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id="toc-Other_functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Auxiliary_verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auxiliary_verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Auxiliary verb </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auxiliary_verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Existential_verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existential_verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2 Existential verb </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existential_verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meanings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meanings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Meanings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Meanings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Meanings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Meanings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Essence_versus_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essence_versus_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Essence versus state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essence_versus_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Forms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Forms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zero_copula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zero_copula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Zero copula </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zero_copula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_in_specific_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_in_specific_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Examples in specific languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_in_specific_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copula-like_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copula-like_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Copula-like words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copula-like_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_particular_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_particular_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 In particular languages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_particular_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In particular languages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_particular_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indo-European" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indo-European"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Indo-European </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indo-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Persian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hindustani" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hindustani"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Hindustani </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hindustani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Romance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.5 Slavic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.6 Irish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabic_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabic_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Arabic dialects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabic_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_Levantine_Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Levantine_Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 North Levantine Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Levantine_Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bantu_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bantu_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Bantu languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bantu_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chichewa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chichewa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Chichewa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chichewa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muylaq'_Aymaran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muylaq'_Aymaran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Muylaq' Aymaran </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muylaq'_Aymaran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Georgian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Georgian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Georgian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Georgian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haitian_Creole" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haitian_Creole"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Haitian Creole </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haitian_Creole-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Japanese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Korean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Chinese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siouan_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siouan_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10 Siouan languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siouan_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructed_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructed_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.11 Constructed languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructed_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 General references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Copula (linguistics)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF_(%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9)" title="عماد (لغة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عماد (لغة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula" title="Kopula – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kopula" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B2pula_(ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica)" title="Còpula (lingüística) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Còpula (lingüística)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spona_(sloveso)" title="Spona (sloveso) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Spona (sloveso)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula_(Grammatik)" title="Kopula (Grammatik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kopula (Grammatik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koopula" title="Koopula – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Koopula" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopulo" title="Kopulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kopulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B9%D9%84_%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="فعل ربطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فعل ربطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copule_(linguistique)" title="Copule (linguistique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Copule (linguistique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copail" title="Copail – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Copail" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%84%ED%95%A9%EC%82%AC_(%EB%85%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99)" title="계합사 (논리학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="계합사 (논리학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopulo" title="Kopulo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kopulo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula" title="Kopula – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kopula" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengis%C3%B6gn" title="Tengisögn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tengisögn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula_(linguistica)" title="Copula (linguistica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Copula (linguistica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%93" title="אוגד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוגד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitenzi_kishirikishi" title="Kitenzi kishirikishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kitenzi kishirikishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula_(gramatica)" title="Copula (gramatica) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Copula (gramatica)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula_(lenguistega)" title="Copula (lenguistega) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Copula (lenguistega)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula" title="Kopula – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kopula" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andry_(fitsipiteny)" title="Andry (fitsipiteny) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Andry (fitsipiteny)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%A9" title="コピュラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コピュラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula" title="Kopula – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kopula" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula" title="Kopula – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kopula" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C4%85cznik_(gramatyka)" title="Łącznik (gramatyka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Łącznik (gramatyka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_copulativ" title="Verb copulativ – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Verb copulativ" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Связка (лингвистика) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Связка (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vez_(jezikoslovje)" title="Vez (jezikoslovje) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vez (jezikoslovje)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula" title="Kopula – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kopula" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopula" title="Kopula – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kopula" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%99%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Бәйлекләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бәйлекләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BA_(%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3)" title="Бандак (забоншиносӣ) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бандак (забоншиносӣ)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" 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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about linguistic copulas. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Copula_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Copula (disambiguation)">Copula (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a>}}, {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a>}} for transliterated languages, and {{<a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a>}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used. <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>. (October 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, a copula /‘kɒpjələ/ (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: copulas or copulae; <a href="/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviations" title="List of glossing abbreviations">abbreviated</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>cop) is a word or phrase that links the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Subject_complement" title="Subject complement">subject complement</a>, such as the word is in the sentence "The sky is blue" or the phrase was not being in the sentence "It was not being cooperative." The word copula derives from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> noun for a "link" or "tie" that connects two different things.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> A copula is often a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> or a verb-like word, though this is not universally the case.<a href="#cite_note-Pustet-3">[3]</a> A verb that is a copula is sometimes called a copulative or copular verb. In English <a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary education</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> courses, a copula is often called a <a href="/wiki/Linking_verb" title="Linking verb">linking verb</a>. In other languages, copulas show more resemblances to <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guarani_language" title="Guarani language">Guarani</a>, or may take the form of <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a> attached to a noun, as in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beja_language" title="Beja language">Beja</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit languages</a>. Most languages have one main copula (in English, the verb "to be"), although some (like <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>) have more than one, while others have <a href="/wiki/Zero_copula" title="Zero copula">none</a>. While the term copula is generally used to refer to such principal verbs, it may also be used for a wider group of verbs with similar potential functions (like become, get, feel and seem in English); alternatively, these might be distinguished as "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas". <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammatical_function">Grammatical function</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Grammatical function">edit</a>]</div> The principal use of a copula is to link the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Clause_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clause (grammar)">clause</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Subject_complement" title="Subject complement">subject complement</a>. A copular verb is often considered to be part of the <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>, the remainder being called a <a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">predicative expression</a>. A simple clause containing a copula is illustrated below: <blockquote>The book is on the table.