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Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light - Wikipedia
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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Timeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light%22">"Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Timeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Timeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Timeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Timeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Timeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_en_Lorentz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Einstein_en_Lorentz.jpg/250px-Einstein_en_Lorentz.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Einstein_en_Lorentz.jpg/375px-Einstein_en_Lorentz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Einstein_en_Lorentz.jpg/500px-Einstein_en_Lorentz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2256" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> in 1921 in <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a></figcaption></figure> <p>This timeline describes the major developments, both experimental and theoretical, of: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein’s</a> <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special theory of relativity</a> (SR),</li> <li>its predecessors like the theories of <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous aether</a>,</li> <li>its early competitors, i.e.: <ul><li>Ritz’s <a href="/wiki/Emission_theory_(relativity)" title="Emission theory (relativity)">ballistic theory of light</a>,</li> <li>the models of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_mass" title="Electromagnetic mass">electromagnetic mass</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Max_Abraham" title="Max Abraham">Abraham</a> (1902), <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> (1904), <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Bucherer" title="Alfred Bucherer">Bucherer</a> (1904) and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Langevin" title="Paul Langevin">Langevin</a> (1904).</li></ul></li></ul> <p>This list also mentions the origins of standard notation (like <i>c</i>) and terminology (like <i>theory of relavity</i>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criteria_for_inclusion">Criteria for inclusion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Criteria for inclusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Enterprise_(CVAN-65),_USS_Long_Beach_(CGN-9)_and_USS_Bainbridge_(DLGN-25)_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit,_in_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg/220px-USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg/330px-USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg/440px-USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1062" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>Task Force One, the world's first nuclear-powered task force. <a href="/wiki/USS_Enterprise_(CVN-65)" title="USS Enterprise (CVN-65)"><i>Enterprise</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Long_Beach_(CGN-9)" title="USS Long Beach (CGN-9)"><i>Long Beach</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Bainbridge_(CGN-25)" title="USS Bainbridge (CGN-25)"><i>Bainbridge</i></a> in formation in the Mediterranean, 18 June 1964. <i>Enterprise</i> crew members are spelling out Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula <span class="texhtml"><i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup></span> on the flight deck.</figcaption></figure> <p>Theories other than SR are not described here exhaustively, but only to the extent that is directly relevant to SR – i.e. at points when they: </p> <ul><li>anticipated some elements of SR, like Fresnel’s hypothesis of partial aether drag,</li> <li>led to new experiments testing SR, like Stokes’s model of complete aether drag,</li> <li>were disproved or questioned, e.g. by the experiments of <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a>.</li></ul> <p>For a more detailed timeline of <a href="/wiki/Aether_theories" title="Aether theories">aether theories</a> – e.g. their emergence with the <a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" title="Physical optics">wave theory of light</a> – see a <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_luminiferous_aether" title="Timeline of luminiferous aether">separate article</a>. Also, not all experiments are listed here – repetitions, even with much higher precision than the original, are mentioned only if they influence or challenge the opinions at their time. It was the case with: </p> <ul><li>Michelson and Morley (1886) repeating the experiment of Fizeau (1851), contradicting Michelson’s interpretation of his 1881 experiment;</li> <li>Michelson–Morley (1887), more conclusive than the original experiment by Michelson (1881) and difficult to reconcile with their experiment of 1886, or other first-order measurements;</li> <li>Kaufmann’s 1906 repetition of his 1902 experiment, because he claimed to contradict the model of Einstein and Lorentz, considered consistent with the data from 1902;</li> <li>Miller (1933) or Marinov (1974), with results different than Michelson–Morley.</li></ul> <p>For lists of repetitions, see the articles of particular experiments. The measurements of speed of light are also mentioned only to the minimum extent, i.e. when they proved for the first time that <i>c</i> is finite and invariant. Innovations like the use of <a href="/wiki/Foucault%27s_measurements_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Foucault's measurements of the speed of light">Foucault's rotating mirror</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Fizeau%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light_in_air" title="Fizeau's measurement of the speed of light in air">Fizeau wheel</a> are not listed here – see the article about <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. </p><p>This timeline also ignores, for reasons of volume and clarity: </p> <ul><li>the long story of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> and the concept of time as the fourth dimension; e.g. the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Lagrange</a> and <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">Wells</a>;</li> <li>mathematical innovations that influenced the formalism of SR, e.g. the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Fibre_bundle" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibre bundle">fibre bundles</a>;</li> <li>indirect evidence for SR, through the evidence for