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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>East of the Mississippi (1775–1842)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-East_of_the_Mississippi_(1775–1842)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle East of the Mississippi (1775–1842) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-East_of_the_Mississippi_(1775–1842)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_Revolutionary_War_(1775–1783)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolutionary_War_(1775–1783)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Revolutionary_War_(1775–1783)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cherokee–American_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cherokee–American_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cherokee–American wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cherokee–American_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northwest_Indian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northwest_Indian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Northwest Indian War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northwest_Indian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tecumseh,_the_Creek_War,_and_the_War_of_1812" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tecumseh,_the_Creek_War,_and_the_War_of_1812"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Tecumseh, the Creek War, and the War of 1812</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tecumseh,_the_Creek_War,_and_the_War_of_1812-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Seminole_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Seminole_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Second Seminole War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Seminole_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_of_the_Mississippi_(1804–1924)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_of_the_Mississippi_(1804–1924)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>West of the Mississippi (1804–1924)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-West_of_the_Mississippi_(1804–1924)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle West of the Mississippi (1804–1924) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-West_of_the_Mississippi_(1804–1924)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Texas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Texas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_Northwest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_Northwest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Pacific Northwest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_Northwest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southwest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southwest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Southwest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southwest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>California</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Basin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Basin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Great Basin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Basin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Plains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Plains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Great Plains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Plains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dakota_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dakota_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.1</span> <span>Dakota War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dakota_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colorado_War,_Sand_Creek_Massacre,_and_the_Sioux_War_of_1865" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colorado_War,_Sand_Creek_Massacre,_and_the_Sioux_War_of_1865"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2</span> <span>Colorado War, Sand Creek Massacre, and the Sioux War of 1865</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colorado_War,_Sand_Creek_Massacre,_and_the_Sioux_War_of_1865-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sheridan's_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sheridan's_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3</span> <span>Sheridan's campaigns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sheridan's_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_Hills_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Hills_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.4</span> <span>Black Hills War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Hills_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Last conflicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_the_American_Indian_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_the_American_Indian_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects on the American Indian population</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_the_American_Indian_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>List</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiography_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">American Indian Wars</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحروب الأمريكية الهندية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحروب الأمريكية الهندية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_Indies" title="Guerres Indies – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerres Indies" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99l%C9%99ri" title="Hindi müharibələri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hindi müharibələri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="قیزیل دریلی ساواش‌لاری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قیزیل دریلی ساواش‌لاری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Індзейскія войны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Індзейскія войны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Индиански войни – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Индиански войни" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_%C3%ADndies" title="Guerres índies – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerres índies" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indi%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky" title="Indiánské války – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Indiánské války" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianerkrigene" title="Indianerkrigene – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Indianerkrigene" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianerkriege" title="Indianerkriege – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Indianerkriege" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_Indias" title="Guerras Indias – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras Indias" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianaj_Militoj" title="Indianaj Militoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Indianaj Militoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiar_Gerrak" title="Indiar Gerrak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Indiar Gerrak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AE%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جنگ‌های سرخ‌پوستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌های سرخ‌پوستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_indiennes" title="Guerres indiennes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerres indiennes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikaanske_Yndiaanske_oarloggen" title="Amerikaanske Yndiaanske oarloggen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Amerikaanske Yndiaanske oarloggen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_indias" title="Guerras indias – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerras indias" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%9D%B8%EB%94%94%EC%96%B8_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="미국 인디언 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 인디언 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Indian" title="Perang Indian – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Indian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_indiane" title="Guerre indiane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerre indiane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="インディアン戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インディアン戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianerkrigene" title="Indianerkrigene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Indianerkrigene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rras_Indianas" title="Guèrras Indianas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrras Indianas" 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22:55 UTC."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Frontier conflicts in North America, 1609–1890s</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Indian Wars" redirects here. For wars fought by India, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_India" title="List of wars involving India">List of wars involving India</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Indian_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Indian War (disambiguation)">Indian War (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">American Indian Wars</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of North America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">territorial expansion of the United States</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg/300px-U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg/450px-U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg/600px-U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1746" data-file-height="1308" /></a></span><br />An 1899 <a href="/wiki/Chromolithograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromolithograph">chromolithograph</a> of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Cavalry" title="United States Cavalry">U.S. Cavalrymen</a> pursuing American Indians</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>1609–1890</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> with spillover in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <ul><li>Sovereignty of various combatants extended or lost</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Massive indigenous population decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Deportation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">forced assimilation</a> of indigenous tribes</li> <li>Many treaties, truces, and armistices made and broken by combatants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a> established in the United States</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous North Americans</a></b>:<hr /><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">American Indians</a>, including the tribes: <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Creek (Muscogee)</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miami_people" title="Miami people">Miami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wampanoag" title="Wampanoag">Wampanoag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Confederacy" title="Northwestern Confederacy">Northwestern Confederacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tecumseh's Confederacy">Tecumseh's Confederacy</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska Natives</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Colonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonists">Colonists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty" title="Viceroyalty">Viceroyalty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans">Europeans</a></b>:<hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>:<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/23px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/35px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/46px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a> <br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281868%E2%80%931921%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Dominion of Canada</a><hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonial Empire">First French Empire</a>:<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a><hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>:<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Spain">Kingdom of Spain</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a><hr /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a>:<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a><hr /><span data-sort-value="Russia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a><hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281891%E2%80%931896%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281891%E2%80%931896%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281891%E2%80%931896%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281891%E2%80%931896%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281891%E2%80%931896%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281891%E2%80%931896%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281863-1865%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281863-1865%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281863-1865%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281863-1865%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281863-1865%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281863-1865%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> <hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a><hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_Texas_%281839%E2%80%931879%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Texas_%281839%E2%80%931879%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_Texas_%281839%E2%80%931879%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Texas_%281839%E2%80%931879%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Flag_of_Texas_%281839%E2%80%931879%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Texas_%281839%E2%80%931879%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="720" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Texas" title="Republic of Texas">Republic of Texas</a><hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281865%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281865%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281865%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281865%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281865%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281865%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States</a><hr /><b><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous North Americans</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>American Indian Wars</b>, also known as the <b>American Frontier Wars</b>, and the <b>Indian Wars</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a conflict initially fought by <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonial empires</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a>, and briefly the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Texas" title="Republic of Texas">Republic of Texas</a> against various <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">American Indian tribes</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. These conflicts occurred from the time of the earliest colonial settlements in the 17th century until the end of the 19th century. The various wars resulted from a wide variety of factors, the most common being the desire of settlers and governments for Indian tribes' lands. The European powers and their colonies enlisted allied Indian tribes to help them conduct warfare against each other's colonial settlements. After the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, many conflicts were local to specific states or regions and frequently involved disputes over land use; some entailed cycles of violent reprisal. </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/American_pioneer" title="American pioneer">American settlers</a> spread and expanded westward across the United States after 1780, armed conflicts increased in size, duration, and intensity between settlers and various Indian tribes. The climax came in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>, when major Indian coalitions in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> fought against the United States and lost. Conflict with settlers became less common and was usually resolved by treaties between the federal government and specific tribes, which often required the tribes to sell or surrender land to the United States. These treaties were frequently broken by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal U.S. government</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830 that was passed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> neither authorized the unilateral abrogation of treaties guaranteeing Native American land rights within the states, nor the forced relocation of the eastern Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet both occurred and on a massive scale, it forced Indian tribes to move from east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> to the west on the <a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a>, especially to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> which became <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>. As settlers expanded onto the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western United States</a>, the nomadic and semi-nomadic Indian tribes of those regions were forced to relocate to <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a>. </p><p>Indian tribes and coalitions often won battles with the encroaching settlers and soldiers, but their numbers were too few and their resources too limited to win more than temporary victories and concessions from the U.S. and other countries that colonized areas that had composed the modern-day borders of the United States of America. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_periods_(1609–1774)"><span id="Colonial_periods_.281609.E2.80.931774.29"></span>Colonial periods (1609–1774)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1622_massacre_jamestown_de_Bry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/1622_massacre_jamestown_de_Bry.jpg/220px-1622_massacre_jamestown_de_Bry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/1622_massacre_jamestown_de_Bry.jpg/330px-1622_massacre_jamestown_de_Bry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/1622_massacre_jamestown_de_Bry.jpg/440px-1622_massacre_jamestown_de_Bry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1186" /></a><figcaption>Jamestown <a href="/wiki/Indian_massacre_of_1622" title="Indian massacre of 1622">Indian massacre of 1622</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Fort_Detroit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Siege_of_Fort_Detroit.jpg/220px-Siege_of_Fort_Detroit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Siege_of_Fort_Detroit.jpg/330px-Siege_of_Fort_Detroit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Siege_of_Fort_Detroit.jpg/440px-Siege_of_Fort_Detroit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Detroit" title="Siege of Fort Detroit">Siege of Fort Detroit</a> during <a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a> in 1763</figcaption></figure> <p>The colonization of North America by English, Spanish, French, Russian and Dutch was resisted by some Indian tribes and assisted by other tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wars and other armed conflicts in the 17th and 18th centuries included: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) between the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> and the French, who allied with the <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a> (1610–14, 1622–32, 1644–46), including the <a href="/wiki/Indian_massacre_of_1622" title="Indian massacre of 1622">1622 Jamestown Massacre</a>, between English colonists and the <a href="/wiki/Powhatan_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Powhatan Confederacy">Powhatan Confederacy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Colony of Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a> of 1636–38 between the <a href="/wiki/Pequot" class="mw-redirect" title="Pequot">Pequot</a> tribe and colonists from the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut Colony</a> and allied tribes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a> (1643–45) in the Dutch territory of <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>) between colonists and the <a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Lenape</a> people</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_War" title="Peach War">Peach War</a> (1655), the large-scale attack by the <a href="/wiki/Munsee" title="Munsee">Munsee</a> on several New Netherland settlements</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a> (1659–63), conflicts between the <a href="/wiki/Esopus_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Esopus tribe">Esopus tribe</a> of Lenape Indians and colonial New Netherlanders in <a href="/wiki/Ulster_County,_New_York" title="Ulster County, New York">Ulster County, New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a> (Metacom's Rebellion) (1675–78) in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> between colonists and the local tribes including, but not limited to, the <a href="/wiki/Nipmuc" title="Nipmuc">Nipmuc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wampanoag" title="Wampanoag">Wampanoag</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Narragansett_people" title="Narragansett people">Narragansett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chowanoc_War" title="Chowanoc War">Chowanoc War</a> (1675–77) in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Carolina" title="Province of Carolina">Province of Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a> (1688–1697) between England and France, and their Indian allies, in <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_England#History" title="New England">New England</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">Province of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a> (1711–15) in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">Province of North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a> (1715–17) in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">Province of South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a> (1722–25) in northern New England and French <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a> (1763–66) in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes region</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a> (1774) in western Virginia (<a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>)</li></ul> <p>In several instances, the conflicts were a reflection of European rivalries, with Indian tribes splitting their alliances among the powers, generally siding with their trading partners. Various tribes fought on each side in <a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>, allying with British or French colonists according to their own self interests.