</blockquote> In that sentence, the <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> the book is the subject, the verb is serves as the copula, and the <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional phrase">prepositional phrase</a> on the table is the predicative expression. In some theories of grammar, the whole expression is on the table may be called a predicate or a <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a>. The predicative expression accompanying the copula, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Complement_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement (grammar)">complement</a> of the copula, may take any of several possible forms: it may be a noun or noun phrase, an <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> or adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase (as above), or an adverb or another adverbial phrase expressing time or location. Examples are given below, with the copula in bold and the predicative expression in italics: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> Mary and John are my friends. The sky was blue. I am taller than most people. The birds and the beasts were there. </div></blockquote> The three components (subject, copula and predicative expression) do not necessarily appear in that order: their positioning depends on the rules for <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> applicable to the language in question. In English (an <a href="/wiki/Subject-verb-object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-verb-object">SVO</a> language), the ordering given above is the normal one, but certain variation is possible: <ul><li>In many questions and other clauses with <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">subject–auxiliary inversion</a>, the copula moves in front of the subject: Are you happy?</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Inverse_copular_constructions" title="Inverse copular constructions">inverse copular constructions</a> (see below) the predicative expression precedes the copula, but the subject follows it: In the room were three men.</li></ul> It is also possible, in certain circumstances, for one (or even two) of the three components to be absent: <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Null-subject_language" title="Null-subject language">null-subject</a> (pro-drop) languages, the subject may be omitted, as it may from other types of sentence. In <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, sono stanco means 'I am tired', literally 'am tired'.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_clause" title="Non-finite clause">non-finite clauses</a> in languages like English, the subject is often absent, as in the <a href="/wiki/Participial_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Participial phrase">participial phrase</a> being tired or the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinitive phrase">infinitive phrase</a> to be tired. The same applies to most imperative sentences like Be good!</li> <li>For cases in which no copula appears, see <a href="#Zero_copula">§ Zero copula</a> below.</li> <li>Any of the three components may be omitted as a result of various general types of <a href="/wiki/Ellipsis_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellipsis (grammar)">ellipsis</a>. In particular, in English, the predicative expression may be elided in a construction similar to <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase_ellipsis" title="Verb phrase ellipsis">verb phrase ellipsis</a>, as in short sentences like I am; Are they? (where the predicative expression is understood from the previous context).</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Inverse_copular_constructions" title="Inverse copular constructions">Inverse copular constructions</a>, in which the positions of the predicative expression and the subject are reversed, are found in various languages.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> They have been the subject of much theoretical analysis, particularly in regard to the difficulty of maintaining, in the case of such sentences, the usual division into a subject <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> and a predicate <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a>. Another issue is <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">verb agreement</a> when both subject and predicative expression are noun phrases (and differ in number or person): in English, the copula typically agrees with the syntactical subject even if it is not logically (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantically</a>) the subject, as in the cause of the riot is (not are) these pictures of the wall. Compare Italian la causa della rivolta sono queste foto del muro; notice the use of the plural sono to agree with plural queste foto 'these photos' rather than with singular la causa 'the cause'. In instances where an English syntactical subject comprises a prepositional object that is pluralized, however, the prepositional object agrees with the predicative expression, e.g. "What kind of birds are those?" The definition and scope of the concept of a copula is not necessarily precise in any language. As noted above, though the concept of the copula in English is most strongly associated with the verb to be, there are many other verbs that can be used in a copular sense as well.<a href="#cite_note-Givon-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-EG-6">[6]</a> <ul><li>The boy became a man.</li> <li>The girl grew more excited as the holiday preparations intensified.</li> <li>The dog felt tired from the activity.</li></ul> And more tenuously<a href="#cite_note-Givon-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-EG-6">[6]</a> <ul><li>The milk turned sour.</li> <li>The food smells good.</li> <li>You seem upset.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_functions">Other functions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Other functions">edit</a>]</div> A copular verb may also have other uses supplementary to or distinct from its uses as a copula. Some co-occurrences are common. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Auxiliary_verb">Auxiliary verb</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Auxiliary verb">edit</a>]</div> The English verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/be#Verb" class="extiw" title="wikt:be">to be</a> is also used as an <a href="/wiki/English_auxiliaries" class="mw-redirect" title="English auxiliaries">auxiliary verb</a>, especially for expressing <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a> (together with the <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a>) or expressing <a href="/wiki/Progressive_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive aspect">progressive aspect</a> (together with the <a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participle</a>): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> The man was killed. (passive) It is raining. (progressive) </div></blockquote> Other languages' copulas have additional uses as auxiliaries. For example, French être can be used to express passive voice similarly to English be; both French être and German sein are used to express the <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect forms</a> of certain verbs (formerly English be was also): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> Je suis arrivé(e) French for 'I have arrived', literally 'I am arrived'. </div></blockquote> The auxiliary functions of these verbs derived from their copular function, and could be interpreted as special cases of the copular function (with the verbal forms it precedes being considered adjectival). Another auxiliary usage in English is to denote an obligatory action or expected occurrence: "I am to serve you". "The manager is to resign". This can be put also into past tense: "We were to leave at 9". For forms like "if I was/were to come", see <a href="/wiki/English_conditional_sentences" title="English conditional sentences">English conditional sentences</a>. (By certain criteria, the English copula be may always be considered an auxiliary verb; see <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb#Diagnostics_for_identifying_auxiliary_verbs_in_English" title="Auxiliary verb">Diagnostics for identifying auxiliary verbs in English</a>.) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Existential_verb">Existential verb</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Existential verb">edit</a>]</div> The English to be and its equivalents in certain other languages also have a non-copular use as an existential verb, meaning "to exist". This use is illustrated in the following sentences: I want only to be, and that is enough; <a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogito ergo sum">I think therefore I am</a>; <a href="/wiki/To_be,_or_not_to_be" title="To be, or not to be">To be or not to be</a>, that is the question. In these cases, the verb itself expresses a predicate (that of <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>), rather than linking to a predicative expression as it does when used as a copula. In <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> it is sometimes suggested that the "is" of existence is reducible to the "is" of property attribution or class membership; to be, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> held, is to be something. However, <a href="/wiki/Abelard" class="mw-redirect" title="Abelard">Abelard</a> in his Dialectica made a <a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a> argument against the idea that the copula can express existence.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Similar examples can be found in many other languages; for example, the French and Latin equivalents of I think therefore I am are Je pense, donc je suis and Cogito ergo sum, where suis and sum are the equivalents of English "am", normally used as copulas. However, other languages prefer a different verb for existential use, as in the Spanish version Pienso, luego existo (where the verb existir 'to exist' is used rather than the copula ser or estar 'to be'). Another type of existential usage is in clauses of the <a href="/wiki/There_is" class="mw-redirect" title="There is">there is</a>... or there are... type. Languages differ in the way they express such meanings; some of them use the copular verb, possibly with an <a href="/wiki/Expletive_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Expletive pronoun">expletive pronoun</a> like the English there, while other languages use different verbs and constructions, like the French il y a (which uses parts of the verb avoir 'to have', not the copula) or the Swedish finns (the passive voice of the verb for "to find"). For details, see <a href="/wiki/Existential_clause" title="Existential clause">existential clause</a>. Relying on a unified theory of copular sentences, it has been proposed that the English there-sentences are subtypes of <a href="/wiki/Inverse_copular_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse copular construction">inverse copular constructions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meanings">Meanings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Meanings">edit</a>]</div> Predicates formed using a copula may express identity: that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have the same <a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referent</a> or express an identical concept: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> I want only to be myself. The Morning Star is the Evening Star. </div></blockquote> They may also express membership of a class or a <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> relationship: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> She was a nurse. Cats are carnivorous mammals. </div></blockquote> Similarly they may express some property, relation or position, permanent or temporary: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> The trees are green. I am your boss. The hen is next to the cockerel. The children are confused. </div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essence_versus_state">Essence versus state</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Essence versus state">edit</a>]</div> Some languages use different copulas, or different syntax, to denote a permanent, essential characteristic of something versus a temporary state. For examples, see the sections on the <a href="#Romance">Romance languages</a>, <a href="#Slavic">Slavic languages</a> and <a href="#Irish">Irish</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms">Forms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Forms">edit</a>]</div> In many languages the principal copula