relativistic theories like <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_mechanics" title="Relativistic quantum mechanics">relativistic quantum mechanics</a>;</li> <li>publication of countless textbooks and popular science books or articles, even very influential classics like <i><a href="/wiki/Mr_Tompkins" title="Mr Tompkins">Mr Tompkins</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a>;</li> <li>the cultural impact of SR, e.g. publication of documentaries or commemorations of SR during the <a href="/wiki/World_Year_of_Physics_2005" title="World Year of Physics 2005">World Year of Physics 2005</a>;</li> <li>new, untested theories modifying SR like <a href="/wiki/Doubly_special_relativity" title="Doubly special relativity">Doubly special relativity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Variable_speed_of_light" title="Variable speed of light">Variable speed of light</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Before_the_19th_century">Before the 19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Before the 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_from_1676_article_on_Ole_R%C3%B8mer%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Illustration_from_1676_article_on_Ole_R%C3%B8mer%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light.jpg/200px-Illustration_from_1676_article_on_Ole_R%C3%B8mer%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="378" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Illustration_from_1676_article_on_Ole_R%C3%B8mer%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light.jpg/300px-Illustration_from_1676_article_on_Ole_R%C3%B8mer%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Illustration_from_1676_article_on_Ole_R%C3%B8mer%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light.jpg/400px-Illustration_from_1676_article_on_Ole_R%C3%B8mer%27s_measurement_of_the_speed_of_light.jpg 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="825" /></a><figcaption>A redrawn version of the illustration from the 1676 news report. Rømer compared the apparent duration of Io's orbits as Earth moved towards Jupiter (F to G) and as Earth moved away from Jupiter (L to K).</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1632 – <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> writes about the relativity of motion and that some forms of motion are undetectable; this would be later called the <a href="/wiki/Relativity_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativity principle">relativity principle</a>, essential for special relativity as one of its postulates.</li> <li>1674 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> makes his observations of the <a href="/wiki/Gamma_Draconis" title="Gamma Draconis">Gamma Draconis</a> star, or γ Draconis for short. He proves a variation in its position on the sky, which would be later identified as <a href="/wiki/Aberration_(astronomy)" title="Aberration (astronomy)">stellar aberration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1676 – <a href="/wiki/Ole_R%C3%B8mer" title="Ole Rømer">Ole Rømer</a> gives <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Rømer's determination of the speed of light">the first piece of evidence</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> is finite, through his observation of the <a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter">moons of Jupiter</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the discovery divides scientists of his time.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1690 – <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> gives the first estimate of the speed of light in air or vacuum, based on Rømer’s work. The result is equivalent to about 2×10<sup>8</sup> m/s in modern units, correct only to the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">order of magnitude</a>.</li> <li>1727 – <a href="/wiki/James_Bradley" title="James Bradley">James Bradley</a> correctly identifies the peculiar behaviour of γ Draconis as stellar aberration. Bradley uses this fact to estimate the speed of light in air or vacuum, and his result is more <a href="/wiki/Accuracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Accuracy">accurate</a> than Huygens’s: about 3.0×10<sup>8</sup> m/s in modern units. For the first time, the measurement is correct to the first two <a href="/wiki/Significant_figures" title="Significant figures">significant figures</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_1880s">Before 1880s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Before 1880s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1810 – <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago" title="François Arago">François Arago</a> observes that the speed of light of stars – measured with stellar aberration – may be independent of the relative motion of stars and the Earth; or at least, no differences are observable with a naked eye.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1818 – <a href="/wiki/Augustin-Jean_Fresnel" title="Augustin-Jean Fresnel">Augustin-Jean Fresnel</a> proposes his model of partial aether dragging to explain Arago’s finding.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1845 – <a href="/wiki/George_Gabriel_Stokes" class="mw-redirect" title="George Gabriel Stokes">George Gabriel Stokes</a> creates his own model of complete aether dragging.<sup id="cite_ref-stokes1845_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stokes1845-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1851 – The <a href="/wiki/Fizeau_experiment" title="Fizeau experiment">Fizeau experiment</a> with light in flowing water confirms Fresnel’s model.<sup id="cite_ref-fiz1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fiz1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1861 – <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> publishes <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">his equations</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic field</a>, which had a great impact on the later works on aether and special relativity.</li> <li>1868 – <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Hoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Hoek">Martinus Hoek</a> modifies the experiment of Fizeau, with the same conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-hoek_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoek-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1871 – <a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> observes the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_aberration" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar aberration">stellar aberration</a> in a telescope filled with water, confirming Fresnel’s model and contradicting Stokes’s.