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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Flowering_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flowering_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Flowering plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flowering_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Insects_and_insect-pollinated_flowers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insects_and_insect-pollinated_flowers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Insects and insect-pollinated flowers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insects_and_insect-pollinated_flowers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds_and_bird-pollinated_flowers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds_and_bird-pollinated_flowers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Birds and bird-pollinated flowers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds_and_bird-pollinated_flowers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fig_reproduction_and_fig_wasps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fig_reproduction_and_fig_wasps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Fig reproduction and fig wasps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fig_reproduction_and_fig_wasps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acacia_ants_and_acacias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acacia_ants_and_acacias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Acacia ants and acacias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acacia_ants_and_acacias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hosts_and_parasites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hosts_and_parasites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Hosts and parasites</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hosts_and_parasites-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hosts and parasites subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hosts_and_parasites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parasites_and_sexually_reproducing_hosts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasites_and_sexually_reproducing_hosts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Parasites and sexually reproducing hosts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasites_and_sexually_reproducing_hosts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brood_parasites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brood_parasites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Brood parasites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brood_parasites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antagonistic_coevolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antagonistic_coevolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Antagonistic coevolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antagonistic_coevolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predators_and_prey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predators_and_prey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Predators and prey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predators_and_prey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Competition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multispecies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multispecies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Multispecies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multispecies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_mosaic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_mosaic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Geographic mosaic theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_mosaic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Outside biology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Outside_biology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Outside biology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Outside_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_algorithms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_algorithms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>In algorithms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_algorithms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>In architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_cosmology_and_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_cosmology_and_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>In cosmology and astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_cosmology_and_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_management_and_organization_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_management_and_organization_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>In management and organization studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_management_and_organization_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>In sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>In technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Coevolution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%83" title="تطور مشترك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تطور مشترك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8" title="সহবিবর্তন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সহবিবর্তন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolucija" title="Koevolucija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Koevolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevoluci%C3%B3" title="Coevolució – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Coevolució" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevoluce" title="Koevoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Koevoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolution" title="Koevolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Koevolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolutsioon" title="Koevolutsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Koevolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Συνεξέλιξη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Συνεξέλιξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Coevolución – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Coevolución" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koeboluzio" title="Koeboluzio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Koeboluzio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="هم‌فرگشتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هم‌فرگشتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C3%A9volution" title="Coévolution – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Coévolution" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevoluci%C3%B3n" title="Coevolución – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Coevolución" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EC%A7%84%ED%99%94" title="공진화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공진화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolusi" title="Koevolusi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Koevolusi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevoluzione" title="Coevoluzione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Coevoluzione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="קו-אבולוציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קו-אבולוציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Коэволюция – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Коэволюция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevol%C3%BAci%C3%B3" title="Koevolúció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Koevolúció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Коеволуција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Коеволуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-evolutie" title="Co-evolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Co-evolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="共進化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="共進化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolusjon" title="Koevolusjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Koevolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolusjon" title="Koevolusjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Koevolusjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="هم مهاله تکامل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هم مهاله تکامل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koewolucja" title="Koewolucja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Koewolucja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Coevolução – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Coevolução" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolu%C8%9Bie" title="Coevoluție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Coevoluție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Коэволюция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коэволюция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Coevolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolucija" title="Koevolucija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Koevolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Коеволуција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Коеволуција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koevolucija" title="Koevolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Koevolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Two or more species influencing each other's evolution</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg/330px-Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg/495px-Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg/660px-Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1781" data-file-height="1414" /></a><figcaption>The pollinating wasp <i><a href="/wiki/Dasyscolia_ciliata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dasyscolia ciliata">Dasyscolia ciliata</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Pseudocopulation" title="Pseudocopulation">pseudocopulation</a> with a flower of <i><a href="/wiki/Ophrys_speculum" title="Ophrys speculum">Ophrys speculum</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Pijl_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pijl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In biology, <b>coevolution</b> occurs when two or more <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> reciprocally affect each other's <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well as <a href="/wiki/Gene-culture_coevolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene-culture coevolution">gene-culture coevolution</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> mentioned evolutionary interactions between <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> (1859). Although he did not use the word coevolution, he suggested how plants and insects could evolve through reciprocal evolutionary changes. Naturalists in the late 1800s studied other examples of how interactions among species could result in reciprocal evolutionary change. Beginning in the 1940s, plant pathologists developed breeding programs that were examples of human-induced coevolution. Development of new crop plant varieties that were resistant to some diseases favored rapid evolution in pathogen populations to overcome those plant defenses. That, in turn, required the development of yet new resistant crop plant varieties, producing an ongoing cycle of reciprocal evolution in crop plants and diseases that continues to this day. </p><p>Coevolution as a major topic for study in nature expanded rapidly from the 1960s, when Daniel H. Janzen showed coevolution between <a href="/wiki/Acacia" title="Acacia">acacias</a> and ants (see below) and <a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Ehrlich" title="Paul R. Ehrlich">Paul R. Ehrlich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Peter H. Raven</a> suggested how <a href="/wiki/Escape_and_radiate_coevolution" title="Escape and radiate coevolution">coevolution between plants and butterflies</a> may have contributed to the diversification of species in both groups. The theoretical underpinnings of coevolution are now well-developed (e.g., the geographic mosaic theory of coevolution), and demonstrate that coevolution can play an important role in driving major evolutionary transitions such as the evolution of sexual reproduction or shifts in <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">ploidy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-itct_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-itct-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thompson,_John_N_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson,_John_N-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, it has also been demonstrated that coevolution can influence the structure and function of ecological communities, the evolution of groups of mutualists such as plants and their pollinators, and the dynamics of infectious disease.<sup id="cite_ref-itct_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-itct-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each party in a coevolutionary relationship exerts <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">selective pressures</a> on the other, thereby affecting each other's evolution. Coevolution includes many forms of <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">host-parasite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predator-prey</a> relationships between species, as well as <a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">competition within</a> or <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">between species</a>. In many cases, the selective pressures drive an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a> between the species involved. <b>Pairwise</b> or <b>specific coevolution</b>, between exactly two species, is not the only possibility; in <b>multi-species coevolution</b>, which is sometimes called <b>guild</b> or <b>diffuse coevolution</b>, several to many species may evolve a trait or a group of traits in reciprocity with a set of traits in another species, as has happened between the flowering plants and <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinating</a> insects such as <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">flies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>. There are a suite of specific hypotheses on the mechanisms by which groups of species coevolve with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson,_John_N._2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson,_John_N._2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but researchers have applied it by analogy to fields such as <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mutualism">Mutualism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mutualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism (biology)</a></div> <p>Coevolution is the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of two or more <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> which reciprocally affect each other, sometimes creating a <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic relationship</a> between the species. Such relationships can be of many different types.