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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_civilizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_civilizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient civilizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_civilizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early modern explanations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linnaeus_and_Darwin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linnaeus_and_Darwin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Linnaeus and Darwin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linnaeus_and_Darwin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_Darwin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_Darwin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>After Darwin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_Darwin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating/Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating/Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dating/Age</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dating/Age-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dating/Age subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dating/Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stratigraphy_and_estimations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stratigraphy_and_estimations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Stratigraphy and estimations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stratigraphy_and_estimations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sites</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sites-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sites subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lagerstätten" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lagerstätten"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Lagerstätten</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lagerstätten-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossilization_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossilization_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fossilization processes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fossilization_processes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fossilization processes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fossilization_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recrystallization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recrystallization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Recrystallization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recrystallization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Replacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Replacement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Permineralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permineralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Permineralization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permineralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phosphatization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phosphatization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Phosphatization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phosphatization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pyritization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pyritization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Pyritization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pyritization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silicification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Silicification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casts_and_molds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casts_and_molds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Casts and molds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casts_and_molds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Authigenic_mineralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authigenic_mineralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Authigenic mineralization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authigenic_mineralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adpression_(compression-impression)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adpression_(compression-impression)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Adpression (compression-impression)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adpression_(compression-impression)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbonization_and_coalification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbonization_and_coalification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Carbonization and coalification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbonization_and_coalification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soft_tissue,_cell_and_molecular_preservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soft_tissue,_cell_and_molecular_preservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Soft tissue, cell and molecular preservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soft_tissue,_cell_and_molecular_preservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioimmuration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioimmuration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Bioimmuration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioimmuration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Index" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Index"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Index</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Index-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Trace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Transitional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microfossils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microfossils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Microfossils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microfossils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Resin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derived_or_reworked" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derived_or_reworked"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Derived or reworked</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derived_or_reworked-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Wood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subfossil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subfossil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Subfossil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subfossil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_fossils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_fossils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Chemical fossils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_fossils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stromatolites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stromatolites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Stromatolites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stromatolites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pseudofossils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pseudofossils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Pseudofossils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pseudofossils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrobiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrobiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Astrobiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrobiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trading_and_collecting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trading_and_collecting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Trading and collecting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trading_and_collecting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>As medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Fossil</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">110 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossiel" title="Fossiel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fossiel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="مستحاثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مستحاثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3sil" title="Fósil – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fósil" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%84" title="فوسیل – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فوسیل" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="জীবাশ্ম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জীবাশ্ম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B2a-chio%CC%8Dh" title="Hòa-chio̍h – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hòa-chio̍h" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96" title="Акамянеласці – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Акамянеласці" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2" title="फॉसिल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="फॉसिल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Вкаменелост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вкаменелост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosili" title="Fosili – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fosili" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karrekaenn" title="Karrekaenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Karrekaenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B2ssil" title="Fòssil – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fòssil" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Фоссилисем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Фоссилисем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosilie" title="Fosilie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fosilie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffosil" title="Ffosil – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffosil" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kivistis" title="Kivistis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kivistis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B8%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Απολίθωμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Απολίθωμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3sil" title="Fósil – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fósil" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosilio" title="Fosilio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fosilio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3sil" title="Fósil – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Fósil" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%84" title="فسیل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فسیل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossile" title="Fossile – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fossile" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossyl" title="Fossyl – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fossyl" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iontaise" title="Iontaise – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Iontaise" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3sil" title="Fósil – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fósil" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%EC%84%9D" title="화석 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화석" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B8_%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Բրածո կենդանիներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բրածո կենդանիներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="जीवाश्म – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीवाश्म" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosilo" title="Fosilo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fosilo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intshicwa" title="Intshicwa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Intshicwa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steingervingur" title="Steingervingur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Steingervingur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossile" title="Fossile – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fossile" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9F" title="מאובן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מאובן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86" title="ಪಳೆಯುಳಿಕೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪಳೆಯುಳಿಕೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ნამარხი