<sup id="cite_ref-Airy_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Airy-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1880s">1880s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1880s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michelson_morley_experiment_1887.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Michelson_morley_experiment_1887.jpg/200px-Michelson_morley_experiment_1887.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Michelson_morley_experiment_1887.jpg/300px-Michelson_morley_experiment_1887.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Michelson_morley_experiment_1887.jpg/400px-Michelson_morley_experiment_1887.jpg 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Michelson and Morley's <a href="/wiki/Interferometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferometer">interferometric</a> setup, mounted on a stone slab that floats in an annular trough of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1881 – <a href="/wiki/Albert_Michelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Michelson">Albert Michelson</a> performs his original <a href="/wiki/Interferometry" title="Interferometry">interferometric</a> experiment. It detects no aether wind, contradicting Fresnel’s model in favour of Stokes’s.<sup id="cite_ref-michel1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-michel1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1885 – <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Lange_(physicist)" title="Ludwig Lange (physicist)">Ludwig Lange</a> introduces the idea of <a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">inertial frame of reference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is essential to relativity as an element of the modern formulation of the relativity principle.</li> <li>1886 – Albert Michelson and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Morley" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Morley">Edward Morley</a> repeat the Fizeau experiment with higher precision, confirming its result and contradicting the earlier conclusions of Michelson.</li> <li>1887 – <a href="/wiki/Woldemar_Voigt" title="Woldemar Voigt">Woldemar Voigt</a> publishes his coordinate transformations preserving the <a href="/wiki/Wave_equation" title="Wave equation">wave equation</a>. They are very similar – but not equivalent – to the later <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformations" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-doppler_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doppler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1887 – the <a href="/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment" title="Michelson–Morley experiment">Michelson–Morley experiment</a> fails to detect aether wind, disproving some aether theories and leading to new ones.</li> <li>1889 – <a href="/wiki/George_Francis_FitzGerald" title="George Francis FitzGerald">George FitzGerald</a> conjectures the <a href="/wiki/Length_contraction" title="Length contraction">length contraction</a> to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1890s">1890s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1890s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1892 – <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> – independently of FitzGerald – proposes the same explanation, with a formula only approximating the special-relativistic length contraction to the first order.</li> <li>1893 – <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> makes an interferometric experiment questioning the <a href="/wiki/Aether_drag_hypothesis" title="Aether drag hypothesis">aether drag hypothesis</a>.</li> <li>1894 – <a href="/wiki/Paul_Drude" title="Paul Drude">Paul Drude</a> introduces the symbol <i>c</i> for speed of light in vacuum.</li> <li>1895 – Hendrik Lorentz corrects his 1892 model, proposing a contraction by the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_factor" title="Lorentz factor">Lorentz factor</a> (γ).</li> <li>1895 – <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> probably makes his <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> about chasing a light beam, later relevant to his work on special relativity.</li> <li>1897 – Oliver Lodge publishes another experimental result questioning aether drag.</li> <li>1897 – <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Joseph Larmor</a> publishes his coordinate transformations extending the length contraction formula. These transformations imply a form of <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">time dilation</a> and were an approximation of the full Lorentz transformations.</li> <li>1898 – <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a> states that simultaneity is relative.</li> <li>1899 – <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorentz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Antoon Lorentz">Hendrik Antoon Lorentz</a> publishes an early version of his coordinate transformations, including the <i>local time</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hermann_Minkowski_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hermann_Minkowski_Portrait.jpg/220px-Hermann_Minkowski_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hermann_Minkowski_Portrait.jpg/330px-Hermann_Minkowski_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hermann_Minkowski_Portrait.jpg/440px-Hermann_Minkowski_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="813" data-file-height="1093" /></a><figcaption>Hermann Minkowski, who introduced the spacetime formalism to special relativity in 1908.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1900s">1900s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1900s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1902 – <a href="/wiki/Lord_Rayleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> writes that Lorentz’s hypothesis of length contraction predicts a form of <a href="/wiki/Birefringence" title="Birefringence">birefringence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experiments_of_Rayleigh_and_Brace" title="Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace">tries to observe it</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The null result questions Lorentz’s model, but it would be later explained by a combination of length contraction and time dilation.</li> <li>1902 – <a href="/wiki/Max_Abraham" title="Max Abraham">Max Abraham</a> develops his classical model of the electron. It anticipated some elements of special relativity like the non-linear dependence of momentum on velocity – or, in other, more debatable terms, the <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic mass">relativistic mass</a>. However, Abraham’s formula was different than in SR or in Lorentz’s theory.