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-t24_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-t24-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flowering_plants">Flowering plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Flowering plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flowers appeared and diversified relatively suddenly in the fossil record, creating what <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> described as the "abominable mystery" of how they had evolved so quickly; he considered whether coevolution could be the explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-CardinalDanforth2013_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CardinalDanforth2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He first mentioned coevolution as a possibility in <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, and developed the concept further in <i><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids" title="Fertilisation of Orchids">Fertilisation of Orchids</a></i> (1862).<sup id="cite_ref-t24_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-t24-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-origins94_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origins94-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-orchids1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-orchids1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Insects_and_insect-pollinated_flowers">Insects and insect-pollinated flowers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Insects and insect-pollinated flowers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Entomophily" title="Entomophily">Entomophily</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg/170px-Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg/255px-Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg/340px-Apis_mellifera_-_Melilotus_albus_-_Keila.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2059" data-file-height="2883" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">Honey bee</a> taking a reward of <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a> and collecting pollen in its <a href="/wiki/Pollen_basket" title="Pollen basket">pollen baskets</a> from <a href="/wiki/Melilotus_albus" title="Melilotus albus">white melilot</a> flowers</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Entomophily" title="Entomophily">insect-pollinated (entomophilous) flowers</a> are conspicuously coadapted with insects to ensure pollination and in return to reward the <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> with nectar and pollen. The two groups have coevolved for over 100 million years, creating a complex network of interactions. Either they evolved together, or at some later stages they came together, likely with pre-adaptations, and became mutually adapted.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunau_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunau-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several highly successful <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> groups—especially the <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a> (wasps, bees and ants) and <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">Lepidoptera</a> (butterflies and moths) as well as many types of <a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">Diptera</a> (flies) and <a href="/wiki/Coleoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Coleoptera">Coleoptera</a> (beetles)—evolved in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> (145 to 66 million years ago). The earliest bees, important pollinators today, appeared in the early Cretaceous.<sup id="cite_ref-Bristol_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bristol-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A group of wasps <a href="/wiki/Sister_clade" class="mw-redirect" title="Sister clade">sister</a> to the bees evolved at the same time as flowering plants, as did the Lepidoptera.<sup id="cite_ref-Bristol_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bristol-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, all the major <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> of bees first appeared between the middle and late Cretaceous, simultaneously with the adaptive radiation of the <a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">eudicots</a> (three quarters of all angiosperms), and at the time when the angiosperms became the world's dominant plants on land.<sup id="cite_ref-CardinalDanforth2013_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CardinalDanforth2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At least three aspects of flowers appear to have coevolved between flowering plants and insects, because they involve communication between these organisms. Firstly, flowers communicate with their pollinators by scent; insects use this scent to determine how far away a flower is, to approach it, and to identify where to land and finally to feed. Secondly, flowers attract insects with patterns of stripes leading to the rewards of nectar and pollen, and colours such as blue and ultraviolet, to which their eyes are sensitive; in contrast, bird-pollinated flowers tend to be red or orange. Thirdly, flowers such as <a href="/wiki/Ophrys" title="Ophrys">some orchids</a> mimic females of particular insects, deceiving males into <a href="/wiki/Pseudocopulation" title="Pseudocopulation">pseudocopulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bristol_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bristol-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pijl_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pijl-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Yucca" title="Yucca">yucca</a>, <i>Yucca whipplei</i>, is pollinated exclusively by <i>Tegeticula maculata</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Tegeticula" title="Tegeticula">yucca moth</a> that depends on the yucca for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The moth eats the seeds of the plant, while gathering pollen. The pollen has evolved to become very sticky, and remains on the mouth parts when the moth moves to the next flower. The yucca provides a place for the moth to lay its eggs, deep within the flower away from potential predators.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Birds_and_bird-pollinated_flowers">Birds and bird-pollinated flowers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Birds and bird-pollinated flowers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ornithophily" title="Ornithophily">Ornithophily</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg/250px-Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg/330px-Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg/500px-Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1692" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Purple-throated_carib" title="Purple-throated carib">Purple-throated carib</a> feeding from and pollinating a flower</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">Hummingbirds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ornithophily" title="Ornithophily">ornithophilous</a> (bird-pollinated) flowers have evolved a <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> relationship. The flowers have <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a> suited to the birds' diet, their color suits the birds' vision and their shape fits that of the birds' bills. The blooming times of the flowers have also been found to coincide with hummingbirds' breeding seasons. The floral characteristics of ornithophilous plants vary greatly among each other compared to closely related insect-pollinated species. These flowers also tend to be more ornate, complex, and showy than their insect pollinated counterparts. It is generally agreed that plants formed coevolutionary relationships with insects first, and ornithophilous species diverged at a later time. There is not much scientific support for instances of the reverse of this divergence: from ornithophily to insect pollination. The diversity in floral phenotype in ornithophilous species, and the relative consistency observed in bee-pollinated species can be attributed to the direction of the shift in pollinator preference.