ნაშთები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნამარხი ნაშთები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Қазындылар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қазындылар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisukuku" title="Kisukuku – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kisukuku" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%B6%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%B3%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%99" title="ຊາກດຶກດຳບັນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຊາກດຶກດຳບັນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossile" title="Fossile – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Fossile" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosilijas" title="Fosilijas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fosilijas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosilija" title="Fosilija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fosilija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossiel" title="Fossiel – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Fossiel" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossz%C3%ADlia" title="Fosszília – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fosszília" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Фосил – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фосил" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B4sily" title="Fôsily – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fôsily" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%82" title="ജീവാശ്മം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവാശ്മം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="जीवाश्म – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जीवाश्म" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%87%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC" title="ဇမြ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဇမြ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%C3%A1-si%C5%8Fh" title="Huá-siŏh – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Huá-siŏh" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%BD%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ကျောက်ဖြစ်ရုပ်ကြွင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကျောက်ဖြစ်ရုပ်ကြွင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossiel" title="Fossiel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fossiel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7" title="जीवावशेष – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जीवावशेष" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="化石" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE" title="ଜୀବାଶ୍ମ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଜୀବାଶ୍ମ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%A5%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9F" title="ਪਥਰਾਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਥਰਾਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holac" title="Holac – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Holac" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="پتھری جاندار – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پتھری جاندار" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossiel" title="Fossiel – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Fossiel" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9B" title="ហ្វូស៊ីល – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ហ្វូស៊ីល" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skamienia%C5%82o%C5%9Bci" title="Skamieniałości – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Skamieniałości" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3ssil" title="Fóssil – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fóssil" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil%C4%83" title="Fosilă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fosilă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumiyasqa" title="Rumiyasqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rumiyasqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Фоссилии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фоссилии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosilet" title="Fosilet – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fosilet" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD" title="පොසිල – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පොසිල" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="فاسل – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فاسل" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fos%C3%ADlia" title="Fosília – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fosília" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%84" title="فۆسیل – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فۆسیل" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Фосил – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фосил" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossiili" title="Fossiili – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fossiili" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fossil" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posil" title="Posil – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Posil" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="தொல்லுயிர் எச்சம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொல்லுயிர் எச்சம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="శిలాజము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శిలాజము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%8C" title="ซากดึกดำบรรพ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ซากดึกดำบรรพ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galyndy_yazgy" title="Galyndy yazgy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Galyndy yazgy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96" title="Скам'янілості – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Скам'янілості" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="رکاز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رکاز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3a_th%E1%BA%A1ch" title="Hóa thạch – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hóa thạch" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6sil" title="Fösil – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Fösil" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="化石" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossiel" title="Fossiel – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Fossiel" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posil" title="Posil – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Posil" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="化石" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9C" title="פאסיל – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פאסיל" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="化石" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="化石" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosil" title="Fosil – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Fosil" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q40614#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Preserved remains or traces of organisms from a past geological age</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Dinosaur bones" redirects here. For the band, see <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur_Bones" title="Dinosaur Bones">Dinosaur Bones</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Fossil_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Fossil (disambiguation)">Fossil (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Fossilization" redirects here. For the linguistics term, see <a href="/wiki/Fossilization_(linguistics)" title="Fossilization (linguistics)">Fossilization (linguistics)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fossil_Diversity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Fossil_Diversity.png/300px-Fossil_Diversity.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Fossil_Diversity.png/450px-Fossil_Diversity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Fossil_Diversity.png/600px-Fossil_Diversity.png 2x" data-file-width="6333" data-file-height="4623" /></a><figcaption>Montage of multiple fossils. Clockwise from top left: <i><a href="/wiki/Onychocrinus" title="Onychocrinus">Onychocrinus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeosinopa" title="Palaeosinopa">Palaeosinopa</a></i>; bottom row: <i><a href="/wiki/Gryphaea" title="Gryphaea">Gryphaea</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Harpactocarcinus" title="Harpactocarcinus">Harpactocarcinus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>fossil</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fossilis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:fossilis">fossilis</a></i>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">obtained by digging</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past <a href="/wiki/Geological_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological age">geological age</a>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">shells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeletons</a>, stone imprints of animals or <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a>, objects preserved in <a href="#Resin">amber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">hair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrified_wood" title="Petrified wood">petrified wood</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> remnants. The totality of fossils is known as the <i>fossil record</i>. Though the fossil record is incomplete, numerous studies have demonstrated that there is enough information available to give a good understanding of the pattern of diversification of life on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Jablonski2003_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jablonski2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sb2017_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sb2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the record can predict and fill gaps such as the discovery of <i><a href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</a></i> in the arctic of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nature_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nature-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a> includes the study of fossils: their age, method of formation, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> significance. Specimens are usually considered to be fossils if they are over 10,000 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest fossils are around 3.48 billion years <sup id="cite_ref-AP-20131113_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20131113-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AST-20131108_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AST-20131108-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 4.1 billion years old.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20151019_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20151019-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PNAS-20151014-pdf_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20151014-pdf-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The observation in the 19th century that certain fossils were associated with certain rock <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> led to the recognition of a <a href="/wiki/Geological_timescale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological timescale">geological timescale</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">relative ages</a> of different fossils. The development of <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> techniques in the early 20th century allowed scientists to quantitatively measure the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">absolute ages</a> of rocks and the fossils they host. </p><p>There are many processes that lead to <b>fossilization</b>, including <a href="/wiki/Permineralization" title="Permineralization">permineralization</a>, casts and molds, <a href="/wiki/Authigenesis" title="Authigenesis">authigenic mineralization</a>, replacement and recrystallization, adpression, <a href="/wiki/Carbonization" title="Carbonization">carbonization</a>, and bioimmuration. </p><p>Fossils vary in size from one-<a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometre</a> (1 μm) bacteria<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a> and trees, many meters long and weighing many tons. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralization (biology)">mineralized</a> during life, such as the bones and teeth of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitinous</a> or <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> exoskeletons of <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>. Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as <a href="/wiki/Animal_track" title="Animal track">animal tracks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolites</a>). These types of fossil are called <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossils</a> or <i>ichnofossils</i>, as opposed to <i>body fossils</i>. Some fossils are <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a> and are called <i>chemofossils</i> or <a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">biosignatures</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0 0em 0.2em; font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em;"><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/220px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/330px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/440px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Fossils</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fossilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">Microfossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_preparation" title="Fossil preparation">Fossil preparation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">Index fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of fossils">List of fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">Lagerstätte fossil beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">List of human evolution fossils</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Organs and processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of multicellularity">Multicells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">Mammalian auditory ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution of various taxa</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterfly evolution">Butterflies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Cetaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Mollusca" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of Mollusca">Molluscs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">Sea cows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapods#Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">History of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">Timeline of paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnology">Ichnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate_paleontology" title="Invertebrate paleontology">Invertebrate paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">Micropaleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_paleontology" title="Molecular paleontology">Molecular paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoxylology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoxylology">Palaeoxylology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">Paleobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleogenetics" title="Paleogenetics">Paleogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolimnology" title="Paleolimnology">Paleolimnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomycology" title="Paleomycology">Paleomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopedology" title="Paleopedology">Paleopedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleozoology" title="Paleozoology">Paleozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerochronology" title="Sclerochronology">Sclerochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Paleontology" title="Portal:Paleontology">Paleontology Portal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Category:Paleontology" title="Category:Paleontology">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paleontology" title="Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paleontology" title="Template talk:Paleontology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_study">History of study</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">Timeline of paleontology</a>.</div> <p>Gathering fossils dates at least to the beginning of recorded history. The fossils themselves are referred to as the fossil record. The fossil record was one of the early sources of data underlying the study of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> and continues to be relevant to the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">history of life on Earth</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">Paleontologists</a> examine the fossil record to understand the process of evolution and the way particular <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> have evolved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_civilizations">Ancient civilizations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hyperborean-gryphon-persepolis-protoceratops-psittacosaurus-skeletons.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hyperborean-gryphon-persepolis-protoceratops-psittacosaurus-skeletons.jpg/220px-Hyperborean-gryphon-persepolis-protoceratops-psittacosaurus-skeletons.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hyperborean-gryphon-persepolis-protoceratops-psittacosaurus-skeletons.jpg/330px-Hyperborean-gryphon-persepolis-protoceratops-psittacosaurus-skeletons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hyperborean-gryphon-persepolis-protoceratops-psittacosaurus-skeletons.jpg/440px-Hyperborean-gryphon-persepolis-protoceratops-psittacosaurus-skeletons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1766" data-file-height="1909" /></a><figcaption>Ceratopsian skulls are common in the <a href="/wiki/Dzungarian_Gate" title="Dzungarian Gate">Dzungarian Gate</a> mountain pass in Asia, an area once famous for gold mines, as well as its endlessly cold winds. This has been attributed to legends of both gryphons and the land of Hyperborea.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fossils have been visible and common throughout most of natural history, and so documented human interaction with them goes back as far as recorded history, or earlier. </p><p>There are many examples of <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">paleolithic</a> stone knives in Europe, with fossil <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> set precisely at the hand grip, dating back to <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-prehistoric_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prehistoric-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ancient peoples also drilled holes through the center of those round fossil shells, apparently using them as beads for necklaces. </p><p>The ancient Egyptians gathered fossils of species that resembled the bones of modern species they worshipped. The god <a href="/wiki/Set_(deity)" title="Set (deity)">Set</a> was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a>, therefore fossilized bones of hippo-like species were kept in that deity's temples.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five-rayed fossil sea urchin shells were associated with the deity <a href="/wiki/Sopdu" title="Sopdu">Sopdu</a>, the Morning Star, equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a> in Roman mythology.<sup id="cite_ref-prehistoric_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prehistoric-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micraster_coranguinum.4_-_Cretacico_superior.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Micraster_coranguinum.4_-_Cretacico_superior.JPG/220px-Micraster_coranguinum.4_-_Cretacico_superior.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Micraster_coranguinum.4_-_Cretacico_superior.JPG/330px-Micraster_coranguinum.4_-_Cretacico_superior.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Micraster_coranguinum.4_-_Cretacico_superior.JPG/440px-Micraster_coranguinum.4_-_Cretacico_superior.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Fossil shells from the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">cretaceous</a> era sea urchin, <a href="/wiki/Micraster" title="Micraster">Micraster</a>, were used in medieval times as both shepherd's crowns to protect houses, and as painted fairy loaves by bakers to bring luck to their bread-making.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fossils appear to have directly contributed to the mythology of many civilizations, including the ancient Greeks. Classical Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotos" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodotos">Herodotos</a> wrote of an area near <a href="/wiki/Hyperborea" title="Hyperborea">Hyperborea</a> where <a href="/wiki/Gryphon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gryphon">gryphons</a> protected golden treasure. There was indeed gold mining <a href="/wiki/Dzungarian_Gate#Hyperborean_connection" title="Dzungarian Gate">in that approximate region</a>, where beaked <i><a href="/wiki/Protoceratops" title="Protoceratops">Protoceratops</a></i> skulls were common as fossils. </p><p>A later <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> scholar, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, eventually realized that fossil seashells from rocks were similar to those found on the beach, indicating the fossils were once living animals. He had previously explained them in terms of <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vaporous</a> <a href="/wiki/Exhalation" title="Exhalation">exhalations</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> polymath <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> modified into the theory of <a href="/wiki/Petrifaction" title="Petrifaction">petrifying</a> <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluids</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">succus lapidificatus</i></span>). Recognition of fossil seashells as originating in the sea was built upon in the 14th century by <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a>, and accepted in some form by most <a href="/wiki/Naturalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalist">naturalists</a> by the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roman naturalist <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> wrote of "<a href="/wiki/Tongue_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongue stone">tongue stones</a>", which he called <a href="/wiki/Glossopetra" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossopetra">glossopetra</a>. These were fossil shark teeth, thought by some classical cultures to look like the tongues of people or snakes.<sup id="cite_ref-sharkteeth_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharkteeth-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wrote about the <a href="/wiki/Horns_of_Ammon" title="Horns of Ammon">horns of Ammon</a>, which are fossil <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonites</a>, whence the group of shelled octopus-cousins ultimately draws its modern name. Pliny also makes one of the earlier known references to <a href="/wiki/Toadstone" title="Toadstone">toadstones</a>, thought until the 18th century to be a magical cure for poison originating in the heads of toads, but which are fossil teeth from <i><a href="/wiki/Lepidotes" title="Lepidotes">Lepidotes</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> ray-finned fish.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Plains_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Plains tribes">Plains tribes</a> of North America are thought to have similarly associated fossils, such as the many intact pterosaur fossils naturally exposed in the region, with their own mythology of the <a href="/wiki/Thunderbird_(mythology)" title="Thunderbird (mythology)">thunderbird</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no such direct mythological connection known from prehistoric Africa, but there is considerable evidence of tribes there excavating and moving fossils to ceremonial sites, apparently treating them with some reverence.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Japan, fossil shark teeth were associated with the mythical <a href="/wiki/Tengu" title="Tengu">tengu</a>, thought to be the razor-sharp claws of the creature, documented some time after the 8th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-sharkteeth_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharkteeth-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In medieval China, the fossil bones of ancient mammals including <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> were often mistaken for "<a href="/wiki/Dragon" title="Dragon">dragon</a> bones" and used as medicine and <a href="/wiki/Aphrodisiac" title="Aphrodisiac">aphrodisiacs</a>. In addition, some of these fossil bones are collected as "art" by scholars, who left scripts on various artifacts, indicating the time they were added to a collection. One good example is the famous scholar <a href="/wiki/Huang_Tingjian" title="Huang Tingjian">Huang Tingjian</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> during the 11th century, who kept a specific seashell fossil with his own poem engraved on it.