</li> <li>1902 – <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(physicist)" title="Walter Kaufmann (physicist)">Walter Kaufmann</a> publishes his measurements of how the electron’s momentum – or, using later terms, its <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic mass">relativistic mass</a> – depends on its speed. The results seem to confirm Abraham’s model.</li> <li>1903 – <a href="/wiki/Olinto_De_Pretto" title="Olinto De Pretto">Olinto De Pretto</a> presents his aether theory with some form of <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was described by a formula looking like Einstein’s <i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup>, but with different meanings of the terms.</li> <li>1903 – <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Thomas_Trouton" title="Frederick Thomas Trouton">Frederick Thomas Trouton</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=H.R._Noble&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H.R. Noble (page does not exist)">H.R. Noble</a> publish the results of <a href="/wiki/Trouton%E2%80%93Noble_experiment" title="Trouton–Noble experiment">their experiment</a> with capacitors, showing no aether drift.<sup id="cite_ref-TroutonNoble1903_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TroutonNoble1903-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1904 – <a href="/wiki/DeWitt_Bristol_Brace" title="DeWitt Bristol Brace">DeWitt Bristol Brace</a> conducts an improved version of Rayleigh’s 1902 experiment, again with null result.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1904 – Hendrik Lorentz explains the experimental results of Rayleigh, Brace, Trouton and Noble, using his refined coordinate transformations; he also proves that Maxwell’s equations are invariant under them. Lorentz also presents his own classical model of the electron, including the length contraction absent in the work of Abraham – but consistent with Kaufmann’s data so far.</li> <li>1904 – <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Bucherer" title="Alfred Bucherer">Alfred Bucherer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Langevin" title="Paul Langevin">Paul Langevin</a> independently publish a model of the electron and its mass increasing with speed, in a way different both from Abraham’s and Lorentz’s theories. This hypothesis was also consistent with Kaufmann’s results at that stage.</li> <li>1904 – <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a> presents the principle of relativity for <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>.</li> <li>1905 – Poincaré introduces the name <i>Lorentz transformations</i> and is the first to present them in their full form that would be later present in Einstein’s special relativity proper. Also, Poincaré is the first to describe the relativistic <a href="/wiki/Velocity-addition_formula" title="Velocity-addition formula">velocity-addition formula</a> – implicitly in his publication and explicitly in his letter to Lorentz.</li> <li><b>1905</b> – <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> publishes his special theory of relativity, including the <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a> that would be later written as <i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup>.</li> <li>1906 – <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Bucherer" title="Alfred Bucherer">Alfred Bucherer</a> introduces the name <i>theory of relativity</i>, based on <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>’s term <i>relative theory</i>.</li> <li>1906 – Walter Kaufmann publishes his new measurements of the mass–velocity dependence, and claims to disprove the formula of Lorentz and Einstein. At the same time, he accepts that both the old model of Abraham (1902) and the later model of Bucherer & Langevin (1904) are consistent with the data.</li> <li>1907 – <a href="/wiki/Max_Von_Laue" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Von Laue">Max Von Laue</a> describes how the relativistic <a href="/wiki/Velocity-addition_formula" title="Velocity-addition formula">velocity-addition formula</a> recreates the Fresnel drag coefficients.</li> <li>1908 – <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a> publishes his <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> formalism of special relativity.</li> <li>1908 – <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Thomas_Trouton" title="Frederick Thomas Trouton">Frederick Thomas Trouton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rankine" title="Alexander Rankine">Alexander Rankine</a> conduct <a href="/wiki/Trouton%E2%80%93Rankine_experiment" title="Trouton–Rankine experiment">an experiment with electric circuit</a>, proving that the length contraction is not the only relativistic effect and some form of time dilation is present – similarly to the previous experiments by Rayleigh (1902) and Brace (1904).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1908 – <a href="/wiki/Walther_Ritz" title="Walther Ritz">Walther Ritz</a> publishes <a href="/wiki/Ritz_ballistic_theory" title="Ritz ballistic theory">his ballistic theory of light</a> as an alternative to special relativity and Maxwell’s electrodynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1909 – <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Paul Ehrenfest</a> publishes the <a href="/wiki/Ehrenfest_paradox" title="Ehrenfest paradox">Ehrenfest paradox</a> about rigidity in special relativity.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1909 – <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tolman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Tolman">Richard Tolman</a> coin the disputed term <i>relativistic mass</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1910s">1910s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1910s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sagnac_interferometer.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Sagnac_interferometer.svg/220px-Sagnac_interferometer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Sagnac_interferometer.svg/330px-Sagnac_interferometer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Sagnac_interferometer.svg/440px-Sagnac_interferometer.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>Schematic representation of a Sagnac interferometer.