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flowers have converged to take advantage of similar birds.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flowers compete for pollinators, and adaptations reduce unfavourable effects of this competition. The fact that birds can fly during inclement weather makes them more efficient pollinators where bees and other insects would be inactive. Ornithophily may have arisen for this reason in isolated environments with poor insect colonization or areas with plants which flower in the winter.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bird-pollinated flowers usually have higher volumes of nectar and higher sugar production than those pollinated by insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiles_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiles-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This meets the birds' high energy requirements, the most important determinants of flower choice.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiles_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiles-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Mimulus" title="Mimulus">Mimulus</a></i>, an increase in red pigment in petals and flower nectar volume noticeably reduces the proportion of pollination by bees as opposed to hummingbirds; while greater flower surface area increases bee pollination. Therefore, red pigments in the flowers of <i>Mimulus cardinalis</i> may function primarily to discourage bee visitation.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Penstemon" title="Penstemon">Penstemon</a></i>, flower traits that discourage bee pollination may be more influential on the flowers' evolutionary change than 'pro-bird' adaptations, but adaptation 'towards' birds and 'away' from bees can happen simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some flowers such as <i><a href="/wiki/Heliconia_angusta" title="Heliconia angusta">Heliconia angusta</a></i> appear not to be as specifically ornithophilous as had been supposed: the species is occasionally (151 visits in 120 hours of observation) visited by <i><a href="/wiki/Trigona" title="Trigona">Trigona</a></i> stingless bees. These bees are largely pollen robbers in this case, but may also serve as pollinators.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following their respective breeding seasons, several species of hummingbirds occur at the same locations in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, and several hummingbird flowers bloom simultaneously in these habitats. These flowers have <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">converged</a> to a common <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> and color because these are effective at attracting the birds. Different lengths and curvatures of the <a href="/wiki/Petal#Corolla" title="Petal">corolla</a> tubes can affect the efficiency of extraction in hummingbird species in relation to differences in bill morphology. Tubular flowers force a bird to orient its bill in a particular way when probing the flower, especially when the bill and corolla are both curved. This allows the plant to place <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> on a certain part of the bird's body, permitting a variety of morphological <a href="/wiki/Co-adaptation" title="Co-adaptation">co-adaptations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiles_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiles-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ornithophilous flowers need to be conspicuous to birds.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiles_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiles-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds have their greatest spectral sensitivity and finest hue discrimination at the red end of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual spectrum">visual spectrum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stiles_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiles-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so red is particularly conspicuous to them. Hummingbirds may also be able to see ultraviolet "colors". The prevalence of ultraviolet patterns and nectar guides in nectar-poor entomophilous (insect-pollinated) flowers warns the bird to avoid these flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiles_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiles-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of the two subfamilies of hummingbirds, the <a href="/wiki/Phaethornithinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaethornithinae">Phaethornithinae</a> (hermits) and the <a href="/wiki/Trochilinae" title="Trochilinae">Trochilinae</a>, has evolved in conjunction with a particular set of flowers. Most Phaethornithinae species are associated with large <a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">monocotyledonous</a> herbs, while the Trochilinae prefer <a href="/wiki/Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">dicotyledonous</a> plant species.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiles_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiles-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fig_reproduction_and_fig_wasps">Fig reproduction and fig wasps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fig reproduction and fig wasps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ficus_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Ficus_plant.jpg/220px-Ficus_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Ficus_plant.jpg/330px-Ficus_plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Ficus_plant.jpg/440px-Ficus_plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Common_fig" class="mw-redirect" title="Common fig">fig</a> exposing its many tiny matured, seed-bearing <a href="/wiki/Gynoecia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynoecia">gynoecia</a>. These are pollinated by the fig wasp, <i><a href="/wiki/Blastophaga_psenes" title="Blastophaga psenes">Blastophaga psenes</a></i>. In the cultivated fig, there are also asexual varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-Suleman_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suleman-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_coevolution_in_Ficus" title="Reproductive coevolution in Ficus">Reproductive coevolution in Ficus</a></div> <p>The genus <i><a href="/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">Ficus</a></i> is composed of 800 species of vines, shrubs, and trees, including the cultivated fig, defined by their <a href="/wiki/Syconia" class="mw-redirect" title="Syconia">syconia</a>, the fruit-like vessels that either hold female flowers or pollen on the inside. Each fig species has its own <a href="/wiki/Fig_wasp" title="Fig wasp">fig wasp</a> which (in most cases) pollinates the fig, so a tight mutual dependence has evolved and persisted throughout the genus.