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i><a href="/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays" title="Dream Pool Essays">Dream Pool Essays</a></i> published in 1088, Song dynasty Chinese <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">scholar-official</a> <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> hypothesized that marine fossils found in a <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">geological stratum</a> of mountains located hundreds of miles from the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> was evidence that a prehistoric seashore had once existed there and <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">shifted over centuries of time</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nj_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nj-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His observation of <a href="/wiki/Petrified" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrified">petrified</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboos</a> in the dry northern climate zone of what is now <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an" title="Yan'an">Yan'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> province, China, led him to advance early ideas of gradual <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a> due to bamboo naturally growing in wetter climate areas.<sup id="cite_ref-nj_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nj-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._6_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._6-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In medieval <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>, fossilized sea creatures on mountainsides were seen as proof of the biblical deluge of <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a>. After observing the existence of seashells in mountains, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">ancient Greek philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a> (c. 570 – 478 BC) speculated that the world was once inundated in a great flood that buried living creatures in drying mud.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_pp_5–6_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_pp_5–6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1027, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> explained fossils' stoniness in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If what is said concerning the petrifaction of animals and plants is true, the cause of this (phenomenon) is a powerful mineralizing and petrifying virtue which arises in certain stony spots, or emanates suddenly from the earth during earthquake and subsidences, and petrifies whatever comes into contact with it. As a matter of fact, the petrifaction of the bodies of plants and animals is not more extraordinary than the transformation of waters.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>From the 13th century to the present day, scholars pointed out that the fossil skulls of <a href="/wiki/Deinotherium_giganteum" class="mw-redirect" title="Deinotherium giganteum">Deinotherium giganteum</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> and Greece, might have been interpreted as being the skulls of the <a href="/wiki/Cyclopes" title="Cyclopes">Cyclopes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, and are possibly the origin of that Greek myth.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their skulls appear to have a single eye-hole in the front, just like their modern <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a> cousins, though in fact it's actually the opening for their trunk. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>, echinoderm shells (the round five-part button left over from a sea urchin) were associated with the god <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>, not only being incorporated in <a href="/wiki/Thunderstone_(folklore)#Fossils_as_thunderstones" title="Thunderstone (folklore)">thunderstones</a>, representations of Thor's hammer and subsequent hammer-shaped crosses as Christianity was adopted, but also kept in houses to garner Thor's protection.<sup id="cite_ref-prehistoric_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prehistoric-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These grew into the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shepherd%27s_crown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shepherd's crown (page does not exist)">shepherd's crowns</a> of English folklore, used for decoration and as good luck charms, placed by the doorway of homes and churches.<sup id="cite_ref-echinoderm_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-echinoderm-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a>, a different species was used as a good-luck charm by bakers, who referred to them as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fairy_loaf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fairy loaf (page does not exist)">fairy loaves</a>, associating them with the similarly shaped loaves of bread they baked.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_explanations">Early modern explanations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/220px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/330px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/440px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Georges Cuvier's 1812 skeletal reconstruction of <i><a href="/wiki/Anoplotherium" title="Anoplotherium">Anoplotherium</a> commune</i> based on fossil remains of the extinct <a href="/wiki/Artiodactyl" title="Artiodactyl">artiodactyl</a> from <a href="/wiki/Montmartre" title="Montmartre">Montmartre</a> in Paris, France</figcaption></figure> <p>More scientific views of fossils emerged during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> concurred with Aristotle's view that fossils were the remains of ancient life.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 361">: 361 </span></sup> For example, Leonardo noticed discrepancies with the biblical flood narrative as an explanation for fossil origins: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If the Deluge had carried the shells for distances of three and four hundred miles from the sea it would have carried them mixed with various other natural objects all heaped up together; but even at such distances from the sea we see the oysters all together and also the shellfish and the cuttlefish and all the other shells which congregate together, found all together dead; and the solitary shells are found apart from one another as we see them every day on the sea-shores.</p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And we find oysters together in very large families, among which some may be seen with their shells still joined together, indicating that they were left there by the sea and that they were still living when the strait of Gibraltar was cut through. In the mountains of Parma and Piacenza multitudes of shells and corals with holes may be seen still sticking to the rocks....<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj,_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg/260px-Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg/390px-Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg/520px-Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2307" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaurus" title="Ichthyosaurus">Ichthyosaurus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Plesiosaurus" title="Plesiosaurus">Plesiosaurus</a></i> from the 1834 Czech edition of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Cuvier</a>'s <i>Discours sur les revolutions de la surface du globe</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1666, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Steno" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Steno">Nicholas Steno</a> examined a shark, and made the association of its teeth with the "tongue stones" of ancient Greco-Roman mythology, concluding that those were not in fact the tongues of venomous snakes, but the teeth of some long-extinct species of shark.<sup id="cite_ref-sharkteeth_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharkteeth-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (1635–1703) included <a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">micrographs</a> of fossils in his <i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i> and was among the first to observe fossil <a href="/wiki/Foram" class="mw-redirect" title="Foram">forams</a>. His observations on fossils, which he stated to be the petrified remains of creatures some of which no longer existed, were published posthumously in 1705.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith (1769–1839)</a>, an English canal engineer, observed that rocks of different ages (based on the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">law of superposition</a>) preserved different assemblages of fossils, and that these assemblages succeeded one another in a regular and determinable order. He observed that rocks from distant locations could be correlated based on the fossils they contained. He termed this the principle of <i>faunal succession</i>. This principle became one of Darwin's chief pieces of evidence that biological evolution was real. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> came to believe that most if not all the animal fossils he examined were remains of extinct species. This led Cuvier to become an active proponent of the geological school of thought called <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a>. Near the end of his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants he said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>All of these facts, consistent among themselves, and not opposed by any report, seem to me to prove the existence of a world previous to ours, destroyed by some kind of catastrophe.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Interest in fossils, and geology more generally, expanded during the early nineteenth century. In Britain, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a>'s discoveries of fossils, including the first complete <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaur</a> and a complete <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaurus" title="Plesiosaurus">plesiosaurus</a> skeleton, sparked both public and scholarly interest.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linnaeus_and_Darwin">Linnaeus and Darwin</h3></div> <p>Early <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">naturalists</a> well understood the similarities and differences of living species leading <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> to develop a hierarchical classification system still in use today. Darwin and his contemporaries first linked the hierarchical structure of the tree of life with the then very sparse fossil record. Darwin eloquently described a process of descent with modification, or evolution, whereby organisms either adapt to natural and changing environmental pressures, or they perish. </p><p>When Darwin wrote <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</a></i>, the oldest animal fossils were those from the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> Period, now known to be about 540 million years old. He worried about the absence of older fossils because of the implications on the validity of his theories, but he expressed hope that such fossils would be found, noting that: "only a small portion of the world is known with accuracy." Darwin also pondered the sudden appearance of many groups (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>) in the oldest known Cambrian fossiliferous strata.