is a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>, like English (to) be, German sein, <a href="/wiki/Mixtec_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixtec language">Mixtec</a> kuu,<a href="#cite_note-Pustet2003Mixtec-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_languages" title="Tuareg languages">Touareg</a> emous,<a href="#cite_note-Stassen-10">[10]</a> etc. It may inflect for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">grammatical categories</a> like <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>, like other verbs in the language. Being a very commonly used verb, it is likely that the copula has <a href="/wiki/Irregular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular verb">irregular</a> inflected forms; in English, the verb be has a number of highly irregular (<a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">suppletive</a>) forms and has more different inflected forms than any other English verb (am, is, are, was, were, etc.; see <a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a> for details). Other copulas show more resemblances to <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a>. That is the case for <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guarani_language" title="Guarani language">Guarani</a>, for instance. In highly <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic languages</a>, copulas are often <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a>, attached to a noun, but they may still behave otherwise like ordinary verbs: -u- in <a href="/wiki/Inuit_languages" title="Inuit languages">Inuit languages</a>. In some other languages, like <a href="/wiki/Beja_language" title="Beja language">Beja</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ket_language" title="Ket language">Ket</a>, the copula takes the form of suffixes that attach to a noun but are distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">person agreement markers</a> used on <a href="/wiki/Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">predicative verbs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stassen-10">[10]</a> This phenomenon is known as <a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_person_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonverbal person agreement">nonverbal person agreement</a> (or nonverbal subject agreement), and the relevant markers are always established as deriving from <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">cliticized</a> independent pronouns. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zero_copula">Zero copula</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Zero copula">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zero_copula" title="Zero copula">Zero copula</a></div> In some languages, copula omission occurs within a particular grammatical context. For example, speakers of <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan languages</a> consistently drop the copula in present tense: Bengali: আমি মানুষ, Aami manush, 'I (am a) human'; Russian: я человек, ya chelovek 'I (am a) human'; Indonesian: saya seorang manusia 'I (am) a human'; Turkish: o insan 's/he (is a) human'; Hungarian: ő ember 's/he (is) a human'; Arabic: أنا إنسان, ʾana ʾinsān 'I (am a) human'; Hebrew: אני אדם, ʔani ʔadam 'I (am a) human'; Geʽez: አነ ብእሲ/ብእሲ አነ, ʔana bəʔəsi / bəʔəsi ʔana 'I (am a) man' / '(a) man I (am)'; <a href="/wiki/Southern_Quechua" title="Southern Quechua">Southern Quechua</a>: payqa runam 's/he (is) a human'. The usage is known generically as the zero copula. In other tenses (sometimes in forms other than third person singular), the copula usually reappears. Some languages drop the copula in poetic or <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphoristic</a> contexts. Examples in English include <ul><li>The more, the better.</li> <li>Out of many, one.</li> <li>True that.</li></ul> Such poetic copula dropping is more pronounced in some languages other than English, like the <a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance languages</a>. In informal speech of English, the copula may also be dropped in general sentences, as in "She a nurse." It is a feature of <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a>, but is also used by a variety of other English speakers. An example is the sentence "I saw twelve men, each a soldier."<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_in_specific_languages">Examples in specific languages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Examples in specific languages">edit</a>]</div> In Ancient Greek, when an adjective precedes a noun with an article, the copula is understood: ὁ οἴκος ἐστὶ μακρός, "the house is large", can be written μακρός ὁ οἴκος, "large the house (is)."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In Quechua (<a href="/wiki/Southern_Quechua" title="Southern Quechua">Southern Quechua</a> used for the examples), zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular (kan): Payqa runam '(s)he is a human'; but: (paykuna) runakunam kanku '(they) are human'.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a>, the zero copula can be used in <a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">predicative expressions</a> and with continuous verbs (many of which take a copulative verb in many Indo-European languages) — He nui te whare, literally 'a big the house', 'the house (is) big'; I te tēpu te pukapuka, literally 'at (past <a href="/wiki/Locative" class="mw-redirect" title="Locative">locative</a> particle) the table the book', 'the book (was) on the table'; Nō Ingarangi ia, literally 'from England (s)he', '(s)he (is) from England', Kei te kai au, literally 'at the (act of) eating I', 'I (am) eating'.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Alternatively, in many cases, the particle ko can be used as a copulative (though not all instances of ko are used as thus, like all other Māori particles, ko has multiple purposes): Ko nui te whare 'The house is big'; Ko te pukapuka kei te tēpu 'It is the book (that is) on the table'; Ko au kei te kai 'It is me eating'. However, when expressing identity or class membership, ko must be used: Ko tēnei tāku pukapuka 'This is my book'; Ko Ōtautahi he tāone i Te Waipounamu 'Christchurch is a city in the South Island (of New Zealand)'; Ko koe tōku hoa 'You are my friend'. When expressing identity, ko can be placed on either object in the clause without changing the meaning (ko tēnei tāku pukapuka is the same as ko tāku pukapuka tēnei) but not on both (ko tēnei ko tāku pukapuka would be equivalent to saying "it is this, it is my book" in English). <a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular and plural: Ő ember/Ők emberek — 's/he is a human' / 'they are humans'; but: (én) ember vagyok 'I am a human', (te) ember vagy 'you are a human', mi emberek vagyunk 'we are humans', (ti) emberek vagytok 'you (all) are humans'. The copula also reappears for stating locations: az emberek a házban vannak 'the people are in the house', and for stating time: hat óra van 'it is six o'clock'. However, the copula may be omitted in colloquial language: hat óra (van) 'it is six o'clock'. Hungarian uses copula lenni for expressing location: Itt van Róbert 'Bob is here', but it is omitted in the third person present tense for attribution or identity statements: Róbert öreg 'Bob is old'; ők éhesek 'they are hungry'; Kati nyelvtudós 'Cathy is a linguist' (but Róbert öreg volt 'Bob was old', éhesek voltak 'they were hungry', Kati nyelvtudós volt 'Cathy was a linguist'). In Turkish, both the third person singular and the third person plural copulas are omittable. Ali burada and Ali buradadır both mean 'Ali is here', and Onlar aç and Onlar açlar both mean 'They are hungry'. Both of the sentences are acceptable and grammatically correct, but sentences with the copula are more formal. The Turkish first person singular copula suffix is omitted when introducing oneself. Bora ben 'I am Bora' is grammatically correct, but Bora benim (same sentence with the copula) is not for an introduction (but is grammatically correct in other cases). Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish language</a>, is, the present tense of the copula, may be omitted when the <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a> is a noun. Ba, the past/conditional, cannot be deleted. If the present copula is omitted, the pronoun (e.g., é, í, iad) preceding the noun is omitted as well. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Copula-like_words">Copula-like words</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Copula-like words">edit</a>]</div> Sometimes, the term copula is taken to include not only a language's equivalent(s) to the verb be but also other verbs or forms that serve to link a subject to a predicative expression (while adding <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> content of their own). For example, English verbs like become, get, feel, look, taste, smell, and seem can have this function, as in the following sentences (the predicative expression, the complement of the verb, is in italics): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> She became a student. They look tired. The milk tastes bad. That bread smells good. I feel bad that she can't come with us. London stands (is) on the river Thames. How is Mary? ; She seems (is) well (fine). </div></blockquote> (This usage should be distinguished from the use of some of these verbs as "action" verbs, as in They look at the wall, in which look denotes an action and cannot be replaced by the basic copula are.) Some verbs have rarer, secondary uses as copular verbs, like the verb fall in sentences like The zebra fell victim to the lion. These extra copulas are sometimes called "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas."<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> For a list of common verbs of this type in English, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_copulae" title="List of English copulae">List of English copulae</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_particular_languages">In particular languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In particular languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indo-European">Indo-European</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Indo-European">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">Indo-European copula</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European languages</a>, the words meaning to be are sometimes similar to each other. Due to the high frequency of their use, their inflection retains a considerable degree of similarity in some cases. Thus, for example, the English form is is a <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> of German ist, Latin est, Persian ast and Russian jest', even though the Germanic, Italic, Iranian and Slavic language groups split at least 3000 years ago. The origins of the copulas of most Indo-European languages can be traced back to four <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> stems: *es- (*h1es-), *sta- (*steh2-), *wes- and *bhu- (*bʰuH-). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: English">edit</a>]</div> The English copular verb be has eight basic forms (be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been) and five negative forms (ain't (in some dialects), isn't, aren't, wasn't, weren't).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> No other English verb has more than five forms. Additional archaic forms include art, wast, wert, and occasionally beest (as a <a href="/wiki/English_subjunctive" title="English subjunctive">subjunctive</a>). For more details see <a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a>. For the etymology of the various forms, see <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">Indo-European copula</a>. The main uses of the copula in English are described in the above sections. The possibility of copula omission is mentioned under <a href="#Zero_copula">§ Zero copula</a>. A particular construction found in English (particularly in speech) is the use of <a href="/wiki/Double_is" class="mw-redirect" title="Double is">two successive copulas</a> when only one appears necessary, as in My point is, is that....<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The acceptability of this construction is a <a href="/wiki/English_usage_controversies" title="English usage controversies">disputed matter in English prescriptive grammar</a>. The simple English copula "be" may on occasion be substituted by other verbs with near identical meanings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persian">Persian</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Persian">edit</a>]</div> In Persian, the verb to be can take the form of either ast (cognate to English is) or budan (cognate to be). <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td>Aseman abi ast. </td> <td>آسمان آبی است </td> <td>'The sky is blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aseman abi khahad bood. </td> <td>آسمان آبی خواهد بود </td> <td>'The sky will be blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aseman abi bood. </td> <td>آسمان آبی بود </td> <td>'The sky was blue.' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hindustani">Hindustani</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hindustani">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>), the copula होना honā <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">ہونا can be put into four grammatical aspects (simple, habitual, perfective, and progressive) and each of those four aspects can be put into five grammatical moods (indicative, presumptive, subjunctive, contrafactual, and imperative).