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 14 August 1784, Russian colonists had massacred 200<sup id="cite_ref-refJohnelder1992_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refJohnelder1992-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–3,000 <sup id="cite_ref-refAfognak_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refAfognak-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Koniag <a href="/wiki/Alutiiq_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Alutiiq people">Alutiiq</a> tribesmen in <a href="/wiki/Sitkalidak_Island" title="Sitkalidak Island">Sitkalidak Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>. This massacre is known as <a href="/wiki/Awa%27uq_Massacre" title="Awa'uq Massacre">Awa'uq Massacre</a>. Despite the incidents that occurred between European colonists and the Native population, most Indian tribes were friendly towards the Swedes in <a href="/wiki/New_Sweden" title="New Sweden">New Sweden</a> as result of Swedish authorities respecting tribal land.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="East_of_the_Mississippi_(1775–1842)"><span id="East_of_the_Mississippi_.281775.E2.80.931842.29"></span>East of the Mississippi (1775–1842)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sixty_Years%27_War" title="Sixty Years' War">Sixty Years' War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins of the War of 1812</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/American_Indian_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/American Indian Wars">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22American+Indian+Wars%22">"American Indian Wars"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22American+Indian+Wars%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22American+Indian+Wars%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22American+Indian+Wars%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22American+Indian+Wars%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Western theater of the American Revolutionary War">American Revolution</a> (1775–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a> (1776–1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a> (1785–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> (1811–1815) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War" title="Tecumseh's War">Tecumseh's War</a> (1811–1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a> (1813–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoria_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoria War">Peoria War</a> (1813)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Seminole_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Seminole War">First Seminole War</a> (1817–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winnebago_War" title="Winnebago War">Winnebago War</a> (1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War" title="Black Hawk War">Black Hawk War</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War_of_1836" title="Creek War of 1836">Creek War</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a> (1835–1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Seminole_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Seminole War">Third Seminole War</a> (1855–1858)</li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <p>British merchants and government agents began supplying weapons to Indians living in the United States following the Revolution (1783–1812) in the hope that, if a war broke out, they would fight on the British side. The British further planned to set up an Indian nation in the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US protested and declared <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">war in 1812</a>. Most Indian tribes supported the British, especially those allied with <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh" title="Tecumseh">Tecumseh</a>, but they were ultimately defeated by General <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a>. The War of 1812 spread to Indian rivalries, as well. </p><p>Many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada; those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control as they would be considered free, and not slaves, under the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a>. During the early 19th century, the federal government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Indians from their areas. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act of 1830</a> stated the "authorizing of the President to grant lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some tribes resisted <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">relocation</a> fiercely, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminoles</a> in a <a href="/wiki/First_Seminole_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Seminole War">series of wars in Florida</a>. They were never defeated, although some Seminoles migrated to Indian Territory. Other tribes were forced to move to reservations west of the Mississippi River, most famously the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> whose relocation was called the "<a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Revolutionary_War_(1775–1783)"><span id="American_Revolutionary_War_.281775.E2.80.931783.29"></span>American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Western theater of the American Revolutionary War">Western theater of the American Revolutionary War</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> was essentially two parallel wars for the American Patriots. The war in the east was a struggle against British rule, while the war in the west was an "Indian War". The newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for control of the territory east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>. Some Indians sided with the British, as they hoped to reduce American settlement and expansion. In one writer's opinion, the Revolutionary War was "the most extensive and destructive" Indian war in United States history.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boone_abduction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Boone_abduction.jpg/220px-Boone_abduction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Boone_abduction.jpg/330px-Boone_abduction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Boone_abduction.jpg/440px-Boone_abduction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>The abduction of <a href="/wiki/Capture_and_rescue_of_Jemima_Boone" title="Capture and rescue of Jemima Boone">Jemima Boone</a> by <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a> in 1776</figcaption></figure> <p>Some Indian tribes were divided over which side to support in the war, such as the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> Confederacy based in New York and Pennsylvania who split: the <a href="/wiki/Oneida_people" title="Oneida people">Oneida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_people" title="Tuscarora people">Tuscarora</a> sided with the American Patriots, and the <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_people" title="Seneca people">Seneca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cayuga_people" title="Cayuga people">Cayuga</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Onondaga_people" title="Onondaga people">Onondaga</a> sided with the British. The Iroquois tried to avoid fighting directly against one another, but the Revolution eventually forced intra-Iroquois combat, and both sides lost territory following the war. The Crown aided the landless Iroquois by rewarding them with a <a href="/wiki/Six_Nations_40,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Six Nations 40, Ontario">reservation at Grand River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> and some other lands. In the Southeast, the Cherokee split into a pro-patriot faction versus a pro-British faction that the Americans referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Chickamauga_Cherokee" title="Chickamauga Cherokee">Chickamauga Cherokee</a>; they were led by <a href="/wiki/Dragging_Canoe" title="Dragging Canoe">Dragging Canoe</a>. Many other tribes were similarly divided. </p><p>When the British made peace with the Americans in the 1783 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a>, they ceded a vast amount of Indian territory to the United States. Indian tribes who had sided with the British and had fought against the Americans were enemy combatants, as far as the United States was concerned; they were a conquered people who had lost their land. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cherokee–American_wars"><span id="Cherokee.E2.80.93American_wars"></span>Cherokee–American wars</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></div> <p>The frontier conflicts were almost non-stop, beginning with Cherokee involvement in the American Revolutionary War and continuing through late 1794. The so-called "Chickamauga Cherokee", later called "Lower Cherokee", were from the <a href="/wiki/Overhill_Cherokee" title="Overhill Cherokee">Overhill Towns</a> and later from the Lower Towns, Valley Towns, and Middle Towns. They followed war leader <a href="/wiki/Dragging_Canoe" title="Dragging Canoe">Dragging Canoe</a> southwest, first to the <a href="/wiki/Chickamauga_Creek" title="Chickamauga Creek">Chickamauga Creek</a> area near <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga,_Tennessee" title="Chattanooga, Tennessee">Chattanooga, Tennessee</a>, then to the Five Lower Towns where they were joined by groups of <a href="/wiki/Creek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek people">Muskogee</a>, white <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Tories</a>, runaway slaves, and renegade <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, as well as by more than a hundred <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a>. The primary targets of attack were the <a href="/wiki/Washington_District,_North_Carolina" title="Washington District, North Carolina">Washington District</a> colonies along the <a href="/wiki/Watauga_River" title="Watauga River">Watauga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holston_River" title="Holston River">Holston</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nolichucky_River" title="Nolichucky River">Nolichucky Rivers</a>, and in Carter's Valley in upper eastern Tennessee, as well as the settlements along the <a href="/wiki/Cumberland_River" title="Cumberland River">Cumberland River</a> beginning with <a href="/wiki/Fort_Nashborough" title="Fort Nashborough">Fort Nashborough</a> in 1780, even into Kentucky, plus against the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Franklin" title="State of Franklin">Franklin settlements</a>, and later states of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The scope of attacks by the Chickamauga and their allies ranged from quick raids by small war parties to large campaigns by four or five hundred warriors, and once more than a thousand. The Upper Muskogee under Dragging Canoe's close ally <a href="/wiki/Alexander_McGillivray" title="Alexander McGillivray">Alexander McGillivray</a> frequently joined their campaigns and also operated separately, and the settlements on the Cumberland came under attack from the Chickasaw, Shawnee from the north, and Delaware. Campaigns by Dragging Canoe and his successor <a href="/wiki/John_Watts_(Cherokee_chief)" title="John Watts (Cherokee chief)">John Watts</a> were frequently conducted in conjunction with campaigns in the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Northwest Territory</a>. The colonists generally responded with attacks in which Cherokee settlements were completely destroyed, though usually without great loss of life on either side. The wars continued until the Treaty of <a href="/wiki/Tellico_Blockhouse" title="Tellico Blockhouse">Tellico Blockhouse</a> in November 1794.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northwest_Indian_War">Northwest Indian War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ohio_Country_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Ohio_Country_en.png/220px-Ohio_Country_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Ohio_Country_en.png/330px-Ohio_Country_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Ohio_Country_en.png/440px-Ohio_Country_en.png 2x" data-file-width="1217" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Country" title="Ohio Country">Ohio Country</a> with battles and massacres between 1775 and 1794</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fallen_timbers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Fallen_timbers.jpg/220px-Fallen_timbers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Fallen_timbers.jpg/330px-Fallen_timbers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Fallen_timbers.jpg/440px-Fallen_timbers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2939" data-file-height="1946" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Fallen Timbers</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1787, the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> officially organized the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Northwest Territory</a> for settlement, and American settlers began pouring into the region. Violence erupted as Indian tribes resisted, and so the administration of President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> sent armed expeditions into the area. However, in the Northwest Indian War, a pan-tribal confederacy led by <a href="/wiki/Blue_Jacket" title="Blue Jacket">Blue Jacket</a> (Shawnee), <a href="/wiki/Little_Turtle" title="Little Turtle">Little Turtle</a> (Miami),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Buckongahelas" title="Buckongahelas">Buckongahelas</a> (Lenape), and <a href="/wiki/Egushawa" title="Egushawa">Egushawa</a> (Ottawa) defeated armies led by Generals <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Harmar" title="Josiah Harmar">Josiah Harmar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_St._Clair" title="Arthur St. Clair">Arthur St. Clair</a>. General <a href="/wiki/St._Clair%27s_defeat" title="St. Clair's defeat">St. Clair's defeat</a> was the most severe loss ever inflicted upon an American army by Indians. Following the successive defeats, the United States sent delegates to discuss peace with the <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Confederacy" title="Northwestern Confederacy">Northwestern Confederacy</a>, but the two sides could not agree on a boundary line. The United States dispatched a new expedition led by General <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wayne" title="Anthony Wayne">Anthony Wayne</a>, which defeated the confederacy at the 1794 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fallen_Timbers" title="Battle of Fallen Timbers">Battle of Fallen Timbers</a>. Realizing that British assistance was not forthcoming, the native nations were compelled to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Greenville" title="Treaty of Greenville">Treaty of Greenville</a> in 1795, which ceded Ohio and part of Indiana to the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tecumseh,_the_Creek_War,_and_the_War_of_1812"><span id="Tecumseh.2C_the_Creek_War.2C_and_the_War_of_1812"></span>Tecumseh, the Creek War, and the War of 1812</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Creek_War_Treaty_1814.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Creek_War_Treaty_1814.jpg/220px-Creek_War_Treaty_1814.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Creek_War_Treaty_1814.jpg/330px-Creek_War_Treaty_1814.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Creek_War_Treaty_1814.jpg/440px-Creek_War_Treaty_1814.jpg 2x" data-file-width="967" data-file-height="826" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a> with the Creeks, 1814</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1800, the Indian population was approximately 600,000 in what would become the <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">contiguous United States</a>. By 1890, their population had declined to about 250,000.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1800, <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> became governor of the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Territory" title="Indiana Territory">Indiana Territory</a>, under the direction of President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, and he pursued an aggressive policy of obtaining titles to Indian lands. Shawnee brothers <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh" title="Tecumseh">Tecumseh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tenskwatawa" title="Tenskwatawa">Tenskwatawa</a> organized <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War" title="Tecumseh's War">Tecumseh's War</a>, another pan-tribal resistance to westward settlement. </p><p>Tecumseh was in the South attempting to recruit allies among the <a href="/wiki/Creek_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek (people)">Creeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaws</a> when Harrison marched against the Indian confederacy, defeating Tenskwatawa and his followers at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tippecanoe" title="Battle of Tippecanoe">Battle of Tippecanoe</a> in 1811. The Americans hoped that the victory would end the militant resistance, but Tecumseh instead chose to ally openly with the British, who were soon at war with the Americans in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a> (1813–14) began as a tribal conflict within the Creek tribe, but it became part of the larger struggle against American expansion. Tecumseh was killed by Harrison's army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Thames" title="Battle of the Thames">Battle of the Thames</a>, ending the resistance in the Old Northwest. The <a href="/wiki/First_Seminole_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Seminole War">First Seminole War</a> in 1818 resulted in the transfer of Florida from Spain to the United States in 1819. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Seminole_War">Second Seminole War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></div> <p>American settlers began to push into Florida, which was now an American territory and had some of the most fertile lands in the nation. Paul Hoffman claims that covetousness, racism, and "self-defense" against Indian raids played a major part in the settlers' determination to "rid Florida of Indians once and for all".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To compound the tension, runaway black slaves sometimes found refuge in Seminole camps. The result was clashes between white settlers and the Indians residing there. <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> sought to alleviate this problem by signing the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> in 1830, which stipulated the relocation of Indians out of Florida – by force if necessary. Many Seminole groups were relatively new arrivals in Florida, led by such powerful leaders as <a href="/wiki/Aripeka" class="mw-redirect" title="Aripeka">Aripeka</a> (Sam Jones), <a href="/wiki/Micanopy" title="Micanopy">Micanopy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Osceola" title="Osceola">Osceola</a>, and they had no intention of leaving their lands. They retaliated against the settlers, and this led to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a>, the longest and most costly war that the Army ever waged against Indians. </p><p>In May 1830, the Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress which stipulated forced removal of Indians to Oklahoma. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paynes_Landing" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Paynes Landing">Treaty of Paynes Landing</a> was signed in May 1832 by a few Seminole chiefs who later recanted, claiming that they were tricked or forced to sign and making it clear that they would not consent to relocating to a reservation out west. The Seminoles' continued resistance to relocation led Florida to prepare for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the US War Department for the loan of 500 muskets, and 500 volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Richard_K._Call" title="Richard K. Call">Richard K. Call</a>. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts or large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others; most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations were destroyed along the Atlantic coast south of <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine, Florida</a>, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attackblockhouse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Attackblockhouse.png/220px-Attackblockhouse.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Attackblockhouse.png/330px-Attackblockhouse.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Attackblockhouse.png/440px-Attackblockhouse.png 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>Attack of the Seminoles on the blockhouse in December 1835</figcaption></figure> <p>The US Army had 11 companies (about 550 soldiers) stationed in Florida. <a href="/wiki/Fort_King" title="Fort King">Fort King</a> (Ocala) had only one company of soldiers, and it was feared that they might be overrun by the Seminoles. Three companies were stationed at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Brooke" title="Fort Brooke">Fort Brooke</a> (Tampa), with another two expected imminently, so the army decided to send two companies to Fort King. On December 23, 1835, the two companies totaling 110 men left Fort Brooke under the command of Major <a href="/wiki/Francis_L._Dade" title="Francis L. Dade">Francis L. Dade</a>. Seminoles shadowed the marching soldiers for five days, and they ambushed them and <a href="/wiki/Dade_battle" title="Dade battle">wiped out the command</a> on December 28. Only three men survived, and one was hunted down and killed by a Seminole the next day. Survivors Ransome Clarke and Joseph Sprague returned to Fort Brooke. Clarke died of his wounds later, and he provided the only account of the battle from the army's perspective. The Seminoles lost three men and five wounded. On the same day as the massacre, Osceola and his followers shot and killed Agent Wiley Thompson and six others during an ambush outside of Fort King. </p><p>On December 29, General Clinch left Fort Drane with 750 soldiers, including 500 volunteers on an enlistment due to end January 1, 1836. The group was traveling to a Seminole stronghold called the <a href="/wiki/Cove_of_the_Withlacoochee" class="mw-redirect" title="Cove of the Withlacoochee">Cove of the Withlacoochee</a>, an area of many lakes on the southwest side of the <a href="/wiki/Withlacoochee_River_(Florida)" title="Withlacoochee River (Florida)">Withlacoochee River</a>. When they reached the river, the soldiers could not find the ford, so Clinch ferried his regular troops across the river in a single canoe. Once they were across and had relaxed, the Seminoles attacked. The troops fixed bayonets and charged them, at the cost of four dead and 59 wounded. The militia provided cover as the army troops then withdrew across the river. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dademassacresite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Dademassacresite.jpg/220px-Dademassacresite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Dademassacresite.jpg/330px-Dademassacresite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Dademassacresite.jpg/440px-Dademassacresite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dade_battle" title="Dade battle">Dade battle</a> was the US Army's worst defeat at the hands of Seminoles</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Okeechobee" title="Battle of Lake Okeechobee">Battle of Lake Okeechobee</a>, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> saw the first major action of the campaign. He left <a href="/wiki/Fort_Gardiner" title="Fort Gardiner">Fort Gardiner</a> on the upper <a href="/wiki/Kissimmee_River" title="Kissimmee River">Kissimmee River</a> with 1,000 men on December 19 and headed towards <a href="/wiki/Lake_Okeechobee" title="Lake Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a>. In the first two days, 90 Seminoles surrendered. On the third day, Taylor stopped to build <a href="/wiki/Fort_Basinger,_Florida" title="Fort Basinger, Florida">Fort Basinger</a> where he left his sick and enough men to guard the Seminoles who had surrendered. Taylor's column caught up with the main body of the Seminoles on the north shore of Lake Okeechobee on December 25. </p><p>The Seminoles were led by "Alligator", Sam Jones, and the recently escaped <a href="/wiki/Wild_Cat_(Seminole)" title="Wild Cat (Seminole)">Coacoochee</a>, and they were positioned in a hammock surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Cladium" title="Cladium">sawgrass</a>. The ground was thick mud, and sawgrass easily cuts and burns the skin. Taylor had about 800 men, while the Seminoles numbered fewer than 400. Taylor sent in the Missouri volunteers first, moving his troops squarely into the center of the swamp. His plan was to make a direct attack rather than encircle the Indians. All his men were on foot. As soon as they came within range, the Indians opened with heavy fire. The volunteers broke and their commander Colonel Gentry was fatally wounded, so they retreated back across the swamp. The fighting in the sawgrass was deadliest for five companies of the Sixth Infantry; every officer but one was killed or wounded, along with most of their non-commissioned officers. The soldiers suffered 26 killed and 112 wounded, compared to 11 Seminoles killed and 14 wounded. No Seminoles were captured, although Taylor did capture 100 ponies and 600 head of cattle. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg/220px-Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg/330px-Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg/440px-Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2864" data-file-height="1915" /></a><figcaption>Marines searching for the Seminoles among the mangroves</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1842, the war was winding down and most Seminoles had left Florida for Oklahoma. The US Army officially recorded 1,466 deaths in the Second Seminole War, mostly from disease. The number killed in action is less clear. Mahon reports 328 regular army killed in action, while Missall reports that Seminoles killed 269 officers and men. Almost half of those deaths occurred in the Dade battle, Battle of Lake Okeechobee, and Harney Massacre. Similarly, Mahon reports 69 deaths for the Navy, while Missal reports 41 for the Navy and Marine Corps. Mahon and the Florida Board of State Institutions agree that 55 volunteer officers and men were killed by the Seminoles, while Missall says that the number is unknown. A northern newspaper carried a report that more than 80 civilians were killed by Indians in Florida in 1839. By the end of 1843, 3,824 Indians had been shipped from Florida to the Indian Territory.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="West_of_the_Mississippi_(1804–1924)"><span id="West_of_the_Mississippi_.281804.E2.80.931924.29"></span>West of the Mississippi (1804–1924)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sitka" title="Battle of Sitka">Battle of Sitka</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars</a> (1836–1877) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars</a> (1836–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign</a> (1867–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War</a> (1874–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War</a> (1876–1877)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a> (1847–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars</a> (1849–1924) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War</a> (1849–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars</a> (1861–1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War</a> (1871–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pecos_War" title="Pecos War">Pecos War</a> (1876–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War</a> (1879–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War</a> (1881–1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period</a> (1887–1924)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars</a> (1849–1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a> (1850–1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars</a> (1850–1923) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Walker War">Walker War</a> (1853–1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War</a> (1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War</a> (1865–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Ute War">Ute War</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War</a> (1914–1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War</a> (1923)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars</a> (1854–1891) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Sioux_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Sioux War">First Sioux War</a> (1854–1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War</a> (1864–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War</a> (1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War</a> (1866–1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_Expedition_of_1873" title="Yellowstone Expedition of 1873">Yellowstone Expedition</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War</a> (1876–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus</a> (1878–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War</a> (1890–1891)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars</a> (1855–1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War</a> (1855–1858) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War</a> (1855–1856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War</a> (1858)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_Canyon_War" title="Fraser Canyon War">Fraser Canyon War</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War</a> (1858–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars</a> (1861–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War</a> (1864–1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War</a> (1865–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Red River Rebellion</a> (1869–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War</a> (1872–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War</a> (1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">North-West Rebellion</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley</a> (1918)</li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <p>The series of conflicts in the western United States between Indians, American settlers, and the United States Army are generally known as the Indian Wars. Many of these conflicts occurred during and after the Civil War until the closing of the frontier in about 1890. However, regions of the West that were settled before the Civil War saw significant conflicts prior to 1860, such as Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Oregon, California, and Washington state.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various statistics have been developed concerning the devastation of these wars on the peoples involved. Gregory Michno used records dealing with figures "as a direct result of" engagements and concluded that "of the 21,586 total casualties tabulated in this survey, military personnel and civilians accounted for 6,596 (31%), while Indian casualties totaled about 14,990 (69%)" for the period of 1850–90. However, Michno says that he "used the army's estimates in almost every case" and "the number of casualties in this study are inherently biased toward army estimations". His work includes almost nothing on "Indian war parties", and he states that "army records are often incomplete".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Michno, more conflicts with Indians occurred in the states bordering Mexico than in the interior states. Arizona ranked highest, with 310 known battles fought within the state's boundaries between Americans and Indians. Also, Arizona ranked highest of the states in deaths from the wars. At least 4,340 people were killed, including both the settlers and the Indians, over twice as many as occurred in Texas, the second highest-ranking state. Most of the deaths in Arizona were caused by the <a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apaches</a>. Michno also says that 51 percent of the battles took place in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico between 1850 and 1890, as well as 37 percent of the casualties in the country west of the Mississippi River.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> <p>American settlers and fur trappers had spread into the western United States territories and had established the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Trail" title="Santa Fe Trail">Santa Fe Trail</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Trail" title="Oregon Trail">Oregon Trail</a>. Relations were generally peaceful between American settlers and Indians. The Bents of <a href="/wiki/Bent%27s_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Bent's Fort">Bent's Fort</a> on the Santa Fe Trail had friendly relations with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, and peace was established on the Oregon Trail by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1851)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)">Treaty of Fort Laramie</a> signed in 1851 between the United States and the Plains Indians and the Indians of the northern Rocky Mountains. The treaty allowed passage by settlers, building roads, and stationing troops along the Oregon Trail. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Indian_Wars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Western_Indian_Wars.jpg/250px-Western_Indian_Wars.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Western_Indian_Wars.jpg/375px-Western_Indian_Wars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Western_Indian_Wars.jpg/500px-Western_Indian_Wars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2006" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption>Battles, army posts, and the general location of tribes in the American West</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pike%27s_Peak_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="Pike's Peak Gold Rush">Pike's Peak Gold Rush</a> of 1859 introduced a substantial white population into the Front Range of the Rockies, supported by a trading lifeline that crossed the central Great Plains. Advancing settlement following the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Act of 1862</a> and the growing <a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">transcontinental railways</a> following the Civil War further destabilized the situation, placing white settlers into direct competition for the land and resources of the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain West.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional factors included discovery of gold in Montana during the Montana Gold Rush of 1862–1863 and the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Bozeman_Trail" title="Bozeman Trail">Bozeman Trail</a>, which led to <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War</a>, and later discovery of gold in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hills" title="Black Hills">Black Hills</a> resulting in the gold rush of 1875–1878 and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876%E2%80%9377" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Sioux War of 1876–77">Great Sioux War of 1876–77</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Miners, ranchers, and settlers expanded into the plain, and this led to increasing conflicts with the Indian populations of the West. Many tribes fought American settlers at one time or another, from the <a href="/wiki/Ute_Tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ute Tribe">Utes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin" title="Great Basin">Great Basin</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Nez Perce tribe">Nez Perce tribe</a> of <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>. But the <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Northern Plains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Apache_Tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Apache Tribe">Apaches</a> of the Southwest waged the most aggressive warfare, led by resolute, militant leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud" title="Red Cloud">Red Cloud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crazy_Horse" title="Crazy Horse">Crazy Horse</a>. The Sioux were relatively new arrivals on the Plains, as they had been sedentary farmers in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region_(North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Lakes region (North America)">Great Lakes region</a> previously. They moved west, displacing other Indian tribes and becoming feared warriors. The Apaches supplemented their economy by raiding other tribes, and they practiced warfare to avenge the death of a kinsman. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, Army units were withdrawn to fight the war in the east. They were replaced by the volunteer infantry and cavalry raised by the states of California and Oregon, by the western territorial governments, or by the local militias. These units fought the Indians and kept open communications with the east, holding the west for the Union and defeating the Confederate attempt to capture the New Mexico Territory. After 1865, national policy called for all Indians either to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">assimilate into the American population</a> as citizens, or to live peacefully on reservations. Raids and wars between tribes were not allowed, and armed Indian bands off a reservation were the responsibility of the Army to round up and return. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Texas">Texas</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_peace_treaties_with_the_Comanche" title="Spanish peace treaties with the Comanche">Spanish peace treaties with the Comanche</a></div> <p>The 18th and early 19th centuries in Texas were characterized by competition and warfare between the Comanches in the north and west of the state and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish</a> settlements in the south and east. In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Twin_Villages" title="Battle of the Twin Villages">Battle of the Twin Villages</a> in 1759, the Comanche and their <a href="/wiki/Wichita_people" title="Wichita people">Wichita</a> allies defeated a Spanish and <a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a> army of more than 500 men and halted Spanish expansion in Texas. Comanche raids on Spanish settlements and their <a href="/wiki/Lipan_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipan Apache">Lipan Apache</a> allies in Texas and a defensive Spanish posture characterized the next 70 years. In the 1830s large numbers of Americans began to settle in Texas and they encroached on <a href="/wiki/Comancheria" title="Comancheria">Comancheria</a>, the proto-empire of the Comanches.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamalainen_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamalainen-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of battles between Americans and Comanches and their <a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kiowa_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiowa Apache">Kiowa Apache</a> allies continued until the 1870s. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scalping_wilbarger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Scalping_wilbarger.jpg/180px-Scalping_wilbarger.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Scalping_wilbarger.jpg/270px-Scalping_wilbarger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Scalping_wilbarger.jpg/360px-Scalping_wilbarger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Josiah_P._Wilbarger" title="Josiah P. Wilbarger">Josiah P. Wilbarger</a> being scalped by Comanches, 1833</figcaption></figure> <p>The first notable battle between American settlers and Comanche was the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Parker_massacre" title="Fort Parker massacre">Fort Parker massacre</a> in 1836, in which a war party of Comanches, Kiowas, Wichitas, and Delawares attacked the Texan outpost at Fort Parker. A small number of settlers were killed during the raid, and the abduction of <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Ann_Parker" title="Cynthia Ann Parker">Cynthia Ann Parker</a> and two other children caused widespread outrage among Texans. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Texas" title="Republic of Texas">Republic of Texas</a> gained independence from Mexico in 1836. The Texas government under President <a href="/wiki/Sam_Houston" title="Sam Houston">Sam Houston</a> pursued a policy of engagement with the Comanches and Kiowas. Houston had lived with the Cherokees, but the Cherokees joined with Mexican forces to fight against Texas. Houston resolved the conflict without resorting to arms, refusing to believe that the Cherokees would take up arms against his government.