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_Darwin">After Darwin</h3></div> <p>Since Darwin's time, the fossil record has been extended to between 2.3 and 3.5 billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these Precambrian fossils are microscopic bacteria or <a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">microfossils</a>. However, macroscopic fossils are now known from the late Proterozoic. The <a href="/wiki/Ediacara_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacara biota">Ediacara biota</a> (also called Vendian biota) dating from 575 million years ago collectively constitutes a richly diverse assembly of early multicellular <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>. </p><p>The fossil record and faunal succession form the basis of the science of <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphy</a> or determining the age of rocks based on embedded fossils. For the first 150 years of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the <a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">relative age</a> of rocks. The <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geologic time scale</a> was developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by the early paleontologists and <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphers</a>. </p><p>Since the early years of the twentieth century, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">absolute dating</a> methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> (including <a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Ar_dating" title="K–Ar dating">potassium/argon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argon%E2%80%93argon_dating" title="Argon–argon dating">argon/argon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">uranium series</a>, and, for very recent fossils, <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a>) have been used to verify the relative ages obtained by fossils and to provide absolute ages for many fossils. Radiometric dating has shown that the earliest known stromatolites are over 3.4 billion years old. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>The fossil record is life's evolutionary epic that unfolded over four billion years as environmental conditions and genetic potential interacted in accordance with natural selection. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">The Virtual Fossil Museum<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>Paleontology has joined with <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a> to share the interdisciplinary task of outlining the tree of life, which inevitably leads backwards in time to Precambrian microscopic life when cell structure and functions evolved. Earth's deep time in the Proterozoic and deeper still in the Archean is only "recounted by microscopic fossils and subtle chemical signals."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular biologists, using <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>, can compare protein <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> sequence homology (i.e., similarity) to evaluate taxonomy and evolutionary distances among organisms, with limited statistical confidence. The study of fossils, on the other hand, can more specifically pinpoint when and in what organism a mutation first appeared. Phylogenetics and paleontology work together in the clarification of science's still dim view of the appearance of life and its evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eldredgeops-rana-crassituberculata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Eldredgeops-rana-crassituberculata.jpg/220px-Eldredgeops-rana-crassituberculata.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Eldredgeops-rana-crassituberculata.jpg/330px-Eldredgeops-rana-crassituberculata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Eldredgeops-rana-crassituberculata.jpg/440px-Eldredgeops-rana-crassituberculata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phacopid" class="mw-redirect" title="Phacopid">Phacopid</a> <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobite</a> <i>Eldredgeops rana crassituberculata</i>. The genus is named after <a href="/wiki/Niles_Eldredge" title="Niles Eldredge">Niles Eldredge</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Niles_Eldredge" title="Niles Eldredge">Niles Eldredge</a>'s study of the <i><a href="/wiki/Phacops" title="Phacops">Phacops</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobite</a> genus supported the hypothesis that modifications to the arrangement of the trilobite's eye lenses proceeded by fits and starts over millions of years during the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eldredge's interpretation of the <i>Phacops</i> fossil record was that the aftermaths of the lens changes, but not the rapidly occurring evolutionary process, were fossilized. This and other data led <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> and Niles Eldredge to publish their seminal paper on <a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">punctuated equilibrium</a> in 1971. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">Synchrotron</a> <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Tomography" title="Tomography">tomographic</a> analysis of early Cambrian bilaterian <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryonic</a> microfossils yielded new insights of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">metazoan</a> evolution at its earliest stages. The tomography technique provides previously unattainable three-dimensional resolution at the limits of fossilization. Fossils of two enigmatic bilaterians, the worm-like <i><a href="/wiki/Markuelia" title="Markuelia">Markuelia</a></i> and a putative, primitive <a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">protostome</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pseudooides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pseudooides (page does not exist)">Pseudooides</a></i>, provide a peek at <a href="/wiki/Germ_layer" title="Germ layer">germ layer</a> embryonic development. These 543-million-year-old embryos support the emergence of some aspects of <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> development earlier than previously thought in the late Proterozoic. The preserved embryos from <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> underwent rapid <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenetic</a> phosphatization resulting in exquisite preservation, including cell structures.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (May 2021)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> This research is a notable example of how knowledge encoded by the fossil record continues to contribute otherwise unattainable information on the emergence and development of life on Earth. For example, the research suggests <i>Markuelia</i> has closest affinity to priapulid worms, and is adjacent to the evolutionary branching of <a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (May 2021)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Despite significant advances in uncovering and identifying paleontological specimens, it is generally accepted that the fossil record is vastly incomplete.<sup id="cite_ref-foote1999_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foote1999-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-benton2009_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benton2009-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approaches for measuring the completeness of the fossil record have been developed for numerous subsets of species, including those grouped taxonomically,<sup id="cite_ref-zliobaite2021_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zliobaite2021-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eiting2009_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eiting2009-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> temporally,<sup id="cite_ref-brocklehurst2012_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brocklehurst2012-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> environmentally/geographically,<sup id="cite_ref-retallack1984_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-retallack1984-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or in sum.<sup id="cite_ref-benton1994_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benton1994-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-holland1999_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holland1999-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This encompasses the subfield of <a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">taphonomy</a> and the study of biases in the paleontological record.<sup id="cite_ref-koch1978_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koch1978-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-signor1982_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-signor1982-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vilhena2013_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vilhena2013-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating/Age"><span id="Dating.2FAge"></span>Dating/Age</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stratigraphy_and_estimations">Stratigraphy and estimations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">Relative dating</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monta%C3%B1ita-Ol%C3%B3n_locality_(stratigraphy)_-_Dos_Bocas_Formation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Monta%C3%B1ita-Ol%C3%B3n_locality_%28stratigraphy%29_-_Dos_Bocas_Formation.png/220px-Monta%C3%B1ita-Ol%C3%B3n_locality_%28stratigraphy%29_-_Dos_Bocas_Formation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Monta%C3%B1ita-Ol%C3%B3n_locality_%28stratigraphy%29_-_Dos_Bocas_Formation.png/330px-Monta%C3%B1ita-Ol%C3%B3n_locality_%28stratigraphy%29_-_Dos_Bocas_Formation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Monta%C3%B1ita-Ol%C3%B3n_locality_%28stratigraphy%29_-_Dos_Bocas_Formation.png/440px-Monta%C3%B1ita-Ol%C3%B3n_locality_%28stratigraphy%29_-_Dos_Bocas_Formation.png 2x" data-file-width="2429" data-file-height="2027" /></a><figcaption>Stratigraphy of the Montañita-Olón locality of the <a href="/wiki/Dos_Bocas_Formation" title="Dos Bocas Formation">Dos Bocas Formation</a>. Stratigraphy is a useful branch when it comes to the understanding of the successive layers of rock and their fossiliferous content, giving insight into the relative age of fossils</figcaption></figure> <p>Paleontology seeks to map out how life evolved across geologic time. A substantial hurdle is the difficulty of working out fossil ages. Beds that preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a>. This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than about 50 million years old an absolute age, and can be accurate to within 0.5% or better.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin2000_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin2000-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although radiometric dating requires careful laboratory work, its basic principle is simple: the rates at which various radioactive elements <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a> are known, and so the ratio of the radioactive element to its decay products shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the rock. Radioactive elements are common only in rocks with a volcanic origin, and so the only fossil-bearing rocks that can be dated radiometrically are volcanic ash layers, which may provide termini for the intervening sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin2000_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin2000-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consequently, palaeontologists rely on <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> to date fossils. Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the "layer-cake" that is the <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sedimentary</a> record.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers, with each layer younger than the one underneath it. If a fossil is found between two layers whose ages are known, the fossil's age is claimed to lie between the two known ages.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because rock sequences are not continuous, but may be broken up by <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a> or periods of <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, it is very difficult to match up rock beds that are not directly adjacent. However, fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can be used to match isolated rocks: this technique is called <i>biostratigraphy</i>. For instance, the conodont <i>Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus</i> has a short range in the Middle Ordovician period.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If rocks of unknown age have traces of <i>E. pseudoplanus</i>, they have a mid-Ordovician age. Such <a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">index fossils</a> must be distinctive, be globally distributed and occupy a short time range to be useful. Misleading results are produced if the index fossils are incorrectly dated.