<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Some example sentences using the simple aspect are shown below: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th align="right">Hindi </th> <th>Urdu </th> <th align="left">Transliteration </th> <th align="left">English </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">Simple Indicative </th> <th>Present </th> <td>आसमान नीला है। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا ہے </td> <td>āsmān nīla hai. </td> <td>'the sky is blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <th>Perfect </th> <td>आसमान नीला हुआ। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا ہوا </td> <td>āsmān nīla huā. </td> <td>'the sky became blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <th>Imperfect </th> <td>आसमान नीला था। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا تھا </td> <td>āsmān nīla thā. </td> <td>'the sky was blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <td>आसमान नीला होएगा। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا ہوگا </td> <td>āsmān nīla hoegā. </td> <td>'the sky will be blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Simple Subjunctive </th> <th>Present </th> <td>आसमान नीला हो। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا ہو </td> <td>āsmān nīla ho. </td> <td>'the sky be blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <td>आसमान नीला होए। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا ہوے </td> <td>āsmān nīla hoe. </td> <td>'the sky becomes blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Simple Presumptive Present </th> <td>आसमान नीला होगा। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا ہوگا </td> <td>āsmān nīlā hogā. </td> <td>'the sky might be blue.' </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Simple Contrafactual Past </th> <td>आसमान नीला होता। </td> <td><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آسمان نیلا ہوتا </td> <td>āsmān nīla hotā. </td> <td>'the sky would have been blue.' </td></tr></tbody></table> Besides the verb होना honā <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">ہونا 'to be', there are three other verbs which can also be used as the copula: रहना rêhnā <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">رہنا 'to stay', जाना jānā <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">جانا 'to go', and आना ānā <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">آنا 'to come'.<a href="#cite_note-:22-19">[19]</a> The following table shows the conjugations of the copula होना honā <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">ہونا in the five grammatical moods in the simple aspect. The transliteration scheme used is <a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">ISO 15919</a>. <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="7">Hindustani Copula <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>होना <span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">ہونا 'to be' [Simple Aspect] </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Mood </th> <th rowspan="2">Tense </th> <th rowspan="2">Gender </th> <th colspan="4">Pronouns </th></tr> <tr> <th align="right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>ma͠i </th> <th align="left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">tū </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">tum </th> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">āp, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">ham </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="7">Indicative </th> <th>Present </th> <th>♂ ♀ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hū̃ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hai </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">ho </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">ha͠i </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Perfect </th> <th>♂ </th> <td colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">huā </td> <td colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hue </td></tr> <tr> <th>♀ </th> <td colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">huī </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">huī̃ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Imperfect </th> <th>♂ </th> <td colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">thā </td> <td colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">the </td></tr> <tr> <th>♀ </th> <td colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">thī </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">thī̃ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Future </th> <th>♂ </th> <td>hoū̃gā </td> <td>hoegā </td> <td>hooge </td> <td>hoẽge </td></tr> <tr> <th>♀ </th> <td>hoū̃gī </td> <td>hoegī </td> <td>hoogī </td> <td>hoẽgī </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Presumptive </th> <th rowspan="2">All </th> <th>♂ </th> <td>hū̃gā </td> <td>hogā </td> <td>hoge </td> <td>hõge </td></tr> <tr> <th>♀ </th> <td>hū̃gī </td> <td>hogī </td> <td>hogī </td> <td>hõgī </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Subjunctive </th> <th>Present </th> <th>♂ ♀ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hū̃ </td> <td colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">ho </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hõ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <th>♂ ♀ </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoū̃ </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoe </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoo </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoẽ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Contrafactual </th> <th rowspan="2">Past </th> <th>♂ </th> <td colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hotā </td> <td colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hote </td></tr> <tr> <th>♀ </th> <td colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hotī </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hotī̃ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Imperative </th> <th>Present </th> <th>♂ ♀ </th> <td>— </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">ho </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoo </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoiye </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <th>♂ ♀ </th> <td>— </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoiyo </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">honā </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">hoiyegā </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">Note: the third person singular and plural conjugations are respectively the same as the second person intimate and formal conjugations. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romance">Romance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Romance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romance_copula" title="Romance copula">Romance copula</a></div> Copulas in the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> usually consist of two different verbs that can be translated as "to be", the main one from the Latin esse (via <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> essere; esse deriving from *es-), often referenced as sum (another of the Latin verb's <a href="/wiki/Principal_parts" title="Principal parts">principal parts</a>) and a secondary one from stare (from *sta-), often referenced as stō. The resulting distinction in the modern forms is found in all the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Romance_languages" title="Iberian Romance languages">Iberian Romance languages</a>, and to a lesser extent Italian, but not in French or Romanian. The difference is that the first usually refers to essential characteristics, while the second refers to states and situations, e.g., "Bob is old" versus "Bob is well." A similar division is found in the non-Romance <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque language</a> (viz. egon and izan). (The English words just used, "essential" and "state", are also cognate with the Latin infinitives esse and stare. The word "stay" also comes from Latin stare, through Middle French estai, stem of Old French ester.) In Spanish and Portuguese, the high degree of verbal <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, plus the existence of two copulas (ser and estar), means that there are 105 (Spanish) and 110 (Portuguese)<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> separate forms to express the copula, compared to eight in English and one in Chinese. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Copula </th> <th colspan="4">Language </th></tr> <tr> <th>Italian </th> <th>Spanish </th> <th>Portuguese </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr align="left"> <th align="left">Sum-derived </th> <td>Bob <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049405">.mw-parser-output .noitalic{font-style:normal}</style>è vecchio.</td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">es viejo.</td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">é velho.</td> <td>'Bob is old.' </td></tr> <tr align="left"> <th align="left">Sto-derived </th> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">sta bene.</td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">está bien.</td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">está bem</td> <td>'Bob is well.' </td></tr></tbody></table> In some cases, the verb itself changes the meaning of the adjective/sentence. The following examples are from Portuguese: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Copula </th> <th colspan="3">Example 1 </th> <th colspan="3">Example 2 </th></tr> <tr> <th>Portuguese </th> <th>Spanish </th> <th>English </th> <th>Portuguese </th> <th>Spanish </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr align="left"> <th align="left">Sum-derived </th> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">é esquisito. </td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">es extraño.</td> <td>'Bob is weird.'</td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">é parvo. </td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">es idiota.</td> <td>'Bob is foolish.' </td></tr> <tr align="left"> <th align="left">Sto-derived </th> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">está esquisito. </td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">está extraño.</td> <td>'Bob is looking/being strange.'</td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">está parvo. </td> <td>Bob <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">está idiota.</td> <td>'Bob is acting/being silly.' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slavic">Slavic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Slavic">edit</a>]</div> Some <a href="/wiki/Slavic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic language">Slavic languages</a> make a distinction between essence and state (similar to that discussed in the above section on the <a href="#Romance">Romance</a> languages), by putting a predicative expression denoting a state into the <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental case</a>, and essential characteristics are in the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>. This can apply with other copula verbs as well: the verbs for "become" are normally used with the instrumental case. As noted above under <a href="#Zero_copula">§ Zero copula</a>, Russian and other <a href="/wiki/North_Slavic_languages" title="North Slavic languages">North Slavic languages</a> generally or often omit the copula in the present tense. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Irish">Irish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Irish">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, there are two copulas, and the <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> is also changed when one is distinguishing between states or situations and essential characteristics. Describing the subject's state or situation typically uses the normal <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">VSO ordering</a> with the verb bí. The copula is is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences. <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left" valign="top"></td> <td align="right" valign="top"></td> <td align="left" valign="top"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">Is fear é Liam.</td> <td>'Liam is a man.'</td> <td>(lit. 'Is man Liam.') </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049405">Is leabhar é sin.</td> <td>'That is a book.'</td> <td>(lit. 'Is book it that.') </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> The word is is the copula (rhymes with the English word "miss"). The pronoun used with the copula is different from the normal pronoun. For a masculine singular noun, é is used (for "he" or "it"), as opposed to the normal pronoun sé; for a feminine singular noun, í is used (for "she" or "it"), as opposed to normal pronoun sí; for plural nouns, iad is used (for "they" or "those"), as opposed to the normal pronoun siad.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> To describe being in a state, condition, place, or act, the verb "to be" is used: Tá mé ag rith. 'I am running.'<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabic_dialects">Arabic dialects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Arabic dialects">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Levantine_Arabic">North Levantine Arabic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: North Levantine Arabic">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North Levantine Arabic</a> dialect, spoken in Syria and Lebanon, has a negative copula formed by ‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ما">ما</a>‎ mā / ma and a suffixed pronoun.