.com%2Fpilot-reports%2Fturboprops%2Fflashback-1981-look-back-lear-fan%3Fpage%3D0%2C1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeeleyStephens" class="citation web cs1">Seeley, Brien; Stephens, C.J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101027001413/http://cafefoundation.org/v2/pdf_cafe_apr/Cozy%20IV%20APR.pdf">"Cozy Mk IV"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Aircraft Performance Reports</i>. The CAFE Board. CAFE Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cafefoundation.org/v2/pdf_cafe_apr/Cozy%20IV%20APR.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aircraft+Performance+Reports&rft.atitle=Cozy+Mk+IV&rft.aulast=Seeley&rft.aufirst=Brien&rft.au=Stephens%2C+C.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcafefoundation.org%2Fv2%2Fpdf_cafe_apr%2FCozy%2520IV%2520APR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOdum2003" class="citation web cs1">Odum, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airplanezone.com/Oshkosh/Scrapbook2003/Prescott_Pusher.html">"Oshkosh 2003 Scrapbook"</a>. <i>www.airplanezone.com</i>. Airplane Zone. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425061601/http://www.airplanezone.com/Oshkosh/Scrapbook2003/Prescott_Pusher.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.airplanezone.com&rft.atitle=Oshkosh+2003+Scrapbook&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Odum&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airplanezone.com%2FOshkosh%2FScrapbook2003%2FPrescott_Pusher.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.kitplanes.com/magazine/pdfs/Grinvalds_Orion_0409.pdfOrion">http://www.kitplanes.com/magazine/pdfs/Grinvalds_Orion_0409.pdfOrion</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> V1(rotation speed): 65 kn</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerven" class="citation techreport cs1">Berven, Lester H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bd5.com/testberven.htm"><i>BD-5 Flight Test Program Report</i></a> (Technical report). Bede Aircraft Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111119134850/http://bd5.com/testberven.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2011 – via Journal of the Society Of Experimental Test Pilots.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=BD-5+Flight+Test+Program+Report&rft.pub=Bede+Aircraft+Corporation&rft.aulast=Berven&rft.aufirst=Lester+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bd5.com%2Ftestberven.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoernerHabulBorst1985" class="citation book cs1">Hoerner, Sighard F.; Habul, Dr. -Ing; Borst, Henry V. (1985). "XII: Propulsion Lift and Stability, 2. Influence of Propeller Slipstream on Wings". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docshare02.docshare.tips/files/3609/36093604.pdf"><i>Fluid Dynamic Lift: Practical Information on Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic Lift</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (2nd ed.). p. 12-8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210508132615/http://docshare02.docshare.tips/files/3609/36093604.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 8 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XII%3A+Propulsion+Lift+and+Stability%2C+2.+Influence+of+Propeller+Slipstream+on+Wings&rft.btitle=Fluid+Dynamic+Lift%3A+Practical+Information+on+Aerodynamic+and+Hydrodynamic+Lift&rft.pages=12%26%2345%3B8&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Hoerner&rft.aufirst=Sighard+F.&rft.au=Habul%2C+Dr.+-Ing&rft.au=Borst%2C+Henry+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocshare02.docshare.tips%2Ffiles%2F3609%2F36093604.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbzugLarrabee2002" class="citation book cs1">Abzug, Malcolm J.; Larrabee, E. Eugene (2002). <i>Airplane Stability and Control: A History of the Technologies that Made Aviation Possible</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511607141">10.1017/CBO9780511607141</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511607141" title="Special:BookSources/9780511607141"><bdi>9780511607141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Airplane+Stability+and+Control%3A+A+History+of+the+Technologies+that+Made+Aviation+Possible&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511607141&rft.isbn=9780511607141&rft.aulast=Abzug&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+J.&rft.au=Larrabee%2C+E.+Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStackhouse" class="citation web cs1">Stackhouse, Don. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111121030726/http://djaerotech.com/dj_askjd/dj_questions/pushtractor.html">"Al Bowers gave us an excellent explanation of the stability issues of a tractor vs. pusher installation. However, there are some other issues that need to be considered"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.djaerotech.com/dj_askjd/dj_questions/pushtractor.html">the original</a> on 21 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Al+Bowers+gave+us+an+excellent+explanation+of+the+stability+issues+of+a+tractor+vs.+pusher+installation.+However%2C+there+are+some+other+issues+that+need+to+be+considered.&rft.aulast=Stackhouse&rft.aufirst=Don&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.djaerotech.com%2Fdj_askjd%2Fdj_questions%2Fpushtractor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYipCoy1985" class="citation techreport cs1">Yip, Long P.; Coy, Paul F. (March 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://permanent.fdlp.gov/lps54941/lps54941/ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19850011615_1985011615.pdf"><i>Wind-Tunnel Investigation of a Full-Scale Canard-Configured General Aviation Airplane</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Technical report). Hampton, Virginia: NASA Langley Research Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210508143622/https://permanent.fdlp.gov/lps54941/lps54941/ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19850011615_1985011615.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 8 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Wind-Tunnel+Investigation+of+a+Full-Scale+Canard-Configured+General+Aviation+Airplane&rft.place=Hampton%2C+Virginia&rft.pub=NASA+Langley+Research+Center&rft.date=1985-03&rft.aulast=Yip&rft.aufirst=Long+P.&rft.au=Coy%2C+Paul+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpermanent.fdlp.gov%2Flps54941%2Flps54941%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Farchive%2Fnasa%2Fcasi.ntrs.nasa.gov%2F19850011615_1985011615.