<sup id="cite_ref-Gehling2001_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gehling2001-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy can in general provide only relative dating (<i>A</i> was before <i>B</i>), which is often sufficient for studying evolution. However, this is difficult for some time periods, because of the problems involved in matching rocks of the same age across <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gehling2001_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gehling2001-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Family-tree relationships also help to narrow down the date when lineages first appeared. For instance, if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated "family tree" says A was an ancestor of B and C, then A must have evolved earlier. </p><p>It is also possible to estimate how long ago two living clades diverged, in other words approximately how long ago their last common ancestor must have lived, by assuming that DNA <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> accumulate at a constant rate. These "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clocks</a>", however, are fallible, and provide only approximate timing: for example, they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that feature in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> first evolved,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and estimates produced by different techniques may vary by a factor of two.<sup id="cite_ref-PetersonEtAl2005_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersonEtAl2005-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations">Limitations <span class="anchor" id="Fossil_record_limitations"></span></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ghost_lineage" title="Ghost lineage">Ghost lineage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Signor%E2%80%93Lipps_effect" title="Signor–Lipps effect">Signor–Lipps effect</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a></div> <p>Organisms are only rarely preserved as fossils in the best of circumstances, and only a fraction of such fossils have been discovered. This is illustrated by the fact that the number of species known through the fossil record is less than 5% of the number of known living species, suggesting that the number of species known through fossils must be far less than 1% of all the species that have ever lived.<sup id="cite_ref-Prothero2007pp5053_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prothero2007pp5053-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the specialized and rare circumstances required for a biological structure to fossilize, only a small percentage of life-forms can be expected to be represented in discoveries, and each discovery represents only a snapshot of the process of evolution. The transition itself can only be illustrated and corroborated by transitional fossils, which will never demonstrate an exact half-way point.<sup id="cite_ref-CC200_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC200-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fossil record is strongly biased toward organisms with hard-parts, leaving most groups of <a href="/wiki/Soft-bodied_organism" title="Soft-bodied organism">soft-bodied organisms</a> with little to no role.<sup id="cite_ref-Prothero2007pp5053_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prothero2007pp5053-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is replete with the <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">mollusks</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a> and some groups of <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sites">Sites</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lagerstätten"><span id="Lagerst.C3.A4tten"></span>Lagerstätten</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">Lagerstätte</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a></div> <p>Fossil sites with exceptional preservation—sometimes including preserved soft tissues—are known as <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">Lagerstätten</a>—German for "storage places". These formations may have resulted from carcass burial in an <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">anoxic</a> environment with minimal bacteria, thus slowing decomposition. Lagerstätten span geological time from the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period to the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">present</a>. Worldwide, some of the best examples of near-perfect fossilization are the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Maotianshan_Shales" title="Maotianshan Shales">Maotianshan Shales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burgess_Shale" title="Burgess Shale">Burgess Shale</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate" title="Hunsrück Slate">Hunsrück Slates</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> <a href="/wiki/Solnhofen_Limestone" title="Solnhofen Limestone">Solnhofen Limestone</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> <a href="/wiki/Mazon_Creek" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazon Creek">Mazon Creek</a> localities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fossilization_processes">Fossilization processes</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recrystallization">Recrystallization</h3></div> <p>A fossil is said to be <i>recrystallized</i> when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, such as from <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> to <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProthero20138–9_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProthero20138–9-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcite-60801.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of Mercenaria permagna from Fort Drum, Florida"><img alt="Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of Mercenaria permagna from Fort Drum, Florida" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Calcite-60801.jpg/150px-Calcite-60801.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Calcite-60801.jpg/225px-Calcite-60801.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Calcite-60801.jpg/300px-Calcite-60801.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="556" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">Calcite</a>-recrystallized fossil shell of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mercenaria_permagna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mercenaria permagna (page does not exist)">Mercenaria permagna</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Drum,_Florida" title="Fort Drum, Florida">Fort Drum, Florida</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geodized_fossil_Busycon_snail_with_yellowish_calcite_crystals_(Anastasia_Formation,_Upper_Pleistocene_to_lower_Holocene,_126_to_8_ka;_Indrio_Pit,_northern_side_of_the_town_of_Fort_Pierce,_southeastern_Florida,_USA)_(15227151971).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of Busycon sp. from Indrio Pit"><img alt="Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of Busycon sp. from Indrio Pit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Geodized_fossil_Busycon_snail_with_yellowish_calcite_crystals_%28Anastasia_Formation%2C_Upper_Pleistocene_to_lower_Holocene%2C_126_to_8_ka%3B_Indrio_Pit%2C_northern_side_of_the_town_of_Fort_Pierce%2C_southeastern_Florida%2C_USA%29_%2815227151971%29.jpg/150px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Geodized_fossil_Busycon_snail_with_yellowish_calcite_crystals_%28Anastasia_Formation%2C_Upper_Pleistocene_to_lower_Holocene%2C_126_to_8_ka%3B_Indrio_Pit%2C_northern_side_of_the_town_of_Fort_Pierce%2C_southeastern_Florida%2C_USA%29_%2815227151971%29.jpg/225px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Geodized_fossil_Busycon_snail_with_yellowish_calcite_crystals_%28Anastasia_Formation%2C_Upper_Pleistocene_to_lower_Holocene%2C_126_to_8_ka%3B_Indrio_Pit%2C_northern_side_of_the_town_of_Fort_Pierce%2C_southeastern_Florida%2C_USA%29_%2815227151971%29.jpg/300px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of <i><a href="/wiki/Busycon" title="Busycon">Busycon</a></i> sp. from Indrio Pit</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MatmorScleractinian.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Recrystallized scleractinian coral (aragonite to calcite) from the Jurassic of southern Israel"><img alt="Recrystallized scleractinian coral (aragonite to calcite) from the Jurassic of southern Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/MatmorScleractinian.JPG/150px-MatmorScleractinian.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/MatmorScleractinian.JPG/225px-MatmorScleractinian.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/MatmorScleractinian.JPG/300px-MatmorScleractinian.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2952" data-file-height="2694" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Recrystallized <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">scleractinian</a> coral (aragonite to calcite) from the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> of southern <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geodized_pentamerid_brachiopods_(Silurian;_Swayzee,_Indiana,_USA)_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of pentamerid brachiopods from Indiana"><img alt="Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of pentamerid brachiopods from Indiana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Geodized_pentamerid_brachiopods_%28Silurian%3B_Swayzee%2C_Indiana%2C_USA%29_1.jpg/150px-Geodized_pentamerid_brachiopods_%28Silurian%3B_Swayzee%2C_Indiana%2C_USA%29_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Geodized_pentamerid_brachiopods_%28Silurian%3B_Swayzee%2C_Indiana%2C_USA%29_1.jpg/225px-Geodized_pentamerid_brachiopods_%28Silurian%3B_Swayzee%2C_Indiana%2C_USA%29_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Geodized_pentamerid_brachiopods_%28Silurian%3B_Swayzee%2C_Indiana%2C_USA%29_1.jpg/300px-Geodized_pentamerid_brachiopods_%28Silurian%3B_Swayzee%2C_Indiana%2C_USA%29_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3429" data-file-height="2503" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Calcite-recrystallized fossil shell of <a href="/wiki/Pentamerid" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentamerid">pentamerid</a> <a href="/wiki/Brachiopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopods">brachiopods</a> from <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GeopetalCarboniferousNV.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Recrystallized bivalve shell with sparry calcite from Bird Spring Formation"><img alt="Recrystallized bivalve shell with sparry calcite from Bird Spring Formation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/GeopetalCarboniferousNV.jpg/150px-GeopetalCarboniferousNV.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/GeopetalCarboniferousNV.jpg/225px-GeopetalCarboniferousNV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/GeopetalCarboniferousNV.jpg/300px-GeopetalCarboniferousNV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1780" data-file-height="1451" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Recrystallized bivalve shell with sparry calcite from <a href="/wiki/Bird_Spring_Formation" title="Bird Spring Formation">Bird Spring Formation</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Replacement">Replacement</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Permineralized_bryozoan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Permineralized_bryozoan.jpg/220px-Permineralized_bryozoan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Permineralized_bryozoan.jpg/330px-Permineralized_bryozoan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Permineralized_bryozoan.jpg/440px-Permineralized_bryozoan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2313" data-file-height="3004" /></a><figcaption>Permineralized <a href="/wiki/Bryozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bryozoan">bryozoan</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> of Wisconsin</figcaption></figure> <p>Replacement occurs when the shell, bone, or other tissue is replaced with another mineral. In some cases mineral replacement of the original shell occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material. Scientists can use such fossils when researching the anatomical structure of ancient species.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several species of saurids have been identified from mineralized dinosaur fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-natgeo_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natgeo-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Permineralization">Permineralization</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Permineralization" title="Permineralization">Permineralization</a> is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried. The empty spaces within an organism (spaces filled with liquid or gas during life) become filled with mineral-rich <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces. This process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cell</a>. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death, otherwise the remains are destroyed by scavengers or decomposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProthero201312–13_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProthero201312–13-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a> or even soft tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProthero201316_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProthero201316-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a form of <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenesis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phosphatization">Phosphatization</h4></div> <p>It involves the process of fossilization where organic matter is replaced by abundant <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>-<a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>. The produced fossils tend to be particularly dense and have a dark coloration that ranges from dark orange to black.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pyritization">Pyritization</h4></div> <p>This fossil preservation involves the elements <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>. Organisms may become pyritized when they are in marine sediments saturated with iron sulfides. As organic matter decays it releases sulfide which reacts with dissolved iron in the surrounding waters, forming <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a>. Pyrite replaces carbonate shell material due to an undersaturation of carbonate in the surrounding waters. Some plants become pyritized when they are in a clay terrain, but to a lesser extent than in a marine environment. Some pyritized fossils include <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> microfossils, marine <a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">arthropods</a> and plants.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pleuroceras_solare,_Little_Switzerland,_Bavaria,_Germany.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyritized ammonoid Pleuroceras solare fossil specimen"><img alt="Pyritized ammonoid Pleuroceras solare fossil specimen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pleuroceras_solare%2C_Little_Switzerland%2C_Bavaria%2C_Germany.jpg/150px-Pleuroceras_solare%2C_Little_Switzerland%2C_Bavaria%2C_Germany.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pleuroceras_solare%2C_Little_Switzerland%2C_Bavaria%2C_Germany.jpg/225px-Pleuroceras_solare%2C_Little_Switzerland%2C_Bavaria%2C_Germany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pleuroceras_solare%2C_Little_Switzerland%2C_Bavaria%2C_Germany.jpg/300px-Pleuroceras_solare%2C_Little_Switzerland%2C_Bavaria%2C_Germany.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3105" data-file-height="3319" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pyritized ammonoid <i><a href="/wiki/Pleuroceras_solare" title="Pleuroceras solare">Pleuroceras solare</a></i> fossil specimen</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paraspirifer_bownockeri.fond.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyritized specimen of the brachiopod Paraspirifer bownockeri"><img alt="Pyritized specimen of the brachiopod Paraspirifer bownockeri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Paraspirifer_bownockeri.fond.jpg/150px-Paraspirifer_bownockeri.fond.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Paraspirifer_bownockeri.fond.jpg/225px-Paraspirifer_bownockeri.fond.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Paraspirifer_bownockeri.fond.jpg/300px-Paraspirifer_bownockeri.fond.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7438" data-file-height="6285" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pyritized specimen of the brachiopod <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraspirifer_bownockeri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paraspirifer bownockeri (page does not exist)">Paraspirifer bownockeri</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Triarthrus_eatoni_(pyritized_fossil_trilobite_with_appendages)_(Whetstone_Gulf_Formation,_Upper_Ordovician;_Lewis_County,_New_York_State,_USA)_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyritized Triarthrus eatoni from Whetstone Gulf Formation"><img alt="Pyritized Triarthrus eatoni from Whetstone Gulf Formation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Triarthrus_eatoni_%28pyritized_fossil_trilobite_with_appendages%29_%28Whetstone_Gulf_Formation%2C_Upper_Ordovician%3B_Lewis_County%2C_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_3.jpg/150px-Triarthrus_eatoni_%28pyritized_fossil_trilobite_with_appendages%29_%28Whetstone_Gulf_Formation%2C_Upper_Ordovician%3B_Lewis_County%2C_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Triarthrus_eatoni_%28pyritized_fossil_trilobite_with_appendages%29_%28Whetstone_Gulf_Formation%2C_Upper_Ordovician%3B_Lewis_County%2C_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_3.jpg/225px-Triarthrus_eatoni_%28pyritized_fossil_trilobite_with_appendages%29_%28Whetstone_Gulf_Formation%2C_Upper_Ordovician%3B_Lewis_County%2C_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Triarthrus_eatoni_%28pyritized_fossil_trilobite_with_appendages%29_%28Whetstone_Gulf_Formation%2C_Upper_Ordovician%3B_Lewis_County%2C_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_3.jpg/300px-Triarthrus_eatoni_%28pyritized_fossil_trilobite_with_appendages%29_%28Whetstone_Gulf_Formation%2C_Upper_Ordovician%3B_Lewis_County%2C_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1007" data-file-height="912" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pyritized <i><a href="/wiki/Triarthrus_eatoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Triarthrus eatoni">Triarthrus eatoni</a></i> from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Whetstone_Gulf_Formation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Whetstone Gulf Formation (page does not exist)">Whetstone Gulf Formation</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Furcaster_paleozoicus_fossil_brittle_star_(Kaub_Formation,_Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate_Group,_Lower_Devonian;_Budenbach_area,_western_Germany)_4_(15302668235).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyritized Furcaster paleozoicus from Hunsrück Slate"><img alt="Pyritized Furcaster paleozoicus from Hunsrück Slate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Furcaster_paleozoicus_fossil_brittle_star_%28Kaub_Formation%2C_Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate_Group%2C_Lower_Devonian%3B_Budenbach_area%2C_western_Germany%29_4_%2815302668235%29.jpg/150px-Furcaster_paleozoicus_fossil_brittle_star_%28Kaub_Formation%2C_Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate_Group%2C_Lower_Devonian%3B_Budenbach_area%2C_western_Germany%29_4_%2815302668235%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Furcaster_paleozoicus_fossil_brittle_star_%28Kaub_Formation%2C_Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate_Group%2C_Lower_Devonian%3B_Budenbach_area%2C_western_Germany%29_4_%2815302668235%29.jpg/225px-Furcaster_paleozoicus_fossil_brittle_star_%28Kaub_Formation%2C_Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate_Group%2C_Lower_Devonian%3B_Budenbach_area%2C_western_Germany%29_4_%2815302668235%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Furcaster_paleozoicus_fossil_brittle_star_%28Kaub_Formation%2C_Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate_Group%2C_Lower_Devonian%3B_Budenbach_area%2C_western_Germany%29_4_%2815302668235%29.jpg/300px-Furcaster_paleozoicus_fossil_brittle_star_%28Kaub_Formation%2C_Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate_Group%2C_Lower_Devonian%3B_Budenbach_area%2C_western_Germany%29_4_%2815302668235%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pyritized <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Furcaster_paleozoicus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Furcaster paleozoicus (page does not exist)">Furcaster paleozoicus</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCck_Slate" title="Hunsrück Slate">Hunsrück Slate</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tornoceras_uniangulare_aldenense_fossil_goniatite_(Alden_Pyrite_Bed,_Ludlowville_Formation,_Middle_Devonian;_western_New_York_State,_USA)_1_(15359943429).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyritized Tornoceras uniangulare from Ludlowville Formation"><img alt="Pyritized Tornoceras uniangulare from Ludlowville Formation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Tornoceras_uniangulare_aldenense_fossil_goniatite_%28Alden_Pyrite_Bed%2C_Ludlowville_Formation%2C_Middle_Devonian%3B_western_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_1_%2815359943429%29.jpg/150px-Tornoceras_uniangulare_aldenense_fossil_goniatite_%28Alden_Pyrite_Bed%2C_Ludlowville_Formation%2C_Middle_Devonian%3B_western_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_1_%2815359943429%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Tornoceras_uniangulare_aldenense_fossil_goniatite_%28Alden_Pyrite_Bed%2C_Ludlowville_Formation%2C_Middle_Devonian%3B_western_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_1_%2815359943429%29.jpg/225px-Tornoceras_uniangulare_aldenense_fossil_goniatite_%28Alden_Pyrite_Bed%2C_Ludlowville_Formation%2C_Middle_Devonian%3B_western_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_1_%2815359943429%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Tornoceras_uniangulare_aldenense_fossil_goniatite_%28Alden_Pyrite_Bed%2C_Ludlowville_Formation%2C_Middle_Devonian%3B_western_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_1_%2815359943429%29.jpg/300px-Tornoceras_uniangulare_aldenense_fossil_goniatite_%28Alden_Pyrite_Bed%2C_Ludlowville_Formation%2C_Middle_Devonian%3B_western_New_York_State%2C_USA%29_1_%2815359943429%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2023" data-file-height="1435" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pyritized <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tornoceras_uniangulare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tornoceras uniangulare (page does not exist)">Tornoceras uniangulare</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Ludlowville_Formation" title="Ludlowville Formation">Ludlowville Formation</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silicification">Silicification</h4></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Silicification" title="Silicification">silicification</a>, the precipitation of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> from saturated water bodies is crucial for the fossil preservation. The mineral-laden water permeates the pores and cells of some dead organism, where it becomes a <a href="/wiki/Gel" title="Gel">gel</a>. Over time, the gel will <a href="/wiki/Drying" title="Drying"> dehydrate</a>, forming a <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a>-rich crystal structure, which can be expressed in the form of <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalcedony" title="Chalcedony">chalcedony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agate" title="Agate">agate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">opal</a>, among others, with the shape of the original remain.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2017-07-15_22-10-35_(C)_DxO.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chalcedony replaced fossil shells of Elimia tenera with inclusions of ostracods"><img alt="Chalcedony replaced fossil shells of Elimia tenera with inclusions of ostracods" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2017-07-15_22-10-35_%28C%29_DxO.jpg/150px-2017-07-15_22-10-35_%28C%29_DxO.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2017-07-15_22-10-35_%28C%29_DxO.jpg/225px-2017-07-15_22-10-35_%28C%29_DxO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2017-07-15_22-10-35_%28C%29_DxO.jpg/300px-2017-07-15_22-10-35_%28C%29_DxO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1367" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chalcedony replaced fossil shells of <i><a href="/wiki/Elimia_tenera" title="Elimia tenera">Elimia tenera</a></i> with inclusions of <a href="/wiki/Ostracods" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracods">ostracods</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chalcedonized_fossil_gastropods_(Cretaceous;_possibly_from_Dakhla,_southern_Morocco)_(15230327942).