<a href="#cite_note-Brustad-Negation-23">[23]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Negative copula in Levantine<a href="#cite_note-Brustad-Negation-23">[23]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st person (m/f) </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:ماني">ماني</a>‎ māni </td> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مانا">مانا</a>‎ māna </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd person </th> <th>m </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مانك">مانَك</a>‎ mānak </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D9%86#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مانكن">مانكُن</a>‎ mānkon </td></tr> <tr> <th>f </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مانك">مانِك</a>‎ mānek </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd person </th> <th>m </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مانو">مانو</a>‎ māno </td> <td rowspan="2">‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%84%D9%86#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مانلن">مانلُن</a>‎ mānon </td></tr> <tr> <th>f </th> <td>‏<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7#North_Levantine_Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:مانا">مانا</a>‎ māna </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bantu_languages">Bantu languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bantu languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chichewa">Chichewa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Chichewa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chichewa_tenses" title="Chichewa tenses">Chichewa tenses</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Chewa_language" title="Chewa language">Chichewa</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> language spoken mainly in <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>, a very similar distinction exists between permanent and temporary states as in Spanish and Portuguese, but only in the present tense. For a permanent state, in the 3rd person, the copula used in the present tense is ndi (negative sí):<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <dl><dd>iyé ndi mphunzitsi 'he is a teacher'</dd> <dd>iyé sí mphunzitsi 'he is not a teacher'</dd></dl> For the 1st and 2nd persons the particle ndi is combined with pronouns, e.g., ine 'I': <dl><dd>ine ndine mphunzitsi 'I am a teacher'</dd> <dd>iwe ndiwe mphunzitsi 'you (sg.) are a teacher'</dd> <dd>ine síndine mphunzitsi 'I am not a teacher'</dd></dl> For temporary states and location, the copula is the appropriate form of the defective verb -li: <dl><dd>iyé ali bwino 'he is well'</dd> <dd>iyé sáli bwino 'he is not well'</dd> <dd>iyé ali ku nyumbá 'he is in the house'</dd></dl> For the 1st and 2nd persons the person is shown, as normally with Chichewa verbs, by the appropriate pronominal prefix: <dl><dd>ine ndili bwino 'I am well'</dd> <dd>iwe uli bwino 'you (sg.) are well'</dd> <dd>kunyumbá kuli bwino 'at home (everything) is fine'</dd></dl> In the past tenses, -li is used for both types of copula: <dl><dd>iyé analí bwino 'he was well (this morning)'</dd> <dd>iyé ánaalí mphunzitsi 'he was a teacher (at that time)'</dd></dl> In the future, subjunctive, or conditional tenses, a form of the verb khala 'sit/dwell' is used as a copula: <dl><dd>máwa ákhala bwino 'he'll be fine tomorrow'</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muylaq'_Aymaran">Muylaq' Aymaran</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Muylaq' Aymaran">edit</a>]</div> Uniquely, the existence of the copulative verbalizer suffix in the Southern Peruvian <a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymaran</a> language variety, Muylaq' Aymara, is evident only in the surfacing of a vowel that would otherwise have been deleted because of the presence of a following suffix, lexically prespecified to suppress it. As the copulative verbalizer has no independent phonetic structure, it is represented by the Greek letter ʋ in the examples used in this entry. Accordingly, unlike in most other Aymaran variants, whose copulative verbalizer is expressed with a vowel-lengthening component, -:, the presence of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara is often not apparent on the surface at all and is analyzed as existing only meta-linguistically. However, in a verb phrase like "It is old", the noun thantha 'old' does not require the copulative verbalizer: thantha-wa 'It is old'. It is now pertinent to make some observations about the distribution of the copulative verbalizer. The best place to start is with words in which its presence or absence is obvious. When the vowel-suppressing first person simple tense suffix attaches to a verb, the vowel of the immediately preceding suffix is suppressed (in the examples in this subsection, the subscript "c" appears prior to vowel-suppressing suffixes in the interlinear gloss to better distinguish instances of <a href="/wiki/Vowel_deletion" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel deletion">deletion</a> that arise from the presence of a lexically pre-specified suffix from those that arise from other (e.g. phonotactic) motivations). Consider the verb sara-, which is inflected for the first person simple tense and so, predictably, loses its final root vowel: sar(a)-ct-wa 'I go'. However, prior to the suffixation of the first person simple suffix -ct to the same root nominalized with the agentive nominalizer -iri, the word must be verbalized. The fact that the final vowel of -iri below is not suppressed indicates the presence of an intervening segment, the copulative verbalizer: sar(a)-iri-ʋ-t-wa 'I usually go'. It is worthwhile to compare of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara as compared to La Paz Aymara, a variant which represents this suffix with vowel lengthening. Consider the near-identical sentences below, both translations of "I have a small house" in which the nominal root uta-ni 'house-attributive' is verbalized with the copulative verbalizer, but the correspondence between the copulative verbalizer in these two variants is not always a strict one-to-one relation.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>La Paz Aymara: </td> <td>ma: jisk'a uta-ni-:-ct(a)-wa </td></tr> <tr> <td>Muylaq' Aymara: </td> <td>ma isk'a uta-ni-ʋ-ct-wa </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Georgian">Georgian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Georgian">edit</a>]</div> As in English, the verb "to be" (qopna) is irregular in <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> (a <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="South Caucasian languages">Kartvelian language</a>); different verb roots are employed in different tenses. The roots -ar-, -kn-, -qav-, and -qop- (past participle) are used in the present tense, future tense, past tense and the perfective tenses respectively. Examples: <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Masc'avlebeli var. </td> <td>'I am a teacher.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Masc'avlebeli viknebi. </td> <td>'I will be a teacher.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Masc'avlebeli viqavi. </td> <td>'I was a teacher.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Masc'avlebeli vqopilvar. </td> <td>'I have been a teacher.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Masc'avlebeli vqopiliqavi. </td> <td>'I had been a teacher.' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> In the last two examples (perfective and pluperfect), two roots are used in one verb compound. In the perfective tense, the root qop (which is the expected root for the perfective tense) is followed by the root ar, which is the root for the present tense. In the pluperfective tense, again, the root qop is followed by the past tense root qav. This formation is very similar to <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language</a>), where the perfect and the pluperfect are expressed in the following way: <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ich bin Lehrer gewesen. </td> <td>'I have been a teacher', literally 'I am teacher been.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ich war Lehrer gewesen. </td> <td>'I had been a teacher', literally 'I was teacher been.' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Here, gewesen is the past participle of sein 'to be' in German. In both examples, as in Georgian, this participle is used together with the present and the past forms of the verb in order to conjugate for the perfect and the pluperfect aspects. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haitian_Creole">Haitian Creole</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Haitian Creole">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Haitian Creole language">Haitian Creole</a>, a <a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_language" class="mw-redirect" title="French-based creole language">French-based creole language</a>, has three forms of the copula: se, ye, and the <a href="/wiki/Zero_copula" title="Zero copula">zero copula</a>, no word at all (the position of which will be indicated with Ø, just for purposes of illustration). Although no textual record exists of Haitian-Creole at its earliest stages of development from French, se is derived from French <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[se]</a> (written c'est), which is the normal French contraction of <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[sə]</a> (that, written ce) and the copula <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[e]</a> (is, written est) (a form of the verb être). The derivation of ye is less obvious; but we can assume that the French source was <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ile]</a> ("he/it is", written il est), which, in rapidly spoken French, is very commonly pronounced as <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[je]</a> (typically written y est). The use of a zero copula is unknown in French, and it is thought to be an innovation from the early days when Haitian-Creole was first developing as a Romance-based <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>. Latin also sometimes used a zero copula. Which of se/ye/Ø is used in any given copula clause depends on complex syntactic factors that we can superficially summarize in the following four rules: 1. Use Ø (i.e., no word at all) in declarative sentences where the complement is an adjective phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb phrase: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">1a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Lishe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">te<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Ø<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">anin</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Ayiti.Haiti.</div>Li te Ø an Ayiti.she PAST COP in Haiti."She was in Haiti."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">1b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Liv-labook-the</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Ø<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">jon.yellow.</div>Liv-la Ø jon.book-the COP yellow."The book is yellow."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">1c)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Timoun-yoKids-the</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Ø<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">lakay.home.</div>Timoun-yo Ø lakay.Kids-the COP home."The kids are [at] home."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> 2. Use se when the complement is a noun phrase. But, whereas other verbs come after any tense/mood/aspect particles (like pa to mark negation, or te to explicitly mark past tense, or ap to mark progressive aspect), se comes before any such particles: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">2a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ChalCharles</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">seis</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ekriven.writer.</div>Chal se ekriven.Charles is writer."Charles is a writer."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">2b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Chal,Charles,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kiwho</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">seis</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ekriven,writer,</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">panot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">vini.come.</div>Chal, ki se ekriven, pa vini.Charles, who is writer, not come.<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> 3. Use se where French and English have a <a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">dummy "it"</a> subject: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">3a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">SeC'est"It's</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">mwen!moi!me!"</div>Se mwen!C'est moi!"It's me!"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">3b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">SeC'est"It's</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">papasnot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">fasil.facile.easy"</div>Se pa fasil.C'est pas facile."It's not easy"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> 4. Finally, use the other copula form ye in situations where the sentence's syntax leaves the copula at the end of a phrase: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">4a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">Kijanhow</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ou<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ye?be?