<sup id="cite_ref-Suleman_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suleman-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species,_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_(Acacia_cornigera)_with_Beltian_bodies,_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge,_Belmopan,_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species%2C_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_%28Acacia_cornigera%29_with_Beltian_bodies%2C_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge%2C_Belmopan%2C_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg/220px-Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species%2C_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_%28Acacia_cornigera%29_with_Beltian_bodies%2C_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge%2C_Belmopan%2C_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species%2C_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_%28Acacia_cornigera%29_with_Beltian_bodies%2C_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge%2C_Belmopan%2C_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg/330px-Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species%2C_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_%28Acacia_cornigera%29_with_Beltian_bodies%2C_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge%2C_Belmopan%2C_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species%2C_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_%28Acacia_cornigera%29_with_Beltian_bodies%2C_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge%2C_Belmopan%2C_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg/440px-Ant_-_Pseudomyrmex_species%2C_on_Bull_Thorn_Acacia_%28Acacia_cornigera%29_with_Beltian_bodies%2C_Caves_Branch_Jungle_Lodge%2C_Belmopan%2C_Belize_-_8505045055.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><i>Pseudomyrmex</i> ant on bull thorn acacia (<i><a href="/wiki/Vachellia_cornigera" title="Vachellia cornigera">Vachellia cornigera</a></i>) with Beltian bodies that provide the ants with protein<sup id="cite_ref-Hölldobler-532_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hölldobler-532-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acacia_ants_and_acacias">Acacia ants and acacias</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Acacia ants and acacias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pseudomyrmex_ferruginea" title="Pseudomyrmex ferruginea">Pseudomyrmex ferruginea</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Acacia_ant" class="mw-redirect" title="Acacia ant">acacia ant</a> (<i>Pseudomyrmex ferruginea</i>) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of "Acacia" (<i><a href="/wiki/Vachellia" title="Vachellia">Vachellia</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae.<sup id="cite_ref-Hölldobler-532_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hölldobler-532-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such mutualism is not automatic: other ant species exploit trees without reciprocating, following different <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_strategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary strategy">evolutionary strategies</a>. These cheater ants impose important host costs via damage to tree reproductive organs, though their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hosts_and_parasites">Hosts and parasites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hosts and parasites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">Host–parasite coevolution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parasites_and_sexually_reproducing_hosts">Parasites and sexually reproducing hosts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Parasites and sexually reproducing hosts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">Host–parasite coevolution</a> is the coevolution of a <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Woolhouse_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolhouse-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A general characteristic of many viruses, as <a href="/wiki/Obligate_parasite" title="Obligate parasite">obligate parasites</a>, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Queen_hypothesis" title="Red Queen hypothesis">Red Queen hypothesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Queen%27s_race" title="Red Queen's race">Red Queen's race</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Through_the_Looking-Glass" title="Through the Looking-Glass">Through the Looking-Glass</a></i>: "it takes all the running <i>you</i> can do, to keep in the same place".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The parasite–host relationship probably drove the prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing resistance (through variation in the next generation), giving sexual reproduction variability for fitness not seen in the asexual reproduction, which produces another generation of the organism susceptible to infection by the same parasite.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coevolution between host and parasite may accordingly be responsible for much of the genetic diversity seen in normal populations, including blood-plasma polymorphism, protein polymorphism, and histocompatibility systems.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reed_warbler_cuckoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Reed_warbler_cuckoo.jpg/170px-Reed_warbler_cuckoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Reed_warbler_cuckoo.jpg/255px-Reed_warbler_cuckoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Reed_warbler_cuckoo.jpg/340px-Reed_warbler_cuckoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">Brood parasite</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_reed_warbler" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian reed warbler">Eurasian reed warbler</a> raising a <a href="/wiki/Common_cuckoo" title="Common cuckoo">common cuckoo</a><sup id="cite_ref-Weiblen_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiblen-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brood_parasites">Brood parasites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Brood parasites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood parasitism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">Brood parasitism</a> demonstrates close coevolution of host and parasite, for example in some <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">cuckoos</a>. These birds do not make their own nests, but lay their eggs in nests of other species, ejecting or killing the eggs and young of the host and thus having a strong negative impact on the host's reproductive fitness. Their eggs are camouflaged as eggs of their hosts, implying that hosts can distinguish their own eggs from those of intruders and are in an evolutionary arms race with the cuckoo between camouflage and recognition. Cuckoos are counter-adapted to host defences with features such as thickened eggshells, shorter incubation (so their young hatch first), and flat backs adapted to lift eggs out of the nest.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiblen_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiblen-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antagonistic_coevolution">Antagonistic coevolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Antagonistic coevolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Antagonistic coevolution is seen in the <a href="/wiki/Harvester_ant" title="Harvester ant">harvester ant</a> species <i><a href="/wiki/Pogonomyrmex_barbatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogonomyrmex barbatus">Pogonomyrmex barbatus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pogonomyrmex_rugosus" title="Pogonomyrmex rugosus">Pogonomyrmex rugosus</a></i>, in a relationship both parasitic and mutualistic. The queens are unable to produce worker ants by mating with their own species. Only by crossbreeding can they produce workers. The winged females act as parasites for the males of the other species as their sperm will only produce sterile hybrids. But because the colonies are fully dependent on these hybrids to survive, it is also mutualistic. While there is no genetic exchange between the species, they are unable to evolve in a direction where