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1910 – <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Ignatowski" title="Vladimir Ignatowski">Vladimir Ignatowski</a> makes the first derivations of Lorentz transformations that rely mostly – and almost entirely – on the <a href="/wiki/Relativity_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativity principle">relativity principle</a>, without appealing to <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%99s_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell’s equations">Maxwell’s equations</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such derivations are sometimes called <i>single-postulate</i>.</li> <li>1910 – <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Taylor_Whittaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Taylor Whittaker">Edmund Taylor Whittaker</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Vari%C4%87ak" title="Vladimir Varićak">Vladimir Varićak</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> introduce the idea of <a href="/wiki/Rapidity" title="Rapidity">rapidity</a>, but without using this name.</li> <li>1911 – <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Robb" title="Alfred Robb">Alfred Robb</a> coins the term <i>rapidity</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1911 – <a href="/wiki/Paul_Langevin" title="Paul Langevin">Paul Langevin</a> presents the <a href="/wiki/Twin_paradox" title="Twin paradox">twin paradox</a> implied by <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">time dilation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1911 – <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a> writes that special relativity and Lorentz aether theory predict the <a href="/wiki/Sagnac_effect" title="Sagnac effect">Sagnac effect</a>, absent in Ritz's ballistic theory or in Stokes's theory of aether drag.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1913 – <a href="/wiki/Georges_Sagnac" title="Georges Sagnac">Georges Sagnac</a> observes the effect named after him, disproving Ritz's ballistic theory or aether drag. However, he favours Lorentz's model and even claims – incorrectly – to contradict SR.</li> <li>1913 – <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">Willem de Sitter</a> describes how the light of <a href="/wiki/Double_star" title="Double star">double stars</a> contradicts Ritz’s ballistic theory of light.</li> <li>1914 – <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Silberstein" title="Ludwik Silberstein">Ludwik Silberstein</a> gives the first description of <a href="/wiki/Wigner_rotation" title="Wigner rotation">Thomas–Wigner rotation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then underappreciated.</li> <li>1914 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=G%C3%BCnther_Neumann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Günther Neumann (page does not exist)">Günther Neumann</a> measures the mass–velocity dependence for electrons. His result favours the formula of Lorentz & Einstein over the one by Abraham.</li> <li>1915 – <a href="/wiki/Charles-Eug%C3%A8ne_Guye" title="Charles-Eugène Guye">Charles-Eugène Guye</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Lavanchy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Lavanchy (page does not exist)">Charles Lavanchy</a> make their own measurements of the inertia of cathode rays, much more exact than the earlier research by Kaufmann. Their conclusion is opposite to Kaufmann’s – again, the formula of Lorentz and Einstein is correct and Abraham’s model is disproved.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1920s_and_1930s">1920s and 1930s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1920s and 1930s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1924 – <a href="/wiki/Hans_Thirring" title="Hans Thirring">Hans Thirring</a> notices that ballistic theories of light contradict <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopic</a> observations of the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1924 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anton_Lampa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anton Lampa (page does not exist)">Anton Lampa</a> predicts a relativistic effect later known as <a href="/wiki/Terrell_rotation" title="Terrell rotation">Penrose–Terrell rotation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lampa1924_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lampa1924-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1925 – the <a href="/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Gale%E2%80%93Pearson_experiment" title="Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment">Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment</a> tests the <a href="/wiki/Sagnac_effect" title="Sagnac effect">Sagnac effect</a> caused by the Earth’s rotation. The result disproves any aether drag; in combination with other experiments – disproving the stationary aether like the Michelson–Morley experiment – it proves the Lorentz transformations correct.</li> <li>1925 – <a href="/wiki/Llewelyn_Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Llewelyn Thomas">Llewelyn Thomas</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/Thomas_precession" title="Thomas precession">Thomas precession</a>, which can be explained by the effect described earlier by Silberstein and later by Wigner.</li> <li>1928 – <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> describes the general <a href="/wiki/Energy%E2%80%93momentum_relation" title="Energy–momentum relation">energy–momentum relation</a>, extending the equivalence of mass and energy.</li> <li>1932 – <a href="/wiki/Kennedy%E2%80%93Thorndike_experiment" title="Kennedy–Thorndike experiment">Kennedy–Thorndike experiment</a> confirms the Lorentz transformations in a new way, complementary to the Michelson–Morley experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-KT_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KT-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two results, if combined, prove some form of time dilation.</li> <li>1932 – <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Ernest Walton</a> prove the mass–energy equivalence via a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a>.</li> <li>1933 – <a href="/wiki/Dayton_Miller" title="Dayton Miller">Dayton Miller</a> conducts an improved form of the Michelson–Morley experiment, claiming to contradict special relativity.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would be later explained consistently with SR in the 1950s.</li> <li>1935 – the <a href="/wiki/Hammar_experiment" title="Hammar experiment">Hammar experiment</a> is another refutation of aether drag and evidence for special relativity.