</div>Kijan ou ye?how 2SG be?"How you are?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">4b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">PouOf</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kimounwho</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">liv-labook-the</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">te<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ye?be?</div>Pou kimoun liv-la te ye?Of who book-the PAST be?"Whose book was it?"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">4c)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">MI</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">panot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">konnenknow</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kimounwho</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">lihe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ye.is.</div>M pa konnen kimoun li ye.I not know who he is."I don't know who he is."<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">4d)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">SeC'estBe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yonuna</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ekrivenécrivainwriter</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ChalCharlesCharles</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ye.est.be.</div>Se yon ekriven Chal ye.C'est un écrivain Charles est.Be a writer Charles be."Charles is a writer!"<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The above is, however, only a simplified analysis.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese">Japanese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Japanese">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ja_da_ya.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ja_da_ya.png/220px-Ja_da_ya.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ja_da_ya.png/330px-Ja_da_ya.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Ja_da_ya.png/440px-Ja_da_ya.png 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="996" /></a><figcaption>Japanese copulae in the mid 20th century</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> copula (most often translated into English as an inflected form of "to be") is unique among verbs in Japanese. It is highly irregular, and in several ways behaves in ways other verbs do not; such as requiring a separate <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relativised</a> form in some circumstances, and acting simply as a marker of <a href="/wiki/Honorific_speech_in_Japanese" title="Honorific speech in Japanese">formality/politeness</a> with no predication force in some circumstances. In the most basic case, it behaves like a normal verb with irregular forms, which (like most copulas crosslinguistically) takes a non-case-marked complement instead of an object. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">私WatashiI</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">はwa<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="topic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TOP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">学生gakuseistudent</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">だ。da.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></div>私は学生だ。Watashi wa gakusei da.I TOP student COP'I'm a student.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">これKorethis</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">はwa<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="topic" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TOP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ペンpenpen</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">です。desu.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="polite register" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POL</abbr></div>これはペンです。Kore wa pen desu.this TOP pen COP-POL'This is a pen.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> As with all verbs in Japanese, it is necessary to mark the speaker's implied social relationship to the <a href="/wiki/Interlocutor_(linguistics)" title="Interlocutor (linguistics)">addressee</a> by the choice of verb form. The following two sentences differ only in the fact that the first is appropriate only between decently close friends or family, or said by someone of significantly higher social status than the listener, and the second is only appropriate outside of such circumstances. <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>あれはホテルだ。 </td> <td>Are wa hoteru da.</td> <td>'That's a hotel.'</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>あれはホテルです。 </td> <td>Are wa hoteru desu.</td> <td>'That is a hotel.'</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Japanese has two classes of words which correspond to adjectives in English, one of which requires a copula to become a predicate and one of which does not. <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>このビールはおいしい。 </td> <td>Kono bīru wa oishii.</td> <td>'This beer is delicious.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>このビールは豪華だ。 </td> <td>Kono bīru wa gouka da.</td> <td>'This beer is extravagant.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>*このビールはおいしいだ。 </td> <td>*Kono bīru wa oishii da.</td> <td colspan="2">Invalid, as oishii is its own predicate and does not need a copula to make it a predicate </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> However, the polite copula desu is used as a means to mark the self-predicating class of adjectives as grammatically formal, and thus the formal equivalent of kono bīru wa oishii is kono bīru wa oishii desu. In these situations, the copula is not serving as an actual predication device; it is only a means to supply formality marking. The non-self-predicating class of adjectives is the one place in modern Japanese where a separate <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relativiser</a> form appears; these require the form na in order to modify nouns. <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>このビールはおいしい。 </td> <td>Kono bīru wa oishii.</td> <td>'This beer is delicious.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>おいしいビール </td> <td>oishii bīru</td> <td>'delicious beer' </td></tr> <tr> <td>このビールは豪華だ。 </td> <td>Kono bīru wa gouka da.</td> <td>'This beer is extravagant.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>豪華なビール </td> <td>gouka na bīru</td> <td>'extravagant beer' </td></tr> <tr> <td>*豪華ビール </td> <td>*gouka bīru</td> <td colspan="2">Invalid, as this class of adjectives cannot just be placed next to a noun to modify it </td></tr> <tr> <td>*豪華だビール </td> <td>*gouka da bīru</td> <td colspan="2">Invalid, as the copula form da requires a specially marked form when it heads a relative clause, unlike all other verbs in modern Japanese </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Etymologically the copula is a reduced form of de aru, which effectively means 'exists as'; in formal situations de aru or its formal form de arimasu can appear in place of da or desu, and in certain situations other forms of aru may be appropriate (such as gozaru/gozaimasu). Nonstandard forms such as や ya in <a href="/wiki/Kansai_dialect" title="Kansai dialect">Kansai</a> and じゃ ja in much of the rest of western Japan (see map above) are due to various dialects reducing de aru differently than the <a href="/wiki/Kanto_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanto region">Kantō</a>-based standard form did. The negative form of the copula is generally de wa nai or its reduced form ja nai (or in formal situations, substitute arimasen for nai). This includes the <a href="/wiki/Topic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Topic (linguistics)">topic</a> marker wa, due to negative copula sentences typically implying some kind of contrastive topic-like force on the complement. De nai can occur in relative clauses, where information structure marking might be odd, but de wa nai is also a general negative copula and would be sensible still in any situation de nai might be used. Many sentences in Japanese are structurally a headless relative clause nominalised by no (or its reduced form n) and then predicated with a copula; the structure is analogous to something like English it's that.... This structure is used to indicate that the statement is intended to answer a question or explain confusion a listener may have had (though the question it answers may not have ever been overtly spoken). This has largely been incorporated into Japanese's <a href="/wiki/Sentence-final_particle" title="Sentence-final particle">sentence-final particle</a> system, and is far more common than the equivalent English structure. <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>そこにある。 </td> <td>Soko ni aru.</td> <td>'It's over there.' </td></tr> <tr> <td>そこにあるんだ。 </td> <td>Soko ni aru n da.</td> <td>'(What's going on is that) it's over there.' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Similarly, ja nai has also been recruited into the sentence-final particle system, and is used to mark a sentence that the speaker should have been decently obvious to the listener, or to indicate that the speaker is surprised to find that the sentence is true. In this role it can cooccur with an actual predicative ja nai, but not with the positive da; da is omitted in such sentences. <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>明日じゃない！ </td> <td>Ashita ja nai!</td> <td>'Why, it's tomorrow!' (differs from "It's not tomorrow" only by intonation; ja nai as a sentence-final particle is not a separate phonological unit while as a negative copula it is) </td></tr> <tr> <td>明日じゃないじゃない！ </td> <td>Ashita ja nai ja nai!</td> <td>'Why, it isn't tomorrow!' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korean">Korean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Korean">edit</a>]</div> For sentences with predicate nominatives, the copula 이 (i-) is added to the predicate nominative (with no space in between). <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>바나나는 과일이다. </td> <td>Ba-na-na-neun gwa-il-i-da.</td> <td>'Bananas are a fruit.' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Some adjectives (usually colour adjectives) are nominalized and used with the copula 이 (i-). 1. Without the copula 이 (i-): <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>장미는 빨개요. </td> <td>Jang-mi-neun ppal-gae-yo.</td> <td>'Roses are red.' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> 2. With the copula 이 (i-): <dl><dd><table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"> <tbody><tr> <td align="left"></td> <td align="right"></td> <td align="left"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>장미는 빨간색이다. </td> <td>Jang-mi-neun ppal-gan-saek-i-da</td> <td>'Roses are red-coloured.' </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Some Korean adjectives are derived using the copula. Separating these articles and nominalizing the former part will often result in a sentence with a related, but different meaning. Using the separated sentence in a situation where the un-separated sentence is appropriate is usually acceptable as the listener can decide what the speaker is trying to say using the context. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese">Chinese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Chinese">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_adjectives" title="Chinese adjectives">Chinese adjectives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_particles" title="Chinese particles">Chinese particles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Chinese grammar</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto; margin-right: 0px;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section uses <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified Chinese">Simplified Chinese</a> characters, and pronunciation is indicated using <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, both states and qualities are, in general, expressed with <a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">stative verbs</a> (SV) with no need for a copula, e.g., in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Chinese">Chinese</a>, "to be tired" (累 lèi), "to be hungry" (饿 è), "to be located at" (在 zài), "to be stupid" (笨 bèn) and so forth. A sentence can consist simply of a pronoun and such a verb: for example, 我饿 wǒ è ('I am hungry'). Usually, however, verbs expressing qualities are qualified by an adverb (meaning "very", "not", "quite", etc.); when not otherwise qualified, they are often preceded by 很 hěn, which in other contexts means "very", but in this use often has no particular meaning. Only sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g., "This is my sister") use the copular verb "to be": <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a>; shì. This is used frequently; for example, instead of having a verb meaning "to be Chinese", the usual expression is "to be a Chinese person" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:我">我</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:中国人">中国人</a>; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:我">我</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:中國人">中國人</a>; wǒ shì Zhōngguórén; <abbr title="literally">lit.