they become too genetically different as this would make crossbreeding impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrmann_Cahan_pp._20141771–20141771_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrmann_Cahan_pp._20141771–20141771-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Predators_and_prey">Predators and prey</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Predators and prey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg/220px-Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg/330px-Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg/440px-Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2948" data-file-height="2029" /></a><figcaption>Predator and prey: a <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopard</a> killing a <a href="/wiki/Cape_bushbuck" title="Cape bushbuck">bushbuck</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">Predators</a> and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of the two mutually imposes <a href="/wiki/Selective_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective pressure">selective pressures</a>. These often lead to an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a> between prey and predator, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">anti-predator adaptations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The same applies to <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>, animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat. <a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Ehrlich" title="Paul R. Ehrlich">Paul R. Ehrlich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Peter H. Raven</a> in 1964 proposed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Escape_and_radiate_coevolution" title="Escape and radiate coevolution">escape and radiate coevolution</a> to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_squirrel" title="Red squirrel">red squirrels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crossbill" title="Crossbill">crossbills</a> (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the <a href="/wiki/Lodgepole_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodgepole pine">lodgepole pine</a>. The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at the seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore.<sup id="cite_ref-Berkeley_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berkeley-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg/170px-Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg/255px-Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="277" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sexual_conflict" title="Sexual conflict">Sexual conflict</a> has been studied in <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i> (shown mating, male on right).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Competition">Competition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></div> <p>Both <a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">intraspecific competition</a>, with features such as <a href="/wiki/Sexual_conflict" title="Sexual conflict">sexual conflict</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-UCL_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCL-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">interspecific competition</a>, such as between predators, may be able to drive coevolution.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intraspecific competition can result in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_antagonistic_coevolution" title="Sexual antagonistic coevolution">sexual antagonistic coevolution</a>, an evolutionary relationship analogous to an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">arms race</a>, where the evolutionary fitness of the sexes is counteracted to achieve maximum reproductive success. For example, some <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> reproduce using <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_insemination" title="Traumatic insemination">traumatic insemination</a>, which is disadvantageous to the female's health. During mating, males try to maximise their fitness by inseminating as many females as possible, but the more times a female's <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a> is punctured, the less likely she is to survive, reducing her fitness.<sup id="cite_ref-Siva-Jothy_et_al._48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siva-Jothy_et_al.-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multispecies">Multispecies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Multispecies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amegilla_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Amegilla_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg/250px-Amegilla_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Amegilla_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg/330px-Amegilla_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Amegilla_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg/500px-Amegilla_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="1543" /></a><figcaption>Long-tongued bees and long-tubed flowers coevolved, whether pairwise or "diffusely" in groups known as guilds.<sup id="cite_ref-Juenger_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juenger-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The types of coevolution listed so far have been described as if they operated pairwise (also called specific coevolution), in which traits of one species have evolved in direct response to traits of a second species, and vice versa. This is not always the case. Another evolutionary mode arises where evolution is reciprocal, but is among a group of species rather than exactly two. This is variously called guild or diffuse coevolution. For instance, a trait in several species of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plant</a>, such as offering its <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a> at the end of a long tube, can coevolve with a trait in one or several species of pollinating insects, such as a long proboscis. More generally, flowering plants are pollinated by insects from different families including <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fly" title="Fly">flies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>, all of which form a broad <a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">guild</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> which respond to the nectar or pollen produced by flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Juenger_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juenger-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_mosaic_theory">Geographic mosaic theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Geographic mosaic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_coevolution" title="Mosaic coevolution">Mosaic coevolution</a></div> <p><b>Mosaic coevolution</b> is a theory in which <a href="/wiki/Geographic_location" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic location">geographic location</a> and <a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">community ecology</a> shape differing coevolution between strongly interacting species in multiple populations. These populations may be separated by space and/or time. Depending on the ecological conditions, the interspecific interactions may be mutualistic or antagonistic.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_2005_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson_2005-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mutualisms, both partners benefit from the interaction, whereas one partner generally experiences decreased fitness in antagonistic interactions. Arms races consist of two species adapting ways to "one up" the other. Several factors affect these relationships, including hot spots, cold spots, and trait mixing.