<sup id="cite_ref-ham_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ham-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rob_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rob-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1938 – <a href="/wiki/Ives%E2%80%93Stilwell_experiment" title="Ives–Stilwell experiment">Ives–Stilwell experiment</a> measures time dilation via the relativistic <a href="/wiki/Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ives1938_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ives1938-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, the Lorentz transformations can be derived directly from empirical data, as would be noticed by Robertson in 1949.</li> <li>1939 – <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> rediscovers that SR predicts the <a href="/wiki/Wigner_rotation" title="Wigner rotation">Thomas–Wigner rotation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_1930s">After 1930s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: After 1930s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1940 – <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=D.B._Hall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="D.B. Hall (page does not exist)">D.B. Hall</a> observe <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">time dilation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>, i.e. in the decay of <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muons</a>.</li> <li>1949 – <a href="/wiki/Howard_P._Robertson" title="Howard P. Robertson">Howard P. Robertson</a> notices that the Lorentz transformations can be deduced (extracted) from three key experiments: Michelson–Morley, Kennedy–Thorndike and Ives–Stillwell.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1954 – <a href="/wiki/Gerhart_L%C3%BCders" title="Gerhart Lüders">Gerhart Lüders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> prove that the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_invariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz invariance">Lorentz invariance</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theories</a> implies the <a href="/wiki/CPT_symmetry" title="CPT symmetry">CPT symmetry</a>, allowing for new tests of special relativity.</li> <li>1955 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Shankland" title="Robert S. Shankland">Robert S. Shankland</a> and others explain Miller’s experimental result from 1933 in a way consistent with special relativity.<sup id="cite_ref-Shankland_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shankland-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1959 – <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Terrell_(physicist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Terrell (physicist) (page does not exist)">James Terrell</a> independently publish their rediscovery that SR predicts the Penrose–Terrell effect.</li> <li>1959 – E. Dewan and M. Beran publish the thought experiment known as <a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_spaceship_paradox" title="Bell's spaceship paradox">Bell's spaceship paradox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dewanberan_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dewanberan-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1960 – <a href="/wiki/Vernon_W._Hughes" title="Vernon W. Hughes">Vernon W. Hughes</a> <i>et al.</i> perform <a href="/wiki/Hughes%E2%80%93Drever_experiment" title="Hughes–Drever experiment">a spectroscopic experiment</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later interpreted as evidence for the Lorentz invariance of particle interactions.</li> <li>1961 – <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Drever" title="Ronald Drever">Ronald Drever</a> independently conducts a similar experiment with the same conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1961 – <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Rindler" title="Wolfgang Rindler">Wolfgang Rindler</a> presents and solves the <a href="/wiki/Ladder_paradox" title="Ladder paradox">ladder paradox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1967 – <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Feinberg" title="Gerald Feinberg">Gerald Feinberg</a> introduces the term <i><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">tachyon</a></i> for hypothetical particles with speeds higher than that of light in vacuum (<i>c</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1971 – The <a href="/wiki/Hafele%E2%80%93Keating_experiment" title="Hafele–Keating experiment">Hafele–Keating experiment</a> confirms <a href="/wiki/Time_dilation" title="Time dilation">time dilation</a> predicted by special & <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-paper1_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paper1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-paper2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paper2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1974 – <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Marinov" title="Stefan Marinov">Stefan Marinov</a> claims to contradict special relativity by measuring a variation in <i>c</i>. His results are noted by the scientific community but rejected as incorrect.</li> <li>1983 – the speed of light in vacuum (<i>c</i>) is used to define the <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">metre</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">SI system of units</a>; the definition does not mention any frame of reference, assuming this speed is universal, and implicitly that special relativity is correct.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>2011 – <a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light_neutrino_anomaly" class="mw-redirect" title="Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly">Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly</a> is reported by <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>.</li> <li>2012 – the anomaly in neutrino speed is explained by a failure of the equipment; this reason is officially reported.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEppenstein1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Eppenstein, Otto (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Aberration" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aberration">Aberration</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). pp. 54–61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aberration&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=54-61&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Eppenstein&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRømer1677" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ole_R%C3%B8mer" title="Ole Rømer">Rømer, Ole</a> (30 September 1677), "Lettre Nº 2104", in Bosscha, J. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k77856x.image.f39.langEN#"><i>Œuvres complètes de Christiaan Huygens (1888–1950). Tome VIII: Correspondance 1676–1684</i></a>, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff (published 1899), pp. 32–35</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lettre+N%C2%BA+2104&rft.btitle=%C5%92uvres+compl%C3%A8tes+de+Christiaan+Huygens+%281888%E2%80%931950%29.+Tome+VIII%3A+Correspondance+1676%E2%80%931684&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pages=32-35&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff&rft.date=1677-09-30&rft.aulast=R%C3%B8mer&rft.aufirst=Ole&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k77856x.image.f39.langEN%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span>. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWróblewski1985" class="citation cs2">Wróblewski, Andrzej (1985), "<i>de Mora Luminis</i>: A spectacle in two acts with a prologue and an epilogue", <i>Am. J. Phys.</i>, <b>53</b> (7): 620–30, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985AmJPh..53..620W">1985AmJPh..53..620W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.14270">10.1119/1.14270</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am.+J.+Phys.&rft.atitle=de+Mora+Luminis%3A+A+spectacle+in+two+acts+with+a+prologue+and+an+epilogue&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=620-30&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.14270&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985AmJPh..53..620W&rft.aulast=Wr%C3%B3blewski&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArago,_A.1810–1853" class="citation cs2">Arago, A. (1810–1853), "Mémoire sur la vitesse de la lumière, lu à la prémière classe de l'Institut, le 10 décembre 1810", <i>Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences</i>, <b>36</b>: 38–49</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+des+Sciences&rft.atitle=M%C3%A9moire+sur+la+vitesse+de+la+lumi%C3%A8re%2C+lu+%C3%A0+la+pr%C3%A9mi%C3%A8re+classe+de+l%27Institut%2C+le+10+d%C3%A9cembre+1810&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=38-49&rft.date=1810%2F1853&rft.au=Arago%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fresnel, A. (1818), "Lettre de M. Fresnel à M. Arago sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique", <i>Annales de Chimie et de Physique</i>, <b>9</b>: 57–66 (Sep. 1818), 286–7 (Nov. 1818); reprinted in H. de Senarmont, E. Verdet, and L. Fresnel (eds.), <i>Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel</i>, vol. 2 (1868), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6tzUG7JmoQC&pg=PA627">pp. 627–36</a>; translated as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9KQ3BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA125">"Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago, on the influence of the movement of the earth on some phenomena of optics"</a> in K.F. Schaffner, <i>Nineteenth-Century Aether Theories</i>, Pergamon, 1972 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FC2013-0-02335-3">10.1016/C2013-0-02335-3</a>), pp. 125–35; also translated (with several errors) by R.R. Traill as "Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago concerning the influence of terrestrial movement on several optical phenomena", <i>General Science Journal</i>, 23 January 2006 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gsjournal.net/Science-Journals/Historical%20Papers-Mechanics%20/%20Electrodynamics/Download/2496">PDF, 8 pp.</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stokes1845-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stokes1845_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokes,_George_Gabriel1845" class="citation cs2">Stokes, George Gabriel (1845), <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:On the Aberration of Light"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_the_Aberration_of_Light">"On the Aberration of Light" </a></span>, <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, <b>27</b> (177): 9–15, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786444508645215">10.1080/14786444508645215</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=On+the+Aberration+of+Light&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=177&rft.pages=9-15&rft.date=1845&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786444508645215&rft.au=Stokes%2C+George+Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fiz1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fiz1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFizeau,_H.1851" class="citation journal cs1">Fizeau, H. (1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k29901/f351.chemindefer">"Sur les hypothèses relatives à l'éther lumineux"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus</i>. <b>33</b>: 349–355.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus&rft.atitle=Sur+les+hypoth%C3%A8ses+relatives+%C3%A0+l%27%C3%A9ther+lumineux&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=349-355&rft.date=1851&rft.au=Fizeau%2C+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k29901%2Ff351.chemindefer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span> <dl><dd>English: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFizeau,_H.1851" class="citation journal cs1">Fizeau, H. (1851). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Hypotheses Relating to the Luminous Aether"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Hypotheses_Relating_to_the_Luminous_Aether">"The Hypotheses Relating to the Luminous Aether, and an Experiment which Appears to Demonstrate that the Motion of Bodies Alters the Velocity with which Light Propagates itself in their Interior" </a></span>. <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>. <b>2</b>: 568–573.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Hypotheses+Relating+to+the+Luminous+Aether%2C+and+an+Experiment+which+Appears+to+Demonstrate+that+the+Motion+of+Bodies+Alters+the+Velocity+with+which+Light+Propagates+itself+in+their+Interior&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=568-573&rft.date=1851&rft.au=Fizeau%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span></dd></dl> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-hoek-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hoek_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoek,_M.1868" class="citation journal cs1">Hoek, M. 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B. Sykes, 1973 from the original French: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=7&int_ptnum=10&term_ptnum=39&format=jpg">L'évolution de l'espace et du temps"</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaue,_Max_von1911" class="citation journal cs1">Laue, Max von (1911). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.personal.psu.edu/rq9/HOW/Atomic_Clocks_Experiment.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 31, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Around-the-World+Atomic+Clocks%3A+Observed+Relativistic+Time+Gains&rft.volume=177&rft.issue=4044&rft.pages=168-170&rft.date=1972-07-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.177.4044.168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37376002%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17779918&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972Sci...177..168H&rft.aulast=Hafele&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft.au=Keating%2C+R.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.personal.psu.edu%2Frq9%2FHOW%2FAtomic_Clocks_Experiment.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+special+relativity+and+the+speed+of+light" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Kajetan_Wr%C3%B3blewski" title="Andrzej Kajetan Wróblewski">Andrzej Kajetan Wróblewski</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inspirehep.net/files/06f02d4ecc4e0f04244522d84db04a54">Einstein and Physics hundred years ago</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Acta_Physica_Polonica" title="Acta Physica Polonica">Acta Physica Polonica</a> B</i>, Vol. 37 (2006). 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href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">Electromagnetism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics" title="Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maxwell%27s_equations" title="History of Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics" title="History of fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fluid_and_continuum_mechanics" title="Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aerodynamics" title="History of aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_field_theory" title="History of classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory" title="History of gravitational theory">Gravitational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity" title="Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Material science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metamaterials" title="History of metamaterials">Metamaterials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">Mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_variational_principles_in_physics" title="History of variational principles in physics">Variational principles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">Optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy" title="History of spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics" title="Timeline of thermodynamics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_entropy" title="History of entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines" title="History of perpetual motion machines">Perpetual motion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Computational physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_physics" title="Timeline of computational physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li>Condensed matter <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_condensed_matter_physics" title="Timeline of condensed matter physics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_superconductivity" title="History of superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cosmology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">General relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geophysics" title="History of geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li>Nuclear physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_fusion" title="History of nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Timeline of quantum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">Subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">Special relativity</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lorentz_transformations" title="History of Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_special_relativity" title="Tests of special relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recent developments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Quantum information <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_loop_quantum_gravity" title="History of loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_string_theory" title="History of string theory">String theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On specific discoveries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_graphene" title="Discovery of graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li>Subatomic particles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_the_Higgs_boson" title="Search for the Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Neutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Rømer's determination of the speed of light">Speed of light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_physics" title="Golden age of physics">Golden age of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology" title="Golden age of cosmology">Golden age of cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Panisperna_boys" title="Via Panisperna boys">Via Panisperna boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_physics" title="Women in physics">Women in physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates" title="Bohr–Einstein debates">Bohr–Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%E2%80%93Eddington_dispute" title="Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute">Chandrasekhar–Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat" title="Mechanical equivalent of heat">Joule–von Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">Shapley–Curtis</a></li> <li>Relativity priority <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_priority_dispute" title="Relativity priority dispute">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity_priority_dispute" title="General relativity priority dispute">General relativity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfermium_Wars" title="Transfermium Wars">Transfermium Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_physics" title="Category:History of physics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐api‐ext.eqiad.main‐76b7c58d6d‐cbpp9 Cached time: 20241125144915 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: 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