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1000aircraftphotos.com-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1000aircraftphotos.com_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-1000aircraftphotos.com_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVisschedijkTilborgSmith2003" class="citation web cs1">Visschedijk, Johan; Tilborg, Walter van; Smith, Karl (14 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://1000aircraftphotos.com/HistoryBriefs/CessnaXMC.htm">"Cessna XMC"</a>. <i>1000aircraftphotos.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080130150407/http://1000aircraftphotos.com/HistoryBriefs/CessnaXMC.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1000aircraftphotos.com&rft.atitle=Cessna+XMC&rft.date=2003-12-14&rft.aulast=Visschedijk&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft.au=Tilborg%2C+Walter+van&rft.au=Smith%2C+Karl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F1000aircraftphotos.com%2FHistoryBriefs%2FCessnaXMC.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Grinvalds_Orion" title="Grinvalds Orion">Grinvalds Orion</a> crash in 1985, Experimental magazine n°2, March 1986, pages 20-24, Extrait du Rapport d'expertise: "La cause initiale de l'accident la plus probable est la rupture du mécanisme de commande de pas d'une pale de l'hélice. Cette rupture a a engendré des vibrations importantes de la partie arrière de l'avion... ruptures structurales... privant les pilotes des commandes de vol de profondeur et de direction". Failure of the pitch command system of one blade, important propeller vibrations, structural break, loss of pitch and yaw control</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown1961" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Eric (1961). "Chapter 10". <i>Wings on My Sleeve</i>. London, England: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. <span class="nowrap">150–</span>151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780753822098" title="Special:BookSources/9780753822098"><bdi>9780753822098</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10&rft.btitle=Wings+on+My+Sleeve&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E150-%3C%2Fspan%3E151&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9780753822098&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbzugLarrabee2005" class="citation book cs1">Abzug, Malcolm J.; Larrabee, E. Eugene (2005). <i>Airplane Stability and Control: A History of the Technologies That Made Aviation Possible</i>. Cambridge Aerospace Series 14 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521809924" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521809924"><bdi>978-0521809924</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Airplane+Stability+and+Control%3A+A+History+of+the+Technologies+That+Made+Aviation+Possible&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.series=Cambridge+Aerospace+Series+14&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521809924&rft.aulast=Abzug&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+J.&rft.au=Larrabee%2C+E.+Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGunston2004" class="citation book cs1">Gunston, Bill (2004). <i>The Cambridge Aerospace Dictionary Cambridge</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 480. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521841405" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521841405"><bdi>978-0521841405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Aerospace+Dictionary+Cambridge&rft.pages=480&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0521841405&rft.aulast=Gunston&rft.aufirst=Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuttman2009" class="citation book cs1">Guttman, Jon (2009). <i>Pusher Aces of World War 1</i>. Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 88. Oxford, UK: Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846034176" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846034176"><bdi>978-1846034176</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pusher+Aces+of+World+War+1&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.series=Osprey+Aircraft+of+the+Aces+88&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1846034176&rft.aulast=Guttman&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoernerBorst1985" class="citation book cs1">Hoerner, Gihard F.; Borst, Henry V. (1985). <i>Fluid-Dynamic Lift - Practical Information on Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic Lift</i>. Brick Town, New Jersey: Mrs. Liselotte Hoerner. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/75-17441">75-17441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fluid-Dynamic+Lift+-+Practical+Information+on+Aerodynamic+and+Hydrodynamic+Lift&rft.place=Brick+Town%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Mrs.+Liselotte+Hoerner&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F75-17441&rft.aulast=Hoerner&rft.aufirst=Gihard+F.&rft.au=Borst%2C+Henry+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaymer1992" class="citation book cs1">Raymer, Daniel P. (1992). <i>Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach</i>. AIAA Education Series. Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0930403515" title="Special:BookSources/978-0930403515"><bdi>978-0930403515</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aircraft+Design%3A+A+Conceptual+Approach&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=AIAA+Education+Series&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0930403515&rft.aulast=Raymer&rft.aufirst=Daniel+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStinton1983" class="citation book cs1">Stinton, Daroll (1983). <i>The Design of the Aeroplane</i>. Oxford, UK: BSP Professional Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0632018772" title="Special:BookSources/978-0632018772"><bdi>978-0632018772</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Design+of+the+Aeroplane&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=BSP+Professional+Books&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0632018772&rft.aulast=Stinton&rft.aufirst=Daroll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APusher+configuration" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pusher_configuration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Aircraft_with_pusher-propellers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Aircraft with pusher-propellers">Aircraft with pusher-propellers</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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