<sup id="cite_ref-Gomulkiewicz_2000_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gomulkiewicz_2000-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reciprocal selection occurs when a change in one partner puts pressure on the other partner to change in response. Hot spots are areas of strong reciprocal selection, while cold spots are areas with no reciprocal selection or where only one partner is present.<sup id="cite_ref-Gomulkiewicz_2000_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gomulkiewicz_2000-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three constituents of geographic structure that contribute to this particular type of coevolution are: natural selection in the form of a geographic mosaic, hot spots often surrounded by cold spots, and trait remixing by means of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gomulkiewicz_2000_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gomulkiewicz_2000-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mosaic, along with general coevolution, most commonly occurs at the population level and is driven by both the <a href="/wiki/Biotic_material" title="Biotic material">biotic</a> and the abiotic environment. These environmental factors can constrain coevolution and affect how far it can escalate.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_2008_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_biology">Outside biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Outside biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but has been applied to other fields by <a href="/wiki/Analogy" title="Analogy">analogy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_algorithms">In algorithms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In algorithms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></div> <p>Coevolutionary algorithms are used for generating <a href="/wiki/Artificial_life" title="Artificial life">artificial life</a> as well as for optimization, <a href="/wiki/Games_and_learning" title="Games and learning">game learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hillis" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Hillis">Daniel Hillis</a> added "co-evolving parasites" to prevent an optimization procedure from becoming stuck at <a href="/wiki/Maximum_and_minimum" title="Maximum and minimum">local maxima</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Sims" title="Karl Sims">Karl Sims</a> coevolved virtual creatures.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_architecture">In architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of coevolution was introduced in architecture by the Danish architect-urbanist <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Valeur" title="Henrik Valeur">Henrik Valeur</a> as an antithesis to "star-architecture".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the curator of the Danish Pavilion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture, he created an exhibition-project on coevolution in urban development in China; it won the Golden Lion for Best National Pavilion.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_University" title="Newcastle University">Newcastle University</a>, a coevolutionary approach to architecture has been defined as a design practice that engages students, volunteers and members of the local community in practical, experimental work aimed at "establishing dynamic processes of learning between users and designers."<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_cosmology_and_astronomy">In cosmology and astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In cosmology and astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his book <i>The Self-organizing Universe</i>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Jantsch" title="Erich Jantsch">Erich Jantsch</a> attributed the entire evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> to coevolution. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, an emerging theory proposes that <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a> develop in an interdependent way analogous to biological coevolution.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_management_and_organization_studies">In management and organization studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In management and organization studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since year 2000, a growing number of management and organization studies discuss coevolution and coevolutionary processes. Even so, Abatecola el al. (2020) reveals a prevailing scarcity in explaining what processes substantially characterize coevolution in these fields, meaning that specific analyses about where this perspective on socio-economic change is, and where it could move toward in the future, are still missing.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_sociology">In sociology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In sociology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future</i> (1994)<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Norgaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Norgaard">Richard Norgaard</a> proposes a coevolutionary cosmology to explain how social and environmental systems influence and reshape each other.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment</i> (1994) John Gowdy suggests that: "The economy, society, and the environment are linked together in a coevolutionary relationship".<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_technology">In technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: In technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Software_ecosystem" title="Software ecosystem">Software ecosystem</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">Computer software</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> can be considered as two separate components but tied intrinsically by coevolution. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> and computer <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">applications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Web_application" title="Web application">web applications</a>. All these systems depend upon each other and advance through a kind of evolutionary process. Changes in hardware, an operating system or web browser may introduce new features that are then incorporated into the corresponding applications running alongside.<sup id="cite_ref-D’Hondt_Volder_Mens_Wuyts_2002_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D’Hondt_Volder_Mens_Wuyts_2002-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea is closely related to the concept of "joint optimization" in <a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">sociotechnical systems</a> analysis and design, where a system is understood to consist of both a "technical system" encompassing the tools and hardware used for production and maintenance, and a "social system" of relationships and procedures through which the technology is tied into the goals of the system and all the other human and organizational relationships within and outside the system. Such systems work best when the technical and social systems are deliberately developed together.