</abbr> 'I am a Chinese person'; 'I am Chinese'). This 是 is sometimes called an <a href="/wiki/Equative" title="Equative">equative</a> verb. Another possibility is for the complement to be just a noun modifier (ending in <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:的">的</a>; de), the noun being omitted: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:我的">我的</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B1%BD%E8%BD%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:汽车">汽车</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A2%E8%89%B2" class="extiw" title="wikt:红色">红色</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:的">的</a>; wǒ de qìchē shì hóngsè de; 'My car is red. (<a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a> indicator)' Before the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, the character 是 served as a <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronoun</a> meaning "this" (this usage survives in some idioms and <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Chinese_proverbs" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Chinese proverbs">proverbs</a>.) Some linguists believe that 是 developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the subject of a sentence (in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">classical Chinese</a> we can say, for example: "George W. Bush, this president of the United States" meaning "George W. Bush is the president of the United States).<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The character 是 appears to be formed as a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_classification" title="Chinese character classification">compound</a> of characters with the meanings of "early" and "straight." Another use of 是 in modern Chinese is in combination with the modifier 的 de to mean "yes" or to show agreement. For example: <blockquote>Question: 你的汽车是不是红色的？ nǐ de qìchē shì bú shì hóngsè de? 'Is your car red or not?'<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>Response: 是的 shì de 'Is', meaning "Yes", or 不是 bú shì 'Not is', meaning "No." </blockquote> (A more common way of showing that the person asking the question is correct is by simply saying "right" or "correct", 对 duì; the corresponding negative answer is 不对 bú duì 'not right'.) Yet another use of 是 is in the shì...(de) construction, which is used to emphasize a particular element of the sentence; see <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar#Cleft_sentences" title="Chinese grammar">Chinese grammar § Cleft sentences</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> 是 sī acts as the copula, and 是 /z/ is the equivalent in <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu Chinese</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> uses 係 (<a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a>: hai6) instead of 是; similarly, <a href="/wiki/Hakka_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka language">Hakka</a> uses 係 he55. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siouan_languages">Siouan languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Siouan languages">edit</a>]</div> In Siouan languages like <a href="/wiki/Lakota_language" title="Lakota language">Lakota</a>, in principle almost all words—according to their structure—are verbs. So not only (transitive, intransitive and so-called "stative") verbs but even nouns often behave like verbs and do not need to have copulas. For example, the word wičháša refers to a man, and the verb 'to be a man' is expressed as wimáčhaša/winíčhaša/wičháša 'I am/you are/he is a man'. Yet there also is a copula héčha 'to be a ...' that in most cases is used: wičháša hemáčha/heníčha/héčha 'I am/you are/he is a man'. In order to express the statement 'I am a doctor of profession', one has to say pezuta wičháša hemáčha. But, in order to express that that person is THE doctor (say, that had been phoned to help), one must use another copula iyé 'to be the one': <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">pežútamedicine-man</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">wičháša<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="definite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(kiŋ)<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="article" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ART</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">miyéI-am-the-one</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">yelóMALE ASSERT</div>pežúta wičháša (kiŋ) miyé yelómedicine-man DEF ART I-am-the-one MALE ASSERT'I am the doctor'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> In order to refer to space (e.g., Robert is in the house), various verbs are used, e.g., yaŋkÁ (lit., 'to sit') for humans, or háŋ/hé 'to stand upright' for inanimate objects of a certain shape. "Robert is in the house" could be translated as Robert thimáhel yaŋké (yeló), whereas "There's one restaurant next to the gas station" translates as Owótethipi wígli-oínažiŋ kiŋ hél isákhib waŋ hé. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructed_languages">Constructed languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Constructed languages">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">constructed language</a> <a href="/wiki/Lojban" title="Lojban">Lojban</a> has two words that act similar to a copula in natural languages. The clause me ... me'u turns whatever follows it into a predicate that means to be (among) what it follows. For example, me la .bob. (me'u) means "to be Bob", and me le ci mensi (me'u) means "to be one of the three sisters". Another one is du, which is itself a predicate that means all its arguments are the same thing (equal).<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> One word which is often confused for a copula in Lojban, but is not one, is cu. It merely indicates that the word which follows is the main predicate of the sentence. For example, lo pendo be mi cu zgipre means "my friend is a musician", but the word cu does not correspond to English is; instead, the word zgipre, which is a predicate, corresponds to the entire phrase "is a musician". The word cu is used to prevent lo pendo be mi zgipre, which would mean "the friend-of-me type of musician".<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">Indo-European copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_sentence" title="Nominal sentence">Nominal sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_complement" title="Subject complement">Subject complement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_copula" title="Zero copula">Zero copula</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=copula">copula</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a> for attestation of the use of the term, "copula", since the 1640s. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> See the appendix to Moro 1997 and the references cited there for a short history of the copula. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pustet-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Pustet_3-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPustet2003" class="citation book cs1">Pustet, Regina (12 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-LWcB_FcaIQC&q=Pustet,+Regina+(2005).+Copulas:+Universals+in+the+Categorization+of+the+Lexicon.&pg=PA54">Copulas: Universals in the Categorization of the Lexicon</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155530-5"><bdi>978-0-19-155530-5</bdi></a>. <q>Frajzyngier (1986) argues that copulas may also develop from prepositions</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copulas%3A+Universals+in+the+Categorization+of+the+Lexicon&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003-06-12&rft.isbn=978-0-19-155530-5&rft.aulast=Pustet&rft.aufirst=Regina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-LWcB_FcaIQC%26q%3DPustet%2C%2BRegina%2B%282005%29.%2BCopulas%3A%2BUniversals%2Bin%2Bthe%2BCategorization%2Bof%2Bthe%2BLexicon.%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> See Everaert et al. 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-Givon-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Givon_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Givon_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGivón,_T.1993" class="citation book cs1">Givón, T. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TWZM1bFFMSkC">English Grammar: A function-based introduction</a>. Vol. 1. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 103–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027273898" title="Special:BookSources/9027273898"><bdi>9027273898</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Grammar%3A+A+function-based+introduction&rft.pages=103-104&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9027273898&rft.au=Giv%C3%B3n%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTWZM1bFFMSkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EG-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EG_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EG_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107014423/https://www.englishgrammar.org/copular-verbs/">"What are copular verbs?"</a>. November 15, 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.englishgrammar.org/copular-verbs/">the original</a> on November 7, 2017. Retrieved October 31, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+are+copular+verbs%3F&rft.date=2010-11-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.englishgrammar.org%2Fcopular-verbs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Kneale – Kneale 1962 and Moro 1997 </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> See Moro 1997, and "existential sentences and expletive there" in Everaert et al. 2006, for a detailed discussion of this issue and a historical survey of the major proposals. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pustet2003Mixtec-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Pustet2003Mixtec_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRegina_Pustet2003" class="citation book cs1">Regina Pustet (12 June 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-LWcB_FcaIQC&q=mixtec+kuu">Copulas: Universals in the Categorization of the Lexicon</a>. OUP Oxford. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-155530-5"><bdi>978-0-19-155530-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copulas%3A+Universals+in+the+Categorization+of+the+Lexicon&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2003-06-12&rft.isbn=978-0-19-155530-5&rft.au=Regina+Pustet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-LWcB_FcaIQC%26q%3Dmixtec%2Bkuu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stassen-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stassen_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stassen_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStassen1997" class="citation book cs1">Stassen, Leon (1997). Intransitive Predication. 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Proceedings of the Thirty-Second Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society. 32nd Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society. Berkeley, California: Sheridan Books. pp. 85–96. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/bls/previous_proceedings/bls32.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 17, 2018. Retrieved July 16, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=%22The+thing+is%2C+is%22+Is+No+Mere+Disfluency&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Thirty-Second+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Berkeley+Linguistics+Society&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=85-96&rft.pub=Sheridan+Books&rft.date=2006-02-10&rft.aulast=Coppock&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=Brenier%2C+Jason&rft.au=Staum%2C+Laura&rft.au=Michaelis%2C+Laura&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.berkeley.edu%2Fbls%2Fprevious_proceedings%2Fbls32.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-18"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVAN_OLPHEN1975" class="citation journal cs1">VAN OLPHEN, HERMAN (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/24651488">"Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb"</a>. Indo-Iranian Journal. 16 (4): 284–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F000000075791615397">10.1163/000000075791615397</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0019-7246">0019-7246</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24651488">24651488</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161530848">161530848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indo-Iranian+Journal&rft.atitle=Aspect%2C+Tense%2C+and+Mood+in+the+Hindi+Verb&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=284-301&rft.date=1975&rft.issn=0019-7246&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161530848%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24651488%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F000000075791615397&rft.aulast=VAN+OLPHEN&rft.aufirst=HERMAN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24651488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-19"><a href="#cite_ref-:22_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro1989" class="citation book cs1">Shapiro, Michael C. (1989). A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 216–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0475-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0475-9"><bdi>81-208-0475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Primer+of+Modern+Standard+Hindi&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=216-246&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=81-208-0475-9&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.conjuga-me.net">"Conjugação de verbos regulares e irregulares"</a>. Conjuga-me. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2014-02-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conjuga%C3%A7%C3%A3o+de+verbos+regulares+e+irregulares&rft.pub=Conjuga-me&rft.date=2007-09-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.conjuga-me.net&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillonÓ_Cróinín1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Myles_Dillon" title="Myles Dillon">Dillon, Myles</a>; <a href="/wiki/Donncha_%C3%93_Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn" title="Donncha Ó Cróinín">Ó Cróinín, Donncha</a> (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TeachYourselfIrish">Teach Yourself Irish</a>. London: English Universities Press. p. 52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teach+Yourself+Irish&rft.place=London&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=English+Universities+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Myles&rft.au=%C3%93+Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn%2C+Donncha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTeachYourselfIrish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.teanglann.ie/ga/fgb/rith">"Foclóir Gaeilge–Béarla (Ó Dónaill): rith"</a>. www.teanglann.ie.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.teanglann.ie&rft.atitle=Focl%C3%B3ir+Gaeilge%E2%80%93B%C3%A9arla+%28%C3%93+D%C3%B3naill%29%3A+rith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teanglann.ie%2Fga%2Ffgb%2Frith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brustad-Negation-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brustad-Negation_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brustad-Negation_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrustadZuniga2019" class="citation book cs1">Brustad, Kristen; Zuniga, Emilie (6 March 2019). "Chapter 16: Levantine Arabic". In <a href="/wiki/John_Huehnergard" title="John Huehnergard">Huehnergard, John</a>; Pat-El, Na‘ama (eds.). The Semitic languages (2nd ed.). London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 424–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429025563">10.4324/9780429025563</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-02556-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-02556-3"><bdi>978-0-429-02556-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166512720">166512720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+16%3A+Levantine+Arabic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+languages&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pages=424-5&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2019-03-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166512720%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429025563&rft.isbn=978-0-429-02556-3&rft.aulast=Brustad&rft.aufirst=Kristen&rft.au=Zuniga%2C+Emilie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Maxson, Nathaniel (2011). Chicheŵa for English Speakers: A New and Simplified Approach. Assemblies of God Literature Press, Malawi, pp. 107, 108, 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> *<a href="/wiki/Earl_Stevick" title="Earl Stevick">Stevick, Earl</a> et al. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307012900/https://fsi-languages.yojik.eu/languages/Chinyanja/Fsi-ChinyanjaBasicCourse-StudentText.pdf">Chinyanja Basic Course</a>. Foreign Service Institute, Washington, D.C., pp. 157, 160–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColer2015" class="citation book cs1">Coler, Matt (2015). A Grammar of Muylaq' Aymara: Aymara as spoken in Southern Peru. Brill's Studies in the Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Brill. pp. 472–476. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-00-428380-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-00-428380-0"><bdi>978-9-00-428380-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Muylaq%27+Aymara%3A+Aymara+as+spoken+in+Southern+Peru&rft.series=Brill%27s+Studies+in+the+Indigenous+Languages+of+the+Americas&rft.pages=472-476&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-9-00-428380-0&rft.aulast=Coler&rft.aufirst=Matt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#Howe90">Howe 1990</a>. Source for most of the Haitian data in this article; for more details on syntactic conditions as well as Haitian-specific copula constructions, like se kouri m ap kouri (It's run I progressive run; "I'm really running!"), see the grammar sketch in this publication. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#Vald88">Valdman & Rosemond 1988</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1995" class="citation book cs1">Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1995). Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar. Vancouver: UBC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7748-0541-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7748-0541-2"><bdi>0-7748-0541-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outline+of+Classical+Chinese+Grammar&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-7748-0541-2&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ptolemy.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/lojbanbrochure/lessons/less12eq.html">Lojban For Beginners</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20060830212608/http://ptolemy.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/lojbanbrochure/lessons/less12eq.html">Archived</a> 2006-08-30 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190410225800/http://lojban.github.io/cll/2/6/">"The Complete Lojban Language"</a>. The Lojban Reference Grammar. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lojban.github.io/cll/2/6/">the original</a> on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Lojban+Reference+Grammar&rft.atitle=The+Complete+Lojban+Language&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flojban.github.io%2Fcll%2F2%2F6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_references">General references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: General references">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoro2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Moro" title="Andrea Moro">Moro, Andrea</a> (March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/brief-history-verb-be">A Brief History of The Verb "to be"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03712-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03712-9"><bdi>978-0-262-03712-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+The+Verb+%22to+be%22&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2018-03&rft.isbn=978-0-262-03712-9&rft.aulast=Moro&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fbooks%2Fbrief-history-verb-be&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Bram95" class="citation book cs1">Bram, Barli (5 July 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_XTeNQpNbYMC">Write Well: Improving Writing Skills</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogyakarta (city)">Yogyakarta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>: Penerbit Kanisius. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-979-497-378-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-979-497-378-3"><bdi>978-979-497-378-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Write+Well%3A+Improving+Writing+Skills&rft.place=Yogyakarta%2C+Indonesia&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Penerbit+Kanisius&rft.date=1995-07-05&rft.isbn=978-979-497-378-3&rft.aulast=Bram&rft.aufirst=Barli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_XTeNQpNbYMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEveraertvan_Riemsdijk,_Henk2006" class="citation book cs1">Everaert, Martin; <a href="/wiki/Henk_van_Riemsdijk" title="Henk van Riemsdijk">van Riemsdijk, Henk</a>, eds. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uieX1Q_IKEYC">The Blackwell Companion to Syntax, Volumes I–V</a> (illustrated, revised ed.). <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. p. 849. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1485-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1485-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-1485-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Syntax%2C+Volumes+I%E2%80%93V&rft.pages=849&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+revised&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1485-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuieX1Q_IKEYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"> (See "copular sentences" and "existential sentences and expletive there" in Volume II.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Howe90" class="citation book cs1">Howe, Catherine; Desmarattes, Jean Lionel (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E7FkAAAAMAAJ">Haitian Creole Newspaper Reader</a>. Dunwoody Press. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931745-59-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931745-59-1"><bdi>978-0-931745-59-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Haitian+Creole+Newspaper+Reader&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Dunwoody+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-931745-59-1&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Desmarattes%2C+Jean+Lionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE7FkAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKneale,_William_and_Martha_Kneale1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Kneale" title="William Kneale">Kneale, William</a> and Martha Kneale (1962). The Development of Logic. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824183-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824183-6"><bdi>0-19-824183-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/373178">373178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Logic&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F373178&rft.isbn=0-19-824183-6&rft.au=Kneale%2C+William+and+Martha+Kneale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Moro, A. (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?ISBN=9780521024785">The Raising of Predicates</a>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Smith03" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Ron F; O'Connell, Loraine M. (March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IBth6ZKCi3EC">Editing Today Workbook</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-1317-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-1317-2"><bdi>978-0-8138-1317-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Editing+Today+Workbook&rft.pages=264&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2003-03&rft.isbn=978-0-8138-1317-2&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Ron+F&rft.au=O%27Connell%2C+Loraine+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIBth6ZKCi3EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Tüting, A. W. (December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fa-kuan.de/LAKSTRUCT.HTML">Essay on Lakota syntax</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719003246/http://www.fa-kuan.de/LAKSTRUCT.HTML">Archived</a> 2011-07-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Vald88" class="citation book cs1">Valdman, Albert; Rosemond, Renote (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tU9hAAAACAAJ">Ann Pale Kreyòl: An Introductory Course in Haitian Creole</a>. Illustrations: Philippe, Pierre-Henri (Illustrated ed.). Creole Institute, <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-929236-00-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-929236-00-1"><bdi>978-0-929236-00-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ann+Pale+Krey%C3%B2l%3A+An+Introductory+Course+in+Haitian+Creole&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Creole+Institute%2C+Indiana+University&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-929236-00-1&rft.aulast=Valdman&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft.au=Rosemond%2C+Renote&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtU9hAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Copula_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrea_Moro2018" class="citation book cs1">Andrea Moro (2018). A brief history of the verb "to be". MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03712-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03712-9"><bdi>978-0-262-03712-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+brief+history+of+the+verb+%22to+be%22&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-262-03712-9&rft.au=Andrea+Moro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Crystal2017" class="citation book cs1">David Crystal (2017). The Story of Be: A Verb's-Eye View of the English Language. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879109-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879109-6"><bdi>978-0-19-879109-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Be%3A+A+Verb%27s-Eye+View+of+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-879109-6&rft.au=David+Crystal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopula+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output 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features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_nouns" title="Bare nouns">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="/wiki/Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">Impersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalized_adjective" title="Nominalized adjective">Nominalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gender-specific_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-specific pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_particle" title="Noun particle">Noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li> <li><a 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