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The administration of <a href="/wiki/Mirabeau_B._Lamar" title="Mirabeau B. Lamar">Mirabeau B. Lamar</a> followed Houston's and took a very different policy towards the Indians. Lamar removed the Cherokees to the west and then sought to deport the Comanches and Kiowas. This led to a series of battles, including the <a href="/wiki/Council_House_Fight" title="Council House Fight">Council House Fight</a>, in which the Texas militia killed 33 Comanche chiefs at a peace parley. The Comanches retaliated with the <a href="/wiki/Great_Raid_of_1840" title="Great Raid of 1840">Great Raid of 1840</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plum_Creek" title="Battle of Plum Creek">Battle of Plum Creek</a> followed several days later. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Quanah_Parker_of_the_Kwahadi_Comanche.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chief_Quanah_Parker_of_the_Kwahadi_Comanche.jpg/220px-Chief_Quanah_Parker_of_the_Kwahadi_Comanche.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="401" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chief_Quanah_Parker_of_the_Kwahadi_Comanche.jpg/330px-Chief_Quanah_Parker_of_the_Kwahadi_Comanche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Chief_Quanah_Parker_of_the_Kwahadi_Comanche.jpg/440px-Chief_Quanah_Parker_of_the_Kwahadi_Comanche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="2958" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Quanah_Parker" title="Quanah Parker">Quanah Parker</a>, son of a Comanche Chief and an abducted Texas settler; his family's story spans the history of the <a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Lamar Administration was known for its failed and expensive Indian policy; the cost of the war with the Indians exceeded the annual revenue of the government throughout his four-year term. It was followed by a second Houston administration, which resumed the previous policy of diplomacy. Texas signed treaties with all of the tribes, including the Comanches. In the 1840s and 1850s, the Comanches and their allies shifted most of their raiding to a weak and newly independent Mexico. Comanche armies numbering in the hundreds raided deep into Mexico for horses and captives and used Texas as a safe haven from Mexican retaliation (see <a href="/wiki/Comanche%E2%80%93Mexico_Wars" title="Comanche–Mexico Wars">Comanche–Mexico Wars</a>). </p><p>Texas joined the Union in 1845, and the Federal government and Texas took up the struggle between the Plains Indians and the settlers. The conflicts were particularly vicious and bloody on the Texas frontier in 1856 through 1858, as settlers continued to expand their settlements into Comancheria. The first Texan incursion into the heart of the Comancheria was in 1858, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Antelope Hills Expedition">Antelope Hills Expedition</a> marked by the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Little_Robe_Creek" title="Battle of Little Robe Creek">Battle of Little Robe Creek</a>. </p><p>The battles between settlers and Indians continued in 1860, and Texas militia destroyed an Indian camp at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pease_River" title="Battle of Pease River">Battle of Pease River</a>. In the aftermath of the battle, the Texans learned that they had recaptured Cynthia Ann Parker, the little girl captured by the Comanches in 1836. She returned to live with her family, but she missed her children, including her son <a href="/wiki/Quanah_Parker" title="Quanah Parker">Quanah Parker</a>. He was the son of Parker and Comanche Chief <a href="/wiki/Peta_Nocona" title="Peta Nocona">Peta Nocona</a>, and he became a Comanche war chief at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Adobe_Walls" title="Second Battle of Adobe Walls">Second Battle of Adobe Walls</a>. He ultimately surrendered to the overwhelming force of the federal government and moved to a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma in 1875. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_Northwest">Pacific Northwest</h3></div> <p>On 1–4 October 1804, <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a> (now the state of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>) had suppressed a revolt by the <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlingit people">Tlingit</a> <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_clans#Raven_clans_(Yéil_naa)" title="Tlingit clans">Kiks.ádi Clan</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sitka" title="Battle of Sitka">battle of Sitka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of wars occurred in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Treaty" title="Oregon Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a> of 1846 and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Territory" title="Oregon Territory">Oregon Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Washington_Territory" title="Washington Territory">Washington Territory</a>. Among the causes of conflict were a sudden immigration to the region and a series of gold rushes throughout the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Whitman_massacre" title="Whitman massacre">Whitman massacre</a> of 1847 triggered the <a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a>, which led to fighting from the <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Range" title="Cascade Range">Cascade Range</a> to the Rocky Mountains. The Cayuse were defeated in 1855, but the conflict had expanded and continued in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War</a> (1855–1858). Washington Territory Governor <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Stevens" title="Isaac Stevens">Isaac Stevens</a> tried to compel Indian tribes to sign treaties ceding land and establishing reservations. The <a href="/wiki/Yakama_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakama Nation">Yakama</a> signed one of the treaties negotiated during the <a href="/wiki/Walla_Walla_Council_(1855)" class="mw-redirect" title="Walla Walla Council (1855)">Walla Walla Council of 1855</a>, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Yakama_Indian_Reservation" title="Yakama Indian Reservation">Yakama Indian Reservation</a>, but Stevens' attempts served mainly to intensify hostilities. Gold discoveries near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Colville" title="Fort Colville">Fort Colville</a> resulted in many miners crossing Yakama lands via <a href="/wiki/Naches_Pass" title="Naches Pass">Naches Pass</a>, and conflicts rapidly escalated into violence. It took several years for the Army to defeat the Yakama, during which time war spread to the <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_region" title="Puget Sound region">Puget Sound region</a> west of the Cascades. The <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War</a> of 1855–1856 was triggered in part by the Yakima War and in part by the use of intimidation to compel tribes to sign land cession treaties. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Medicine_Creek" title="Treaty of Medicine Creek">Treaty of Medicine Creek</a> of 1855 established an unrealistically small reservation on poor land for the <a href="/wiki/Nisqually_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisqually tribe">Nisqually</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puyallup_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Puyallup tribe">Puyallup tribes</a>. Violence broke out in the <a href="/wiki/White_River_(Washington)" class="mw-redirect" title="White River (Washington)">White River</a> valley, along the route to Naches Pass and connecting Nisqually and Yakama lands. The Puget Sound War is often remembered in connection with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seattle_(1856)" title="Battle of Seattle (1856)">Battle of Seattle (1856)</a> and the execution of Nisqually <a href="/wiki/Chief_Leschi" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Leschi">Chief Leschi</a>, a central figure of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-beckey_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beckey-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nisqually-Chief-Leschi-Portrait-by-Raphael-Coombs-1894.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Nisqually-Chief-Leschi-Portrait-by-Raphael-Coombs-1894.png/220px-Nisqually-Chief-Leschi-Portrait-by-Raphael-Coombs-1894.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Nisqually-Chief-Leschi-Portrait-by-Raphael-Coombs-1894.png/330px-Nisqually-Chief-Leschi-Portrait-by-Raphael-Coombs-1894.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Nisqually-Chief-Leschi-Portrait-by-Raphael-Coombs-1894.png/440px-Nisqually-Chief-Leschi-Portrait-by-Raphael-Coombs-1894.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1213" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nisqually_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisqually tribe">Nisqually</a> Chief <a href="/wiki/Leschi_(Native_American_leader)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leschi (Native American leader)">Leschi</a> was hanged for murder in 1858. He was exonerated by Washington State in 2004.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1858, the fighting spread on the east side of the Cascades. This second phase of the Yakima War is known as the <a href="/wiki/Spokane_%E2%80%93_Coeur_d%27Alene_%E2%80%93_Paloos_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Spokane – Coeur d'Alene – Paloos War">Coeur d'Alene War</a>. The Yakama, <a href="/wiki/Palus_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Palus tribe">Palouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spokane_people" title="Spokane people">Spokane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_people" title="Coeur d'Alene people">Coeur d'Alene</a> tribes were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Four_Lakes" title="Battle of Four Lakes">Battle of Four Lakes</a> in late 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-beckey_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beckey-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In southwest Oregon, tensions and skirmishes escalated between American settlers and the <a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rogue River (tribe)">Rogue River peoples</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars</a> of 1855–1856. The <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> helped fuel a large increase in the number of people traveling south through the <a href="/wiki/Rogue_Valley" title="Rogue Valley">Rogue River Valley</a>. Gold discoveries continued to trigger violent conflict between prospectors and Indians. Beginning in 1858, the <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Canyon_Gold_Rush" title="Fraser Canyon Gold Rush">Fraser Canyon Gold Rush</a> in British Columbia drew large numbers of miners, many from Washington, Oregon, and California, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Canyon_War" title="Fraser Canyon War">Fraser Canyon War</a>. This conflict occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1858%E2%80%931866)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)">Colony of British Columbia</a>, but the militias involved were formed mostly of Americans. </p><p>Shortly after the Fraser Canyon War the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast</a>, including areas that are now part of the United States and Canada, from Washington to Alaska, suffered major population loss, cultural devastation, and loss of sovereignty due to the <a href="/wiki/1862_Pacific_Northwest_smallpox_epidemic" title="1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic">1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Chilcotin_War" title="Chilcotin War">Chilcotin War</a> of 1864 occurred near the end of the epidemic when a road from the gold fields to the coast was being built through <a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%CA%BCin" title="Tsilhqotʼin">Tsilhqotʼin</a> (Chilcotin) territory without permission. At the time, and still today, First Nations such as the Tsilhqotʼin say the colonial government deliberately spread smallpox with the aim of ending <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous sovereignty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">indigenous rights</a> in British Columbia.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Workers on the road-building project threatened the Tsilhqotʼin with smallpox. The war ended with the hanging of six Tsilhqotʼin chiefs. In 2014, British Columbia Premier <a href="/wiki/Christy_Clark" title="Christy Clark">Christy Clark</a> formally exonerated the executed chiefs and apologized for these acts, acknowledging that "there is an indication [that smallpox] was spread intentionally."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery of gold in Idaho and Oregon in the 1860s led to similar conflicts which culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Bear_River_Massacre" title="Bear River Massacre">Bear River Massacre</a> in 1863 and <a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War</a> from 1864 to 1868. </p><p>In the late 1870s, another series of armed conflicts occurred in Oregon and Idaho, spreading east into Wyoming and Montana. The <a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War</a> of 1877 is known particularly for <a href="/wiki/Chief_Joseph" title="Chief Joseph">Chief Joseph</a> and the four-month, 1,200-mile fighting retreat of a band of about 800 Nez Perce, including women and children. The Nez Perce War was caused by a large influx of settlers, the appropriation of Indian lands, and a gold rush—this time in Idaho. The Nez Perce engaged 2,000 American soldiers of different military units, as well as their Indian auxiliaries. They fought "eighteen engagements, including four major battles and at least four fiercely contested skirmishes", according to Alvin Josephy. Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce were much admired for their conduct in the war and their fighting ability.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War</a> broke out the following year for similar reasons. The <a href="/wiki/Sheepeater_Indian_War" title="Sheepeater Indian War">Sheepeater Indian War</a> in 1879 was the last conflict in the area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southwest">Southwest</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%931872)" title="Black Hawk War (1865–1872)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apache%E2%80%93Mexico_Wars" title="Apache–Mexico Wars">Apache–Mexico Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geronimo,_son_and_two_picked_braves._Man_with_long_rifle_Geronimo_LCCN2016650886.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Geronimo%2C_son_and_two_picked_braves._Man_with_long_rifle_Geronimo_LCCN2016650886.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Geronimo%2C_son_and_two_picked_braves._Man_with_long_rifle_Geronimo_LCCN2016650886.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Geronimo%2C_son_and_two_picked_braves._Man_with_long_rifle_Geronimo_LCCN2016650886.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Geronimo%2C_son_and_two_picked_braves._Man_with_long_rifle_Geronimo_LCCN2016650886.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Geronimo%2C_son_and_two_picked_braves._Man_with_long_rifle_Geronimo_LCCN2016650886.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Geronimo%2C_son_and_two_picked_braves._Man_with_long_rifle_Geronimo_LCCN2016650886.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1004" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Geronimo" title="Geronimo">Geronimo</a> (right) and his warriors in 1886</figcaption></figure> <p>Various wars between Spanish and Native Americans, mainly Comanches and Apaches, took place from the 17th to the 19th century in the Southwest United States. Spanish governors made peace treaties with some tribes during this period. Several events stand out during the colonial period: On the one hand, the administration of <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_V%C3%A9lez_Cachup%C3%ADn" title="Tomás Vélez Cachupín">Tomás Vélez Cachupín</a>, the only colonial governor of New Mexico who managed to establish peace with the Comanches after having confronted them in the Battle of San Diego Pond, and learned how to relate to them without giving rise to misunderstandings that could lead to conflict with them. The <a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revolt" title="Pueblo Revolt">Pueblo Revolt</a> of 1680 was also highlighted, causing the Spanish province to be divided into two areas: one led by the Spanish governor and the other by the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Pueblo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pueblo people">Pueblos</a>. Several military conflicts happened between Spaniards and Pueblos in this period until <a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Vargas" title="Diego de Vargas">Diego de Vargas</a> made a peace treaty with them in 1691, which made them subjects of the Spanish governor again. Conflicts between Europeans and indigenous peoples continued following the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a> and <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico" title="Santa Fe de Nuevo México">Santa Fe de Nuevo México</a> from Mexico at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> in 1848, and the <a href="/wiki/Gadsden_Purchase" title="Gadsden Purchase">Gadsden Purchase</a> in 1853. These spanned from 1846 to at least 1895. The first conflicts were in the <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory" title="New Mexico Territory">New Mexico Territory</a>, and later in California and the <a href="/wiki/Utah_Territory" title="Utah Territory">Utah Territory</a> during and after the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Indian tribes in the southwest had been engaged in cycles of trading and fighting with one another and with settlers for centuries prior to the United States gaining control of the region. These conflicts with the United States involved every non-pueblo tribe in the region and often were a continuation of Mexican–Spanish conflicts. The <a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars</a> are perhaps the best known. The last major campaign of the military against Indians in the Southwest involved 5,000 troops in the field, and resulted in the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Chiricahua" title="Chiricahua">Chiricahua</a> Apache <a href="/wiki/Geronimo" title="Geronimo">Geronimo</a> and his band of 24 warriors, women, and children in 1886. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="California">California</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/California_Indian_Wars" title="California Indian Wars">California Indian Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gila_Expedition" title="Gila Expedition">Gila Expedition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mariposa_War" title="Mariposa War">Mariposa War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Klamath_and_Salmon_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Klamath and Salmon River War">Klamath and Salmon River War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pitt_River_Expedition" title="Pitt River Expedition">Pitt River Expedition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mendocino_War" title="Mendocino War">Mendocino War</a></div> <p>The U.S. Army kept a small garrison west of the Rockies, but starting in 1849, the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> brought a great influx of miners and settlers into the area. The result was that most of the early conflicts with the California Indians involved local parties of miners or settlers. During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, California volunteers replaced Federal troops and won the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Bald_Hills_War" title="Bald Hills War">Bald Hills War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Owens_Valley_Indian_War" title="Owens Valley Indian War">Owens Valley Indian War</a> and engaged in minor actions in northern California. California and Oregon volunteer garrisons in Nevada, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, New Mexico, and the <a href="/wiki/Arizona_Territory" title="Arizona Territory">Arizona Territories</a> also engaged in conflicts with the Apache, Cheyenne, Goshute, Navajo, Paiute, Shoshone, Sioux, and Ute Indians from 1862 to 1866. Following the Civil War, <a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California was mostly pacified</a>, but federal troops replaced the volunteers and again took up the struggle against Indians in the remote regions of the <a href="/wiki/Mojave_Desert" title="Mojave Desert">Mojave Desert</a>, and in the northeast during the <a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War</a> (1864–1868) and <a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War</a> (1872–1873). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Basin">Great Basin</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walker_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Walker War">Walker War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goshute_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Goshute War">Goshute War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(Utah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (Utah)">Black Hawk War (Utah)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pinhook_Draw_fight" title="Pinhook Draw fight">Pinhook Draw fight</a></div> <p>The tribes of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin" title="Great Basin">Great Basin</a> were mostly <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a>, and they were greatly affected by the <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Trail" title="Oregon Trail">Oregon</a> and <a href="/wiki/California_Trail" title="California Trail">California Trails</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Mormon_pioneers" title="Mormon pioneers">Mormon pioneers</a> to Utah. The Shoshone had friendly relations with American and British fur traders and trappers, beginning with their encounter with <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis and Clark">Lewis and Clark</a>. </p><p>The traditional way of life of the Indians was disrupted, and they began raiding travelers along the trails and aggression toward Mormon settlers. During the American Civil War, the <a href="/wiki/California_Volunteers" class="mw-redirect" title="California Volunteers">California Volunteers</a> stationed in Utah responded to complaints, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Bear_River_Massacre" title="Bear River Massacre">Bear River Massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the massacre, various Shoshone tribes signed a series of treaties exchanging promises of peace for small annuities and reservations. One of these was the <a href="/wiki/Box_Elder_Treaty" title="Box Elder Treaty">Box Elder Treaty</a> which identified a land claim made by the <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Band_of_the_Shoshone_Nation" title="Northwestern Band of the Shoshone Nation">Northwestern Shoshone</a>. The Supreme Court declared this claim to be non-binding in a 1945 ruling,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission</a> recognized it as binding in 1968. Descendants of the original group were compensated collectively at a rate of less than $0.50 per acre, minus legal fees.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the local groups were decimated by the war and faced continuing loss of hunting and fishing land caused by the steadily growing population. Some moved to the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Hall_Indian_Reservation" title="Fort Hall Indian Reservation">Fort Hall Indian Reservation</a> when it was created in 1868. Some of the Shoshone populated the Mormon-sanctioned community of <a href="/wiki/Washakie,_Utah" title="Washakie, Utah">Washakie, Utah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1864 California and <a href="/wiki/1st_Oregon_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Oregon Volunteer Infantry Regiment">Oregon Volunteers</a> also engaged in the early campaigns of the <a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War</a> in the Great Basin areas of California, Nevada, Oregon and Idaho. From 1866 the U.S. Army replaced the Volunteers in that war which General <a href="/wiki/George_Crook" title="George Crook">George Crook</a> brought to an end in 1868 after a protracted campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Plains">Great Plains</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1851)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)">Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River Expedition (1865)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876%E2%80%9377" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Sioux War of 1876–77">Great Sioux War of 1876–77</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn" title="Battle of the Little Bighorn">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Massacre_Canyon_monument_and_marker.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Massacre_Canyon_monument_and_marker.JPG/220px-Massacre_Canyon_monument_and_marker.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Massacre_Canyon_monument_and_marker.JPG/330px-Massacre_Canyon_monument_and_marker.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Massacre_Canyon_monument_and_marker.JPG/440px-Massacre_Canyon_monument_and_marker.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2487" data-file-height="1805" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Massacre_Canyon" title="Massacre Canyon">Massacre Canyon</a> monument and historical marker in Nebraska</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_Marksmanship_and_Guts._DA_Poster_21-45.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Good_Marksmanship_and_Guts._DA_Poster_21-45.jpg/220px-Good_Marksmanship_and_Guts._DA_Poster_21-45.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Good_Marksmanship_and_Guts._DA_Poster_21-45.jpg/330px-Good_Marksmanship_and_Guts._DA_Poster_21-45.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Good_Marksmanship_and_Guts._DA_Poster_21-45.jpg/440px-Good_Marksmanship_and_Guts._DA_Poster_21-45.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wagon_Box_Fight" title="Wagon Box Fight">Wagon Box Fight</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Phil_Kearny" title="Fort Phil Kearny">Fort Phil Kearny</a>, 1867</figcaption></figure> <p>Initially relations between participants in the Pike's Peak gold rush and the Native American tribes of the Front Range and the Platte valley were friendly.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An attempt was made to resolve conflicts by negotiation of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Wise" title="Treaty of Fort Wise">Treaty of Fort Wise</a>, which established a reservation in southeastern Colorado, but the settlement was not agreed to by all of the roving warriors, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Dog_Soldiers" title="Dog Soldiers">Dog Soldiers</a>. During the early 1860s tensions increased and culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand Creek Massacre">Sand Creek Massacre</a>, where Colorado volunteers fell on a peaceful Cheyenne village killing women and children,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which set the stage for further conflict. </p><p>The cohabitative relationship between settlers and the Indians of the Colorado and Kansas plains was maintained by the tribes,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="There's a lot of different native peoples on the plains, name at least some of the tribes involved in this specific armistice (September 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but sentiment grew among the Colorado settlers for Indian removal. The severity of the attacks on civilians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Civilians on which side? Both? (September 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War of 1862</a> contributed to these sentiments, as did the few minor incidents which occurred in the Platte Valley and in areas east of Denver.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Regular army troops had been withdrawn for service in the Civil War and were replaced with the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Colorado_Civil_War_units" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Colorado Civil War units">Colorado Volunteers</a>, frontier-dwelling men who often favored extermination of the Indians.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They were commanded by <a href="/wiki/John_Chivington" title="John Chivington">John Chivington</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_L._Shoup" title="George L. Shoup">George L. Shoup</a>, who followed the lead of <a href="/wiki/John_Evans_(Colorado_governor)" title="John Evans (Colorado governor)">John Evans</a>, territorial governor of Colorado. They adopted a policy of shooting on sight all Indians encountered, a policy which in short time ignited a general war on the Colorado and Kansas plains, the <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Raids by bands of plains Indians on isolated homesteads to the east of Denver, on the advancing settlements in Kansas, on stage line stations along the South Platte, such as at <a href="/wiki/Julesburg,_Colorado" title="Julesburg, Colorado">Julesburg</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and along the <a href="/wiki/Smoky_Hill_River#History" title="Smoky Hill River">Smoky Hill Trail</a>, resulted in many settlers in both Colorado and Kansas adopting a very hostile attitude towards Native Americans, with calls for extermination.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, the violence shown by the Colorado Volunteers during the Sand Creek Massacre resulted in Native Americans, particularly the Dog Soldiers, a band of the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a>, engaging in similarly violent retribution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dakota_War">Dakota War</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War of 1862</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dakota_War_of_1862-stereo-right.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Dakota_War_of_1862-stereo-right.jpg/170px-Dakota_War_of_1862-stereo-right.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Dakota_War_of_1862-stereo-right.jpg/255px-Dakota_War_of_1862-stereo-right.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Dakota_War_of_1862-stereo-right.jpg/340px-Dakota_War_of_1862-stereo-right.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Settlers escaping the Dakota War of 1862</figcaption></figure> <p>The Dakota War of 1862 (more commonly called the Sioux Uprising of 1862 in older authorities and popular texts) was the first major armed engagement between the U.S. and the <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> (Dakota). After six weeks of fighting in Minnesota, led mostly by Chief <a href="/wiki/Taoyateduta" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoyateduta">Taoyateduta</a> (aka, Little Crow), records conclusively show that more than 500 U.S. soldiers and settlers died in the conflict, though many more may have died in small raids or after being captured. The number of Sioux dead in the uprising is mostly undocumented. After the war, 303 Sioux warriors were convicted of murder and rape by U.S. military tribunals and sentenced to death. Most of the death sentences were commuted by President Lincoln, but on December 26, 1862, in <a href="/wiki/Mankato,_Minnesota" title="Mankato, Minnesota">Mankato, Minnesota</a>, 38 Dakota Sioux men were <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanged</a> in what is still today the largest penal mass <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">execution</a> in U.S. history.<sup id="cite_ref-shultz_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shultz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the expulsion of the Dakota, some refugees and warriors made their way to <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a> lands in what is now <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>. Battles continued between Minnesota regiments and combined Lakota and Dakota forces through 1864, as Colonel <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hastings_Sibley" title="Henry Hastings Sibley">Henry Sibley</a> pursued the Sioux into Dakota Territory. Sibley's army defeated the Lakota and Dakota in three major battles in 1863: the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dead_Buffalo_Lake" title="Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake">Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake</a> on July 26, 1863, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stony_Lake" title="Battle of Stony Lake">Battle of Stony Lake</a> on July 28, 1863, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Whitestone_Hill" title="Battle of Whitestone Hill">Battle of Whitestone Hill</a> on September 3, 1863. The Sioux retreated further, but again faced an American army in 1864; this time, Gen. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sully" title="Alfred Sully">Alfred Sully</a> led a force from near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pierre,_South_Dakota" title="Fort Pierre, South Dakota">Fort Pierre, South Dakota</a>, and decisively defeated the Sioux at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Killdeer_Mountain" title="Battle of Killdeer Mountain">Battle of Killdeer Mountain</a> on July 28, 1864. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colorado_War,_Sand_Creek_Massacre,_and_the_Sioux_War_of_1865"><span id="Colorado_War.2C_Sand_Creek_Massacre.2C_and_the_Sioux_War_of_1865"></span>Colorado War, Sand Creek Massacre, and the Sioux War of 1865</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mochi_Southern_Cheyenne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mochi_Southern_Cheyenne.jpg/170px-Mochi_Southern_Cheyenne.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mochi_Southern_Cheyenne.jpg/255px-Mochi_Southern_Cheyenne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mochi_Southern_Cheyenne.jpg/340px-Mochi_Southern_Cheyenne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mochi_(Cheyenne)" title="Mochi (Cheyenne)">Mochi</a> (right), a Southern Cheyenne in Black Kettle's camp, became a warrior after her experiences at the <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a></figcaption></figure> <p>On November 29, 1864, the Colorado territory militia responded to a series of Indian attacks on white settlements by attacking a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment on Sand Creek in southeastern Colorado, under orders to take no prisoners. The militia killed about 200 of the Indians, two-thirds of whom were women and children,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> taking scalps and other grisly trophies.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the massacre, the survivors joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smokey Hill and Republican Rivers. They smoked the war pipe and passed it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho camped in the area, and they planned an attack on the stage station and fort at <a href="/wiki/Julesburg,_Colorado" title="Julesburg, Colorado">Julesburg</a> which they carried out in the January 1865 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Julesburg" title="Battle of Julesburg">Battle of Julesburg</a>. This attack was followed up by numerous raids along the South Platte both east and west of Julesburg, and by a second raid on Julesburg in early February. The bulk of the Indians then moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the spring of 1865, raids continued along the Oregon trail in Nebraska. Indians raided the Oregon Trail along the North Platte River and attacked the troops stationed at the bridge across the North Platte at <a href="/wiki/Casper,_Wyoming" title="Casper, Wyoming">Casper, Wyoming</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Platte_Bridge" title="Battle of Platte Bridge">Battle of Platte Bridge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sheridan's_campaigns"><span id="Sheridan.27s_campaigns"></span>Sheridan's campaigns</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Washita_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Washita Massacre">Washita Massacre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marias_Massacre" title="Marias Massacre">Marias Massacre</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Confusing plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-confusing" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">confusing or unclear</a> to readers</b>. In particular, a lack of context in several places means this section does not sufficiently explain the native involvement in these campaigns..<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarify the section</a>. There is a discussion about this on <a href="/wiki/Talk:American_Indian_Wars#Missing_context_in_Sheridan's_campaigns_section" title="Talk:American Indian Wars">Talk:American Indian Wars § Missing_context_in_Sheridan's_campaigns_section</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the Civil War, all of the Indians were assigned to reservations, and the reservations were under the control of the Interior Department. Control of the Great Plains fell under the Army's <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Missouri" title="Department of the Missouri">Department of the Missouri</a>, an administrative area of over 1,000,000 mi<sup>2</sup> encompassing all land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Winfield_S._Hancock" class="mw-redirect" title="Winfield S. Hancock">Winfield S. Hancock</a> had led the department in 1866 but had mishandled his campaign, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a> raids that attacked mail stagecoaches, burned the stations, and killed the employees. They also raped, killed, and kidnapped settlers on the frontier.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a> was the military governor of Louisiana and Texas in 1866, but President Johnson removed him from that post, claiming that he was ruling over the area with absolute tyranny and insubordination. Shortly after, Hancock was removed as head of the Department of the Missouri and Sheridan replaced him in August 1867.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was ordered to pacify the plains and take control of the Indians there, and he immediately called <a href="/wiki/George_Armstrong_Custer" title="George Armstrong Custer">General Custer</a> back to command of the <a href="/wiki/7th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="7th Cavalry Regiment">7th Cavalry</a>; Hancock had suspended him.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/The_Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek.jpg/220px-The_Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/The_Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek.jpg/330px-The_Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/The_Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek.jpg/440px-The_Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6396" data-file-height="4617" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Prairie_Dog_Creek_(1876)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Prairie Dog Creek (1876)">Battle of Prairie Dog Creek</a> (August 21, 1867) ended the Army's offensive operations on the Kansas frontier for the year.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Department of Missouri was in poor shape upon Sheridan's arrival. Commissioners from the government had signed a peace treaty in October 1867 with the <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache" title="Plains Apache">Kiowa Apache</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho">Arapaho</a> which offered them reservation land to live on along with food and supplies,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Congress failed to pass it. The promised supplies from the government were not reaching the Indians and they were beginning to starve, numbering an estimated 6,000.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Does this 6,000 also include the women, children, and elderly of the tribes? If so, it is disingenuous to compare the number to a group of only soldiers without clarifying that the natives number 6,000 total including civilians (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Sheridan had only 2,600 men at the time to control them and to defend against any raids or attacks, and only 1,200 of his men were mounted.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These men were also under-supplied and stationed at forts that were in poor condition. They were also mostly unproven units that replaced retired veterans from the Civil War.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p> Sheridan attempted to improve the conditions of the military outpost and the Indians on the plains through a peace-oriented strategy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Toward the beginning of his command, members of the Cheyenne and Arapaho followed him on his travels from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Larned_National_Historic_Site" title="Fort Larned National Historic Site">Fort Larned</a> to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Dodge,_Iowa" title="Fort Dodge, Iowa">Fort Dodge</a> where he spoke to them. They brought their problems to him and explained how the promised supplies were not being delivered. In response, Sheridan gave them a supply of rations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Shortly after, the Saline Valley settlements were attacked by Indians,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title=""Indians" is too vague. Which tribes were involved? (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and that was followed by other violent raids and kidnappings in the region.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Sheridan wanted to respond in force but was constrained by the government's peace policy and the lack of well-supplied mounted troops.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He could not deploy official military units, so he commissioned a group of 47 frontiersmen and sharpshooters called Solomon's Avengers. They investigated the raids near Arickaree Creek and were attacked by Indians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title=""Indians" is too vague. Which tribes were involved? (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> on September 17, 1868. The Avengers were under siege for eight days by some 700 Indian warriors, but they were able to keep them at bay until military units arrived to help. The Avengers lost six men and another 15 were wounded. Sherman finally gave Sheridan authority to respond in force to these threats.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schurz_and_Sheridan_and_Red_Man.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Schurz_and_Sheridan_and_Red_Man.jpg/220px-Schurz_and_Sheridan_and_Red_Man.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Schurz_and_Sheridan_and_Red_Man.jpg/330px-Schurz_and_Sheridan_and_Red_Man.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Schurz_and_Sheridan_and_Red_Man.jpg/440px-Schurz_and_Sheridan_and_Red_Man.