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bak%E2%80%93Sneppen_model" title="Bak–Sneppen model">Bak–Sneppen model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CoEvolution_Quarterly" title="CoEvolution Quarterly">CoEvolution Quarterly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fitting" title="Ecological fitting">Ecological fitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_and_radiate_coevolution" title="Escape and radiate coevolution">Escape and radiate coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics_of_domestication" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomics of domestication">Genomics of domestication</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The acacia ant protects at least 5 species of "Acacia", now all renamed to <i>Vachellia</i>: <i><a href="/wiki/Vachellia_chiapensis" title="Vachellia chiapensis">V. chiapensis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vachellia_collinsii" title="Vachellia collinsii">V. collinsii</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vachellia_cornigera" title="Vachellia cornigera">V. cornigera</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vachellia_hindsii" title="Vachellia hindsii">V. hindsii</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Vachellia_sphaerocephala" title="Vachellia sphaerocephala">V. sphaerocephala</a></i>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Pijl-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pijl_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pijl_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_PijlDodson1966" class="citation book cs1">van der Pijl, Leendert; Dodson, Calaway H. (1966). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/orchidflowersthe0000pijl">"Chapter 11: Mimicry and Deception"</a></span>. <i>Orchid Flowers: Their Pollination and Evolution</i>. Coral Gables: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Miami" title="University of Miami">University of Miami</a> Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/orchidflowersthe0000pijl/page/129">129–141</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87024-069-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87024-069-0"><bdi>978-0-87024-069-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Mimicry+and+Deception&rft.btitle=Orchid+Flowers%3A+Their+Pollination+and+Evolution&rft.place=Coral+Gables&rft.pages=129-141&rft.pub=University+of+Miami+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-87024-069-0&rft.aulast=van+der+Pijl&rft.aufirst=Leendert&rft.au=Dodson%2C+Calaway+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Forchidflowersthe0000pijl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-itct-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-itct_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-itct_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNuismer2017" class="citation book cs1">Nuismer, Scott (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502204606/https://www.macmillanlearning.com/Catalog/product/introductiontocoevolutionarytheory-firstedition-nuismer/valueoptions"><i>Introduction to Coevolutionary Theory</i></a>. New York: W.F. Freeman. p. 395. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-319-10619-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-319-10619-5"><bdi>978-1-319-10619-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.macmillanlearning.com/Catalog/product/introductiontocoevolutionarytheory-firstedition-nuismer/valueoptions">the original</a> on 2019-05-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-01861-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-01861-4"><bdi>978-0-226-01861-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/808684836">808684836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relentless+evolution&rft.place=Chicago&rft.date=2013-04-15&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F808684836&rft.isbn=978-0-226-01861-4&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=John+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoevolution" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuimarãesPiresJordanoBascompte2017" class="citation journal cs1">Guimarães, Paulo R.; Pires, Mathias M.; Jordano, Pedro; Bascompte, Jordi; Thompson, John N. 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(1994). <i>Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and a Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+Betrayed%3A+The+End+of+Progress+and+a+Coevolutionary+Revisioning+of+the+Future&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Norgaard&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGlasser1996" class="citation journal cs1">Glasser, Harold (1996). "Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future by Richard B. Norgaard". <i>Environmental Values</i>. <b>5</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">267–</span>270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F096327199600500308">10.1177/096327199600500308</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30301478">30301478</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:259156528">259156528</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Values&rft.atitle=Development+Betrayed%3A+The+End+of+Progress+and+A+Coevolutionary+Revisioning+of+the+Future+by+Richard+B.+Norgaard&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E270&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A259156528%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30301478%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F096327199600500308&rft.aulast=Glasser&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGowdy1994" class="citation book cs1">Gowdy, John (1994). <i>Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment</i>. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coevolutionary+Economics%3A+The+Economy%2C+Society+and+the+Environment&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Gowdy&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-D’Hondt_Volder_Mens_Wuyts_2002-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-D’Hondt_Volder_Mens_Wuyts_2002_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFD’HondtVolderMensWuyts2002" class="citation book cs1">D’Hondt, Theo; Volder, Kris; Mens, Kim; Wuyts, Roel (2002). "Co-Evolution of Object-Oriented Software Design and Implementation". <i>Software Architectures and Component Technology</i>. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. <span class="nowrap">207–</span>224. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-0883-0_7">10.1007/978-1-4615-0883-0_7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-5286-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-5286-0"><bdi>978-1-4613-5286-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Co-Evolution+of+Object-Oriented+Software+Design+and+Implementation&rft.btitle=Software+Architectures+and+Component+Technology&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E207-%3C%2Fspan%3E224&rft.pub=Springer+US&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4615-0883-0_7&rft.isbn=978-1-4613-5286-0&rft.aulast=D%E2%80%99Hondt&rft.aufirst=Theo&rft.au=Volder%2C+Kris&rft.au=Mens%2C+Kim&rft.au=Wuyts%2C+Roel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCherns1976" class="citation journal cs1">Cherns, A. (1976). "The principles of sociotechnical design". <i>Human Relations</i>. <b>29</b> (8): 8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001872677602900806">10.1177/001872677602900806</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Relations&rft.atitle=The+principles+of+sociotechnical+design&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001872677602900806&rft.aulast=Cherns&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoevolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/coevolution-6703/">Coevolution</a>, video of lecture by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Stearns" title="Stephen C. Stearns">Stephen C. Stearns</a> (<a href="/wiki/Open_Yale_Courses" title="Open Yale Courses">Open Yale Courses</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 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biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a 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