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>A cartoon from <i>Harper's Weekly</i> of December 21, 1878 features General Philip Sheridan and Secretary of the Interior Carl Schurz</figcaption></figure> <p>Sheridan believed that his soldiers would be unable to chase the horses of the Indians during the summer months, so he used them as a defensive force the remainder of September and October. His forces were better fed and clothed than the Indians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title=""Indians" is too vague. Which tribes were involved? (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and they could launch a campaign in the winter months.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> His winter campaign of 1868 started with the <a href="/wiki/19th_Kansas_Volunteers" title="19th Kansas Volunteers">19th Kansas Volunteers</a> from Custer's 7th Cavalry, along with five battalions of infantry under Major John H. Page setting out from Fort Dodge on November 5.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A few days later, a force moved from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Bascom" title="Fort Bascom">Fort Bascom</a> to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Cobb" title="Fort Cobb">Fort Cobb</a> consisting of units of the <a href="/wiki/5th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="5th Cavalry Regiment">5th Cavalry Regiment</a> and two companies of infantry, where they met up with units from the <a href="/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="3rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)">3rd Cavalry</a> leaving from Fort Lyon. Sheridan directed the opening month of the campaign from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Supply_(Oklahoma)" title="Fort Supply (Oklahoma)">Camp Supply</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Units from the 5th and 3rd Cavalry met at Fort Cobb without any sign of the 19th Kansas, but they had a lead on a band of Indians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title=""Indians" is too vague. Which tribes were involved? (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> nearby and Custer led a force after them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Custer's force attacked the Cheyenne Indians and <a href="/wiki/Black_Kettle" title="Black Kettle">Black Kettle</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Washita_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Washita River">Battle of Washita River</a>, and an estimated 100 Indians were killed and 50 taken prisoner<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="How many of those losses were noncombatants? Important to have estimates even if the numbers are disputed (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Custer lost 21 men killed and 13 men wounded, and a unit went missing under Major Elliott's command. Custer shot 675 ponies that were vital for the Indians' survival on the plains.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immediately following the battle, Sheridan received backlash from Washington politicians who defended Black Kettle as a peace-loving Indian. This began the controversy as to whether the event was best described as a military victory or as a massacre, a discussion which endures among historians to this day. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_history_for_young_folks_(1919)_(14566708480).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Indian_history_for_young_folks_%281919%29_%2814566708480%29.jpg/220px-Indian_history_for_young_folks_%281919%29_%2814566708480%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Indian_history_for_young_folks_%281919%29_%2814566708480%29.jpg/330px-Indian_history_for_young_folks_%281919%29_%2814566708480%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Indian_history_for_young_folks_%281919%29_%2814566708480%29.jpg/440px-Indian_history_for_young_folks_%281919%29_%2814566708480%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2842" data-file-height="1520" /></a><figcaption>U.S. cavalry attacking an Indian village</figcaption></figure> <p>Following Washita, Sheridan oversaw the refitting of the 19th Kansas and personally led them down the Washita River toward the Wichita Mountains. He met with Custer along the Washita River and they searched for Major Elliott's missing unit. They found the bodies of the missing unit and the bodies of Mrs. Blynn and her child<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Who? This is the first mention of them in this article, more exposition is needed (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> who had been taken by Indians the previous summer near Fort Lyon.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The defeat at Washita had scared many of the tribes and Sheridan was able to round up the majority of the Kiowa and Comanche people at Fort Cobb in December and transport them to reservations. He began negotiations with Chief Little Robe of the Cheyenne and with <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Bear" title="Yellow Bear">Yellow Bear</a> about living on the reservations.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sheridan then began the construction of Camp Sill, later called <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sill" title="Fort Sill">Fort Sill</a>, named after General Sill who died at <a href="/wiki/Stones_River_National_Battlefield" title="Stones River National Battlefield">Stone River</a>. </p><p>Sheridan was called back to Washington following the election of <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">President Grant</a>. He was informed of his promotion to lieutenant general of the army and reassigned from the department. Sheridan protested and was allowed to stay in Missouri with the rank of lieutenant general. The last remnants of Indian resistance came from Tall Bull Dog soldiers and elements of the <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> and Northern Cheyenne tribes. The 5th Cavalry from <a href="/wiki/Fort_McPherson" title="Fort McPherson">Fort McPherson</a> were sent to handle the situation on the Platte River in Nebraska. In May, the two forces collided at Summit Springs and the Indians were pursued out of the region. This brought an end to Sheridan's campaign, as the Indians had successfully been removed from the Platte and Arkansas and the majority of those in Kansas had been settled onto reservations. Sheridan left in 1869 to take command of the Army and was replaced by Major General Schofield.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Black_Hills_War">Black Hills War</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Custer_Staghounds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Custer_Staghounds.jpg/220px-Custer_Staghounds.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Custer_Staghounds.jpg/330px-Custer_Staghounds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Custer_Staghounds.jpg/440px-Custer_Staghounds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption>Custer and <a href="/wiki/Bloody_Knife" title="Bloody Knife">Bloody Knife</a> (kneeling left), Custer's favorite <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Indian_Scouts" title="United States Army Indian Scouts">Indian Scout</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1875, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876%E2%80%9377" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Sioux War of 1876–77">Great Sioux War of 1876–77</a> erupted when the Dakota gold rush penetrated the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hills" title="Black Hills">Black Hills</a>. The government decided to stop evicting trespassers from the Black Hills and offered to buy the land from the Sioux. When they refused, the government decided instead to take the land and gave the Lakota until January 31, 1876, to return to reservations. The tribes did not return to the reservations by the deadline, and Lt. Colonel <a href="/wiki/George_Custer" class="mw-redirect" title="George Custer">George Custer</a> found the main encampment of the Lakota and their allies at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn" title="Battle of the Little Bighorn">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a>. Custer and his men were separated from their main body of troops, and they were all killed by the far more numerous Indians led by <a href="/wiki/Crazy_Horse" title="Crazy Horse">Crazy Horse</a> and inspired by <a href="/wiki/Sitting_Bull" title="Sitting Bull">Sitting Bull</a>'s earlier vision of victory. The <a href="/wiki/Anheuser-Busch" title="Anheuser-Busch">Anheuser-Busch</a> brewing company made prints of a dramatic painting that depicted "Custer's Last Fight" and had them framed and hung in many American saloons as an advertising campaign, helping to create a popular image of this battle.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee,_South_Dakota,_c._1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg/220px-Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg/330px-Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg/440px-Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1843" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption>Mass grave for the dead Lakota following the <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre" title="Wounded Knee Massacre">Wounded Knee Massacre</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Lakotas conducted a <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a> ritual on the reservation at Wounded Knee, <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> in 1890, and the Army attempted to subdue them. Gunfire erupted on December 29 during this attempt, and soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, mostly old men, women, and children in the <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre" title="Wounded Knee Massacre">Wounded Knee Massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the massacre, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz" title="The Wonderful Wizard of Oz">The Wizard of Oz</a></i> author <a href="/wiki/L._Frank_Baum" title="L. Frank Baum">L. Frank Baum</a> wrote: "The <i>Pioneer</i> has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extirmination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Last_conflicts">Last conflicts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg/220px-Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg/330px-Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg/440px-Buffalo_soldiers1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3366" data-file-height="1737" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier" title="Buffalo Soldier">Buffalo Soldiers</a> of the 25th Infantry Regiment, 1890</figcaption></figure> <p>Many sources place the end of the American Indian Wars in the 1890s (1890 to 1901). The last <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">campaign</a> of the Indian Wars that has been designated by the U.S. Army, the <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre" title="Wounded Knee Massacre">Pine Ridge Campaign</a>, ended in 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scattered incidents of armed conflict between Indians and whites continued into the 1920s. </p> <ul><li>1895: <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Hole" title="Jackson Hole">Jackson Hole</a>, Wyoming: <a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock War of 1895</a>; minor conflict between Bannocks and the U.S. Army</li> <li>April-June 1896: <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>: <a href="/wiki/Apache_Campaign_(1896)" title="Apache Campaign (1896)">Apache Campaign (1896)</a>; last U.S. Army operation against Apaches who were raiding and not living in a reservation</li> <li>August 12-14, 1896: <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sonora" title="Sonora">Sonora</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising</a>: armed conflict between Yaquis and American militia, the Buffalo Soldiers, the Mexican Army, and local police</li> <li>October 5, 1898: <a href="/wiki/Leech_Lake" title="Leech Lake">Leech Lake</a>, Minnesota: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point</a>; last <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor" title="Medal of Honor">Medal of Honor</a> given for Indian Wars campaigns was awarded to Private <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Burkard" title="Oscar Burkard">Oscar Burkard</a> of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment.</li> <li>November 11, 1899: Near <a href="/wiki/Leupp" class="mw-redirect" title="Leupp">Leupp</a>, Arizona: <a href="/wiki/Padre_Canyon_incident" title="Padre Canyon incident">Padre Canyon incident</a>; skirmish between Navajo hunters & a posse of Arizona lawmen</li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Four_Corners" title="Four Corners">Four Corners</a>, Arizona: Two troops of the 5th Cavalry from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Wingate" title="Fort Wingate">Fort Wingate</a> skirmish with armed Navajo men; one Navajo was killed and the rest escaped.</li> <li>March 1909: <a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion</a>, Oklahoma: Federal officials attack the <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_Creek" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee Creek">Muscogee Creeks</a> and allied <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">Freedmen</a> who had resisted forcible allotment and division of tribal lands by the federal government since 1901, headquartered at Hickory ceremonial grounds in Oklahoma; a two-day gun battle seriously wounded leader <a href="/wiki/Chitto_Harjo" title="Chitto Harjo">Chitto Harjo</a> and quelled this rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Chaco_Canyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaco Canyon">Chaco Canyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>: A company of cavalry went from Fort Wingate to quell an alleged uprising by some Navajo.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>January 19, 1911: <a href="/wiki/Washoe_County,_Nevada" title="Washoe County, Nevada">Washoe County, Nevada</a>: The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre</a> occurred; a group of <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bannock_people" title="Bannock people">Bannocks</a> killed four ranchers; on February 26, 1911, eight of the Indians involved in the Last Massacre were killed by a posse in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek</a>; the remaining four were captured.</li> <li>March 1914 – March 15, 1915: <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War</a> in Utah between Ute Indians and Mormon residents.</li> <li>January 9, 1918: <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_County,_Arizona" title="Santa Cruz County, Arizona">Santa Cruz County, Arizona</a>: The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley</a> was fought in Southern Arizona; Army forces of the 10th Cavalry engaged and captured a band of <a href="/wiki/Yaqui_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaqui people">Yaquis</a>, after a brief firefight.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish</a> in Utah between Utes and settlers</li> <li>March 20–23, 1923: <a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War</a> in Utah between Ute and Paiute Indians against Mormon residents.</li> <li>1924: The <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars</a> ended in 1924 and brought the American Indian Wars to a close. This ended the <a href="/wiki/Post-1887_Apache_Wars_period" title="Post-1887 Apache Wars period">post-1887 Apache Wars period</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquering_the_wilderness;_or,_New_pictorial_history_of_the_life_and_times_of_the_pioneer_heroes_and_heroines_of_America,_a_full_account_of_the_romantic_deeds,_lofty_achievements,_and_marvellous_(14585131569).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Conquering_the_wilderness%3B_or%2C_New_pictorial_history_of_the_life_and_times_of_the_pioneer_heroes_and_heroines_of_America%2C_a_full_account_of_the_romantic_deeds%2C_lofty_achievements%2C_and_marvellous_%2814585131569%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Conquering_the_wilderness%3B_or%2C_New_pictorial_history_of_the_life_and_times_of_the_pioneer_heroes_and_heroines_of_America%2C_a_full_account_of_the_romantic_deeds%2C_lofty_achievements%2C_and_marvellous_%2814585131569%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Conquering_the_wilderness%3B_or%2C_New_pictorial_history_of_the_life_and_times_of_the_pioneer_heroes_and_heroines_of_America%2C_a_full_account_of_the_romantic_deeds%2C_lofty_achievements%2C_and_marvellous_%2814585131569%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1788" data-file-height="2062" /></a><figcaption>An illustration from a 1895 text called "Conquering the wilderness"</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_the_American_Indian_population">Effects on the American Indian population</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> <p>The 2020 United States Census found 3,727,135 Americans who identified themselves as being solely American Indian or Alaskan Native, about 1% of the US population. A combined total of 9,666,058 Americans identified themselves as being Native American or Alaskan Native (including in combination with another race), about 3% of the US population.<sup id="cite_ref-2020censusB_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2020censusB-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Canada 2011 Census found 1,836,035 Canadians who identified themselves as being <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> (mixed race), about 4.3% of the Canadian population.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No consensus exists on how many people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans, but extensive research continues to be conducted.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary estimates range from 2.1 million to 18 million people living on the North American continent prior to European colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BXScience_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BXScience-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 600,000 Native Americans lived in the areas comprising the modern United States in 1800 (including areas not part of the 1800 United States), shortly after the country's independence. This was reduced to an estimated 250,000 by 1890 before increasing in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of Indians dropped to below half a million in the 19th century because of Eurasian diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonic_plague" title="Pneumonic plague">pneumonic plagues</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, in combination with conflict, forced removal, enslavement, imprisonment, and outright warfare with European newcomers reduced populations and disrupted traditional societies.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States Census Bureau (1894) provided their estimate of deaths due specifically to war during the 102 years between 1789 and 1891, including 8,500 Indians and 5,000 whites killed in "individual affairs": </p> <blockquote><p>The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given ... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Jeffrey Ostler, the Beekman Professor of Northwest and Pacific History at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oregon" title="University of Oregon">University of Oregon</a>, stated, "it was genocidal war."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xabier Irujo, professor of <a href="/wiki/Genocide_studies" title="Genocide studies">genocide studies</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nevada,_Reno" title="University of Nevada, Reno">University of Nevada, Reno</a>, stated, "the toll on human lives in the wars against the native nations between 1848 and 1881 was horrific."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div> <p>According to historian David Rich Lewis, American popular histories, film, and fiction have given enormous emphasis to the Indian wars.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New ethno-historical approaches became popular in the 1970s which mixed anthropology with historical research in hopes of gaining a deeper understanding of the Indian perspective. During the 1980s, human rights abuses by the US government were increasingly studied by historians exploring the impact of the wars on Indian cultures. Prior to this, popular history was heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Dee_Brown_(novelist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dee Brown (novelist)">Dee Brown</a>'s non-academic treatment of historical events in the 1970 non-fiction book, <i><a href="/wiki/Bury_My_Heart_at_Wounded_Knee" title="Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee">Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee</a></i>. In more academic history, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Jennings" title="Francis Jennings">Francis Jennings</a>'s 1975 book <i>The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest</i> was notable for criticizing the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> and rejecting the traditional portrayal of the wars between the Indians and colonists.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">revisionist</a> historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeffrey_Ostler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jeffrey Ostler (page does not exist)">Jeffrey Ostler</a> has argued that some of the events within the American Indian Wars would fit into the modern legal definition of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List">List</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Indian_Wars" title="List of American Indian Wars">List of American Indian Wars</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Act" title="Indian Act">Canadian Indian Act of 1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captives_in_American_Indian_Wars" title="Captives in American Indian Wars">Captives in American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">French and Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Campaign_Medal" title="Indian Campaign Medal">Indian Campaign Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Indian_Wars_weapons" title="List of American Indian Wars weapons">List of American Indian Wars weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_won_by_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of battles won by indigenous peoples of the Americas">List of battles won by indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Indian massacres">List of Indian massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Medal_of_Honor_recipients_for_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Indian Wars">List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_rebellions_in_Mexico_and_Central_America" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous rebellions in Mexico and Central America">List of indigenous rebellions in Mexico and Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">North-West Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Red River Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Indian_Scouts" title="United States Army Indian Scouts">United States Army Indian Scouts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awa%27uq_Massacre" title="Awa'uq Massacre">Awa'uq Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Various rival Native American tribes fought against each other, while making alliances with different White European colonial factions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Indian has been used in keeping with <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NAMINGCRITERIA" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NAMINGCRITERIA">page name guidelines</a> because of the historical nature of the page and the precision of the name</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCave2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cave, Alfred A. (2003-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.0018-2370.2003.00055.x">"Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830"</a>. <i>The Historian</i>. <b>65</b> (6): 1330–1353. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0018-2370.2003.00055.x">10.1111/j.0018-2370.2003.00055.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2370">0018-2370</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historian&rft.atitle=Abuse+of+Power%3A+Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Indian+Removal+Act+of+1830&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1330-1353&rft.date=2003-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0018-2370.2003.00055.x&rft.issn=0018-2370&rft.aulast=Cave&rft.aufirst=Alfred+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1111%2Fj.0018-2370.2003.00055.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saint Junipero Serra, ND Faith, July 2020. 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University of Oklahoma Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2220-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2220-X"><bdi>0-8061-2220-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Holocaust+and+Survival%3A+A+Population+History+Since+1492&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-8061-2220-X&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9iQYSQ9y60MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffman, Paul (2002). "Florida's Frontiers". 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Oregon Historical Society Press. pp. 101–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87595-243-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87595-243-7"><bdi>978-0-87595-243-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Range+of+Glaciers%3A+The+Exploration+and+Survey+of+the+Northern+Cascade+Range&rft.pages=101-114&rft.pub=Oregon+Historical+Society+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87595-243-7&rft.aulast=Beckey&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydBoyd1999" class="citation book cs1">Boyd, Robert; Boyd, Robert Thomas (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P_FdUPbmwCgC&pg=PA172">"A final disaster: the 1862 smallpox epidemic in coastal British Columbia"</a>. <i>The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline Among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874</i>. University of British Columbia Press. pp. 172–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-97837-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-97837-6"><bdi>978-0-295-97837-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+final+disaster%3A+the+1862+smallpox+epidemic+in+coastal+British+Columbia&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+Spirit+of+Pestilence%3A+Introduced+Infectious+Diseases+and+Population+Decline+Among+Northwest+Coast+Indians%2C+1774%E2%80%931874&rft.pages=172-201&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-295-97837-6&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Boyd%2C+Robert+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP_FdUPbmwCgC%26pg%3DPA172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanky2019" class="citation web cs1">Swanky, Tom (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tsilhqotin.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/2021_Chief-Ahans-Story_Chilcotin-War.pdf">"Commemorating Nits'il?in Ahan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Tŝilhqot'in National Government<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commemorating+Nits%27il%3Fin+Ahan&rft.pub=T%C5%9Dilhqot%27in+National+Government&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Swanky&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tsilhqotin.ca%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F07%2F2021_Chief-Ahans-Story_Chilcotin-War.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Rijn2006" class="citation journal cs1">Van Rijn, Kiran (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fcbmh.23.2.541">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Lo! The poor Indian!" Colonial Responses to the 1862-63 Smallpox Epidemic in British Columbia and Vancouver Island"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Bulletin_of_Medical_History" title="Canadian Bulletin of Medical History">Canadian Bulletin of Medical History</a></i>. <b>23</b> (2): 541–560. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fcbmh.23.2.541">10.3138/cbmh.23.2.541</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17214129">17214129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Bulletin+of+Medical+History&rft.atitle=%22Lo%21+The+poor+Indian%21%22+Colonial+Responses+to+the+1862-63+Smallpox+Epidemic+in+British+Columbia+and+Vancouver+Island&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=541-560&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fcbmh.23.2.541&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17214129&rft.aulast=Van+Rijn&rft.aufirst=Kiran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3138%252Fcbmh.23.2.541&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstroff" class="citation web cs1">Ostroff, Joshua. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/how-a-smallpox-epidemic-forged-modern-british-columbia">"How a smallpox epidemic forged modern British Columbia"</a>. Maclean's<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+a+smallpox+epidemic+forged+modern+British+Columbia&rft.pub=Maclean%27s&rft.aulast=Ostroff&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.macleans.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fhow-a-smallpox-epidemic-forged-modern-british-columbia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerome A. Greene: <i>Nez Perce Summer, 1877: The US Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917298-82-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917298-82-0">978-0-917298-82-0</a>, pp. 632–633</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Shoshoni Frontier and the Bear River Massacre</i>, Brigham D. Madsen, foreword by Charles S. Peterson, University of Utah Press (1985, paperback 1995), pp. 1–56, trade paperback, 286 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87480-494-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87480-494-9">0-87480-494-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://altlaw.org/v1/cases/384679"><i>Northwestern Bands of Shoshone Indians v. United States</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090725113531/http://altlaw.org/v1/cases/384679">Archived</a> 2009-07-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> United States Supreme Court, April 9, 1945, 89 L.Ed. 985; 65 S.Ct. 690; 324 U.S. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanindianso00wilk/page/141"><i>American Indian Sovereignty and the U.S. Supreme Court: The Masking of Justice</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/David_E._Wilkins" title="David E. Wilkins">David E. Wilkins</a>, University of Texas Press (1997), pp. 141–165, trade paperback, 421 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-79109-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-79109-1">978-0-292-79109-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parry, "The Northwestern Shoshone" (2000), pp. 70–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parry, "The Northwestern Shoshone" (2000), pp. 52–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michno, Gregory, <i>The Deadliest Indian War in the West: The Snake Conflict, 1864–1868</i>. Caldwell: Caxton Press, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nrchambers.tripod.com/diary.shtml">"The Diary of Lamech Chambers"</a>. Nrchambers.tripod.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910192026/http://nrchambers.tripod.com/diary.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Diary+of+Lamech+Chambers&rft.pub=Nrchambers.tripod.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnrchambers.tripod.com%2Fdiary.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters</i>, by George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of Oklahoma Press (1968), pp. 105–115, hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280 pages (1983) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1">978-0-8061-1577-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Coward, <i>The newspaper Indian</i>, pp. 102–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters</i>, by George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of Oklahoma Press (1968), pp. 127–136, 148, 162, 163, hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280 pages (1983) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1">978-0-8061-1577-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.over-land.com/soplatte.html">"Julesburg to Latham"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117072727/http://www.over-land.com/soplatte.html">Archived</a> 2013-01-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Angie Debo, <i>A history of the Indians of the United States</i>, p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Settler's War" of <i>The Battle of Beecher Island and the Indian War of 1867–1869</i>, by John H. Monnett, University Press of Colorado (1992), pp. 55–73, Chapter 3, trade paperback, 236 pages <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87081-347-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87081-347-1">0-87081-347-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shultz-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shultz_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarley1961" class="citation book cs1">Carley, Kenneth (1961). <i>The Sioux Uprising of 1862</i>. <a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Historical_Society" title="Minnesota Historical Society">Minnesota Historical Society</a>. p. 65. <q>Most of the thirty-nine were baptized, including Tatemima (or Round Wind), who was reprieved at the last minute.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sioux+Uprising+of+1862&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Minnesota+Historical+Society&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Carley&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp//battles/co001.htm">"CWSAC Battle Summary: Sand Creek"</a>. National Park Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019062229/http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp/battles/co001.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 19, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CWSAC+Battle+Summary%3A+Sand+Creek&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fhps%2Fabpp%2F%2Fbattles%2Fco001.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters</i>, by George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of Oklahoma Press (1968), pp. 148–163, hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280 pages (1983) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1">978-0-8061-1577-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters</i>, by George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of Oklahoma Press (1968), pp. 168–155, hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280 pages (1983) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1">978-0-8061-1577-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Mud Springs and Rush Creek" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMPW5pi42zkC&dq=battle+%22mud+springs%22&pg=PA35">Chapter 3 "Mud Springs and Rush Creek"</a> <i>Circle of fire: the Indian war of 1865</i> by John Dishon McDermott, Stackpole Books (2003), pp. 35–44, hardcover, 304 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-0061-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-0061-0">978-0-8117-0061-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters</i>, by George E. Hyde, edited by Savoie Lottinville, University of Oklahoma Press (1968), pp. 201–207, 212–222, hardcover, 390 pages; trade paperback, 280 pages (1983) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1577-1">978-0-8061-1577-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Hanging of the Chiefs" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMPW5pi42zkC&dq=battle+%22mud+springs%22&pg=PA35"><i>Circle of fire: the Indian war of 1865</i></a> by John Dishon McDermott, Stackpole Books (2003), pp. 46–62, Chapter 4, hardcover, 304 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-0061-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-0061-0">978-0-8117-0061-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roy Morris, Jr., <i>Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan</i> (1992) p. 299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRister1944" class="citation book cs1">Rister, Carl (1944). <i>Border Command: General Phil Sheridan in the West</i>. 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University of New Mexico Press. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-2289-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-2289-0"><bdi>978-0-8263-2289-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Population+Recovery+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-2289-0&rft.aulast=Shoemaker&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyCe-jE2oSNQC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1990" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Russell (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9iQYSQ9y60MC"><i>American Indian holocaust and survival: a population history since 1492</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 26–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2220-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2220-5"><bdi>978-0-8061-2220-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+holocaust+and+survival%3A+a+population+history+since+1492&rft.pages=26-32&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2220-5&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9iQYSQ9y60MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BXScience-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BXScience_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord1997" class="citation journal cs1">Lord, Lewis (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2009/4/5/34767803/Pre-Columbian%20population.pdf">"How Many People Were Here Before Columbus?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190122234852/http://www.bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2009/4/5/34767803/Pre-Columbian">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-01-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Oklahoma Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2220-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2220-5"><bdi>978-0-8061-2220-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+holocaust+and+survival%3A+a+population+history+since+1492&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2220-5&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Russel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstler2020" class="citation web cs1">Ostler, Jeffrey (2020-04-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/04/disease-has-never-been-just-disease-native-americans/610852/">"Disease Has Never Been Just Disease for Native Americans"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-24526-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-24526-4"><bdi>978-0-300-24526-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1099434736">1099434736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surviving+genocide%3A+native+nations+and+the+United+States+from+the+American+Revolution+to+bleeding+Kansas&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1099434736&rft.isbn=978-0-300-24526-4&rft.aulast=Ostler&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilio-Whitaker2019" class="citation book cs1">Gilio-Whitaker, Dina (2019). <i>As long as grass grows: the indigenous fight for environmental justice, from colonization to Standing Rock</i>. Boston: Beacon Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-7378-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-7378-0"><bdi>978-0-8070-7378-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1044542033">1044542033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=As+long+as+grass+grows%3A+the+indigenous+fight+for+environmental+justice%2C+from+colonization+to+Standing+Rock&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1044542033&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-7378-0&rft.aulast=Gilio-Whitaker&rft.aufirst=Dina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBureau_of_the_Census1894" class="citation book cs1">Bureau of the Census (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KWkUAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA637"><i>Report on Indians taxed and Indians not taxed in the United States (except Alaska)</i></a>. Norman Ross Pub. pp. 637–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88354-462-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88354-462-4"><bdi>978-0-88354-462-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+on+Indians+taxed+and+Indians+not+taxed+in+the+United+States+%28except+Alaska%29&rft.pages=637-38&rft.pub=Norman+Ross+Pub.&rft.date=1894&rft.isbn=978-0-88354-462-4&rft.au=Bureau+of+the+Census&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKWkUAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA637&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://around.uoregon.edu/content/historian-examines-native-american-genocide-its-legacy-and-survivors">"Historian Examines Native American Genocide, its Legacy, and Survivors"</a>. <i>University of Oregon</i>. 20 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Some Thoughts on Colonial Historians and American Indians". <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>46</b> (1): 94–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1922410">10.2307/1922410</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922410">1922410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Some+Thoughts+on+Colonial+Historians+and+American+Indians&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=94-119&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1922410&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1922410%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Merrell&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostler-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ostler_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Genocide and American Indian History</i>; Jeffrey Ostler; University of Oregon, 2015</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150629231939/http://www.history.army.mil/html/reference/army_flag/iw.html">"Named Campaigns: Indian Wars"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History" title="United States Army Center of Military History">United States Army Center of Military History</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/reference/army_flag/iw.html">the original</a> on 2015-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2005-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Named+Campaigns%3A+Indian+Wars&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Freference%2Farmy_flag%2Fiw.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichno2009" class="citation book cs1">Michno, F. Gregory (2009). <i>Encyclopedia of Indian wars: Western battles and skirmishes 1850–1890</i>. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87842-468-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87842-468-9"><bdi>978-0-87842-468-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indian+wars%3A+Western+battles+and+skirmishes+1850%E2%80%931890&rft.place=Missoula%2C+Montana&rft.pub=Mountain+Press+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87842-468-9&rft.aulast=Michno&rft.aufirst=F.+Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin0000mich">online</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Parry, Mae. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.lib.utah.edu/utils/getfile/collection/uaida/id/14588/filename/15600.pdf">The Northwestern Shoshone</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161002192944/http://content.lib.utah.edu/utils/getfile/collection/uaida/id/14588/filename/15600.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-10-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". In <i>A History of Utah's American Indians</i>, ed. Forrest S. Cuch. Utah State University Press, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-91373-849-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-91373-849-8">978-0-91373-849-8</a>.</li> <li>Parker, Aaron. <i>The Sheepeater Indian Campaign</i> (Chamberlin Basin Country). Idaho Country Free Press, 1968.</li> <li>Raphael, Ray. <i>A People's History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence.</i> New York: The New Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-000440-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-000440-1">0-06-000440-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_V._Remini" title="Robert V. Remini">Remini, Robert V.</a> <i>Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars</i>. New York: Viking, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-91025-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-91025-2">0-670-91025-2</a>.</li> <li>Richter, Daniel K. <i><a href="/wiki/Facing_East_from_Indian_Country" title="Facing East from Indian Country">Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America</a></i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00638-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00638-0">0-674-00638-0</a>.</li> <li>Thornton, Russell. <i>American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492.</i> Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2220-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2220-X">0-8061-2220-X</a>.</li> <li>Utley, Robert M. and Wilcomb E. Washburn. <i>Indian Wars</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Indian-Wars-Robert-M-Utley/dp/0618154647/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160322145853/http://www.amazon.com/Indian-Wars-Robert-M-Utley/dp/0618154647">Archived</a> 2016-03-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Yenne, Bill. <i>Indian Wars: The Campaign for the American West.</i> Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59416-016-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-59416-016-3">1-59416-016-3</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Anderson, R. Warren (2024). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aehr.12283">Politics, economics and Native American conflicts</a>". <i>Asia-Pacific Economic History Review</i>.</li> <li>Barnes, Jeff. <i>Forts of the Northern Plains: Guide to Historic Military Posts of the Plains Indian Wars</i>. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8117-3496-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8117-3496-X">0-8117-3496-X</a>.</li> <li>Glassley, Ray Hoard. <i>Indian Wars of the Pacific Northwest</i>, Binfords & Mort, Portland, Oregon 1972 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8323-0014-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8323-0014-4">0-8323-0014-4</a></li> <li>Heard, J. Norman. <i>Handbook of the American Frontier</i> (5 vol Scarecrow Press, 1987–98); Covers "1: The Southeastern Woodlands", "2: The Northeastern Woodlands", "3: The Great Plains", "4: The Far West" and vol 5: "Chronology, Bibliography, Index." Compilation of Indian-white contacts & conflicts</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKesselWooster2005" class="citation book cs1">Kessel, W.B.; Wooster, R. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mSqLQgAACAAJ"><i>Encyclopedia of Native American Wars and Warfare</i></a>. Facts on File library of American history. Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6430-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6430-4"><bdi>978-0-8160-6430-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Native+American+Wars+and+Warfare&rft.series=Facts+on+File+library+of+American+history&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6430-4&rft.aulast=Kessel&rft.aufirst=W.B.&rft.au=Wooster%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmSqLQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>McDermott, John D. <i>A Guide to the Indian Wars of the West</i>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-8246-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-8246-X">0-8032-8246-X</a>.</li> <li>Michno, Gregory F. <i>Deadliest Indian War in the West: The Snake Conflict, 1864–1868</i>, 360 pages, Caxton Press, 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87004-460-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87004-460-5">0-87004-460-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStannard1992" class="citation book cs1">Stannard, D.E. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXQ8DwAAQBAJ"><i>American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World</i></a>. Oxford University Press paperback. Oxford University Press, US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508557-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508557-0"><bdi>978-0-19-508557-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Holocaust%3A+The+Conquest+of+the+New+World&rft.series=Oxford+University+Press+paperback&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+US&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508557-0&rft.aulast=Stannard&rft.aufirst=D.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcXQ8DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerArnoldWiener2011" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, S.; Arnold, J.R.; Wiener, R. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C"><i>The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-697-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-697-8"><bdi>978-1-85109-697-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+North+American+Indian+Wars%2C+1607%E2%80%931890%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Military+History&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-697-8&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+J.R.&rft.au=Wiener%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJsM4A0GSO34C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWooster1995" class="citation book cs1">Wooster, R. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3dMZd6UXijMC"><i>The Military and United States Indian Policy 1865–1903</i></a>. University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-9767-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-9767-8"><bdi>978-0-8032-9767-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+and+United+States+Indian+Policy+1865%E2%80%931903&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-9767-8&rft.aulast=Wooster&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3dMZd6UXijMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_2">Historiography</h3></div> <ul><li>Bellesiles, Michael A (2004). "Western Violence", in <i>A Companion to the American West</i> ed. by William Deverell pp: 162–178. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/6817197/mod_resource/content/1/Companion%20to%20the%20American%20West.pdf#page=174">online</a></li> <li>Lewis, David Rich (2004). "Native Americans in the nineteenth-century American West." in <i>A Companion to the American West</i> ed. by William Deverell pp: 143–161. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/6817197/mod_resource/content/1/Companion%20to%20the%20American%20West.pdf#page=155">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrell1989" class="citation journal cs1">Merrell, James H (1989). "Some Thoughts on Colonial Historians and American Indians". <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>46</b> (1): 94–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1922410">10.2307/1922410</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922410">1922410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Some+Thoughts+on+Colonial+Historians+and+American+Indians&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=94-119&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1922410&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1922410%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Merrell&rft.aufirst=James+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrell2012" class="citation journal cs1">Merrell, James H (2012). "Second Thoughts on Colonial Historians and American Indians". <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>69</b> (3): 451–512. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.69.3.0451">10.5309/willmaryquar.69.3.0451</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5309/willmaryquar.69.3.0451">10.5309/willmaryquar.69.3.0451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Second+Thoughts+on+Colonial+Historians+and+American+Indians&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=451-512&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.69.3.0451&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5309%2Fwillmaryquar.69.3.0451%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Merrell&rft.aufirst=James+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li>Miller, Lester L. Jr. <i>Indian Wars: A Bibliography</i> (US Army, 1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA188734">online</a>; lists over 200 books and articles.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1998" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Sherry L (1998). "Lost soldiers: Re-searching the Army in the American West". <i>Western Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>29</b> (2): 149–163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F971327">10.2307/971327</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/971327">971327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Lost+soldiers%3A+Re-searching+the+Army+in+the+American+West&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-163&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F971327&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F971327%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Sherry+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li>Greene, Jerome A (2007). <i>Indian War Veterans: Memories of Army Life and Campaigns in the West, 1864–1898</i>. New York: Savas Beatie. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-932714-26-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-932714-26-X">1-932714-26-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriske2005" class="citation book cs1">Griske, Michael (2005). <i>The Diaries of John Hunton, Chapter 2 – "Frontier Warfare, A Tragic and Fearsome Thing"</i>. Heritage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7884-3804-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7884-3804-2"><bdi>978-0-7884-3804-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diaries+of+John+Hunton%2C+Chapter+2+%E2%80%93+%22Frontier+Warfare%2C+A+Tragic+and+Fearsome+Thing%22&rft.pub=Heritage+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7884-3804-2&rft.aulast=Griske&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKip,_Lawrence1859" class="citation book cs1">Kip, Lawrence (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armylifeonpacif00kipgoog"><i>Army life on the Pacific: a journal of the expedition against the northern Indians, the tribes of the Cour d'Alenes, Spokans, and Pelouzes, in the summer of 1858</i></a>. Redfield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-548-50401-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-548-50401-7"><bdi>978-0-548-50401-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Army+life+on+the+Pacific%3A+a+journal+of+the+expedition+against+the+northern+Indians%2C+the+tribes+of+the+Cour+d%27Alenes%2C+Spokans%2C+and+Pelouzes%2C+in+the+summer+of+1858&rft.pub=Redfield&rft.date=1859&rft.isbn=978-0-548-50401-7&rft.au=Kip%2C+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farmylifeonpacif00kipgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Indian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.secstate.wa.gov/history/publications_detail.aspx?p=47">Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Native_American_wars" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Native American wars">Native American wars</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indianwars.org/"><i>Indian Wars National Association</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060326004847/http://texashistory.unt.edu/permalink/meta-pth-6725"><i>Indian Wars and Pioneers of Texas</i></a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Brown" title="John Henry Brown">John Henry Brown</a>, published 1880, hosted by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://texashistory.unt.edu/">Portal to Texas History</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100204083704/http://www.forloveofliberty.net/wars/indian-wars"><i>The Indian Wars and African American Soldiers</i></a>, US Army</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/31/">Increase Mather, <i>A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New-England</i>, (1676) Online Edition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/american-indian-wars">www.history.com; American-Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130111135510/http://www.warof1812rph.com/">The War of 1812 at Real Peoples History</a> Highlighting Native Nations in the War of 1812</li> <li>Urlacher, Brian R (2021). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0022343320987274">Introducing Native American Conflict History (NACH) data</a>". <i>Journal of Peace Research.</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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Forces"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Armed_conflicts_involving_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Armed_conflicts_involving_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Armed conflicts involving the Armed Forces of the United States</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div>Listed chronologically</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Domestic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fries%27s_Rebellion" title="Fries's Rebellion">Fries's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_German_Coast_uprising" title="1811 German Coast uprising">1811 German Coast uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Turner's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1838_Mormon_War" title="1838 Mormon War">Mormon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Dorr Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_war" title="Range war">Range War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_County_War" title="Lincoln County War">Lincoln County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_County_War" title="Johnson County War">Johnson County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_Creek_War" title="Coal Creek War">Coal Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_strike" title="Homestead strike">Homestead strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Coalfield_War" title="Colorado Coalfield War">Colorado Coalfield War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blair_Mountain" title="Battle of Blair Mountain">Battle of Blair Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonus_Army" title="Bonus Army">Bonus Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Nationalist_Party_revolts_of_the_1950s" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s">Puerto Rican revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_riots_(1964%E2%80%931969)" title="Ghetto riots (1964–1969)">1960s ghetto rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Greensboro_uprising" title="1969 Greensboro uprising">1969 Greensboro uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_shootings" title="Kent State shootings">Kent State shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots">1992 Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2023 United States racial unrest">2020 racial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">2021 U.S. Capitol attack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American%E2%80%93Algerian_War_(1785%E2%80%931795)" title="American–Algerian War (1785–1795)">American–Algerian War (1785–1795)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sumatran_expedition" title="First Sumatran expedition">First Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sumatran_expedition" title="Second Sumatran expedition">Second Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast_expedition" title="Ivory Coast expedition">Ivory Coast expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Fiji_expedition" title="First Fiji expedition">First Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fiji_expedition" title="Second Fiji expedition">Second Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosa_Expedition" title="Formosa Expedition">Formosa Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">Korean Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Border_War_(1910%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Border War (1910–1919)">Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon" title="Multinational Force in Lebanon">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Uphold_Democracy" title="Operation Uphold Democracy">Intervention in Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deliberate_Force" title="Operation Deliberate Force">Bosnian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">Kosovo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">War in North-West Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="2011 military intervention in Libya">First Libyan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State" title="War against the Islamic State">War against the Islamic State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_(2014%E2%80%932021)" class="mw-redirect" title="American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–2021)">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="US intervention in the Syrian civil war">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency#American_military_support" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_intervention_in_Libya_(2015%E2%80%932019)" class="mw-redirect" title="American intervention in Libya (2015–2019)">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_the_United_States" title="List of conflicts in the United States">Conflicts in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_United_States" title="List of wars involving the United States">Wars involving the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations" title="Timeline of United States military operations">Timeline of U.S. military operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_lengths_of_United_States_participation_in_wars" title="List of the lengths of United States participation in wars">Length of U.S. participation in major wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="History of the Central Intelligence Agency">History of the Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_casualties_of_war" title="United States military casualties of war">Casualties of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement#United_States" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_organizations#United_States" title="List of anti-war organizations">List of anti-war organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector#United_States" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes" title="United States war crimes">War crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:US history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:US history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/20px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/31px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg/41px-MAYA-g-log-cal-D10-Ok.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="299" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Klepsydra-pt.svg/17px-Klepsydra-pt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Klepsydra-pt.svg/26px-Klepsydra-pt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Klepsydra-pt.svg/34px-Klepsydra-pt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="275" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Modern_history" title="Portal:Modern history">Modern history</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-North_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:North_America" title="Portal:North America">North America</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849680#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/969954/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4201074-3">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85065404">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12089058k">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12089058k">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="indiánské války"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph172928&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007545827305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Indian_Wars&oldid=1257072145">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Indian_Wars&oldid=1257072145</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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