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chalcedonized gastropods internal molds"><img alt="Chalcedonized gastropods internal molds" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Chalcedonized_fossil_gastropods_%28Cretaceous%3B_possibly_from_Dakhla%2C_southern_Morocco%29_%2815230327942%29.jpg/150px-Chalcedonized_fossil_gastropods_%28Cretaceous%3B_possibly_from_Dakhla%2C_southern_Morocco%29_%2815230327942%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Chalcedonized_fossil_gastropods_%28Cretaceous%3B_possibly_from_Dakhla%2C_southern_Morocco%29_%2815230327942%29.jpg/225px-Chalcedonized_fossil_gastropods_%28Cretaceous%3B_possibly_from_Dakhla%2C_southern_Morocco%29_%2815230327942%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Chalcedonized_fossil_gastropods_%28Cretaceous%3B_possibly_from_Dakhla%2C_southern_Morocco%29_%2815230327942%29.jpg/300px-Chalcedonized_fossil_gastropods_%28Cretaceous%3B_possibly_from_Dakhla%2C_southern_Morocco%29_%2815230327942%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2020" data-file-height="1484" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chalcedonized <a href="/wiki/Gastropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropods">gastropods</a> internal molds</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schnecken_auflicht_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Agatized internal molds of gastropods from Deccan Traps"><img alt="Agatized internal molds of gastropods from Deccan Traps" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Schnecken_auflicht_small.jpg/150px-Schnecken_auflicht_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Schnecken_auflicht_small.jpg/225px-Schnecken_auflicht_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Schnecken_auflicht_small.jpg/300px-Schnecken_auflicht_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="2163" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Agatized internal molds of gastropods from <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Traps" title="Deccan Traps">Deccan Traps</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agate_Chalcedony_GE9323_540424.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Agatized fossil coral from Florida"><img alt="Agatized fossil coral from Florida" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Agate_Chalcedony_GE9323_540424.jpg/150px-Agate_Chalcedony_GE9323_540424.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Agate_Chalcedony_GE9323_540424.jpg/225px-Agate_Chalcedony_GE9323_540424.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Agate_Chalcedony_GE9323_540424.jpg/300px-Agate_Chalcedony_GE9323_540424.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8688" data-file-height="5792" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Agatized fossil coral from <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Opaleautralie.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossil bivalves replaced by opal, from Queensland"><img alt="Fossil bivalves replaced by opal, from Queensland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Opaleautralie.jpg/150px-Opaleautralie.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Opaleautralie.jpg/225px-Opaleautralie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Opaleautralie.jpg/300px-Opaleautralie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6658" data-file-height="4912" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fossil bivalves replaced by <a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">opal</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Addyman_3.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Rear view of an opalized Addyman Plesiosaur fossil at the South Australian Museum"><img alt="Rear view of an opalized Addyman Plesiosaur fossil at the South Australian Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Addyman_3.JPG/150px-Addyman_3.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Addyman_3.JPG/225px-Addyman_3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Addyman_3.JPG/300px-Addyman_3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rear view of an opalized Addyman <a href="/wiki/Plesiosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiosauria">Plesiosaur</a> fossil at the <a href="/wiki/South_Australian_Museum" title="South Australian Museum">South Australian Museum</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Casts_and_molds">Casts and molds</h3></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Cast"></span> In some cases, the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an <i>external mold</i>. If this void is later filled with sediment, the resulting <i>cast</i> resembles what the organism looked like. An <a href="/wiki/Endocast" title="Endocast">endocast</a>, or <i>internal mold</i>, is the result of sediments filling an organism's interior, such as the inside of a <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> or <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snail</a> or the hollow of a <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProthero20139–10_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProthero20139–10-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Endocasts are sometimes termed <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Steinkerns</i></span>, especially when bivalves are preserved this way.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Internal_mold,_Hormotoma,_Mollusca,_Gastropoda,_Murchisonioidea_-_Iowa,_USA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Internal mold (steinkern) of Hormotoma sp. from Galena Formation"><img alt="Internal mold (steinkern) of Hormotoma sp. from Galena Formation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Internal_mold%2C_Hormotoma%2C_Mollusca%2C_Gastropoda%2C_Murchisonioidea_-_Iowa%2C_USA.jpg/127px-Internal_mold%2C_Hormotoma%2C_Mollusca%2C_Gastropoda%2C_Murchisonioidea_-_Iowa%2C_USA.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Internal_mold%2C_Hormotoma%2C_Mollusca%2C_Gastropoda%2C_Murchisonioidea_-_Iowa%2C_USA.jpg/190px-Internal_mold%2C_Hormotoma%2C_Mollusca%2C_Gastropoda%2C_Murchisonioidea_-_Iowa%2C_USA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Internal_mold%2C_Hormotoma%2C_Mollusca%2C_Gastropoda%2C_Murchisonioidea_-_Iowa%2C_USA.jpg/253px-Internal_mold%2C_Hormotoma%2C_Mollusca%2C_Gastropoda%2C_Murchisonioidea_-_Iowa%2C_USA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="994" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Internal mold (steinkern) of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hormotoma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hormotoma (page does not exist)">Hormotoma</a></i> sp. from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Galena_Formation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galena Formation (page does not exist)">Galena Formation</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Small-gasteropod-bariloche.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gastropod internal mold (steinkern) from Ventana Formation"><img alt="Gastropod internal mold (steinkern) from Ventana Formation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Small-gasteropod-bariloche.jpg/150px-Small-gasteropod-bariloche.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Small-gasteropod-bariloche.jpg/225px-Small-gasteropod-bariloche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Small-gasteropod-bariloche.jpg/300px-Small-gasteropod-bariloche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gastropod internal mold (steinkern) from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventana_Formation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ventana Formation (page does not exist)">Ventana Formation</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anomalodonta_gigantea_Waynesville_Franklin_Co_IN.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Shell external mold of Anomalodonta gigantea from Waynesville Formation"><img alt="Shell external mold of Anomalodonta gigantea from Waynesville Formation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Anomalodonta_gigantea_Waynesville_Franklin_Co_IN.JPG/150px-Anomalodonta_gigantea_Waynesville_Franklin_Co_IN.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Anomalodonta_gigantea_Waynesville_Franklin_Co_IN.JPG/225px-Anomalodonta_gigantea_Waynesville_Franklin_Co_IN.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Anomalodonta_gigantea_Waynesville_Franklin_Co_IN.JPG/300px-Anomalodonta_gigantea_Waynesville_Franklin_Co_IN.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Shell external mold of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anomalodonta_gigantea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anomalodonta gigantea (page does not exist)">Anomalodonta gigantea</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Waynesville_Formation" title="Waynesville Formation">Waynesville Formation</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glycymeris_alpinus_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Internal mold (steinkern) of Glycymeris alpinus, Austria"><img alt="Internal mold (steinkern) of Glycymeris alpinus, Austria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Glycymeris_alpinus_01.jpg/150px-Glycymeris_alpinus_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Glycymeris_alpinus_01.jpg/225px-Glycymeris_alpinus_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Glycymeris_alpinus_01.jpg/300px-Glycymeris_alpinus_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="16800" data-file-height="8000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Internal mold (steinkern) of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycymeris_alpinus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glycymeris alpinus (page does not exist)">Glycymeris alpinus</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="External mold of Aviculopecten subcardiformis from the Logan Formation, Lower Carboniferous, Ohio"><img alt="External mold of Aviculopecten subcardiformis from the Logan Formation, Lower Carboniferous, Ohio" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG/150px-Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG/225px-Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG/300px-Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1230" data-file-height="1227" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">External mold of <i><a href="/wiki/Aviculopecten_subcardiformis" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviculopecten subcardiformis">Aviculopecten subcardiformis</a></i> from the <a href="/wiki/Logan_Formation" title="Logan Formation">Logan Formation</a>, Lower <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a>, Ohio</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Authigenic_mineralization">Authigenic mineralization</h4></div> <p>This is a special form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Siderite" title="Siderite">siderite</a>, resulting in a nodule forming around it. If this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous <a href="/wiki/Mazon_Creek_fossil_beds" title="Mazon Creek fossil beds">Mazon Creek fossil beds</a> of Illinois, US, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProthero2013579_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProthero2013579-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adpression_(compression-impression)"><span id="Adpression_.28compression-impression.29"></span>Adpression (compression-impression)</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Compression_fossil" title="Compression fossil">Compression fossils</a>, such as those of fossil ferns, are the result of chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's tissues. In this case the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a geochemically altered state. This chemical change is an expression of <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenesis</a>. Often what remains is a <a href="/wiki/Carbonaceous_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonaceous film">carbonaceous film</a> known as a phytoleim, in which case the fossil is known as a compression. Often, however, the phytoleim is lost and all that remains is an impression of the organism in the rock—an impression fossil. In many cases, however, compressions and impressions occur together. For instance, when the rock is broken open, the phytoleim will often be attached to one part (compression), whereas the counterpart will just be an impression. For this reason, one term covers the two modes of preservation: <i>adpression</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ShuteCleal_1986_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShuteCleal_1986-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbonization_and_coalification">Carbonization and coalification</h4></div> <p>Fossils that are carbonized or coalified consist of the organic remains which have been reduced primarily to the chemical element carbon. Carbonized fossils consist of a thin film which forms a silhouette of the original organism, and the original organic remains were typically soft tissues. Coalified fossils consist primarily of coal, and the original organic remains were typically woody in composition. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Probable_leech_from_the_Waukesha_Biota.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Carbonized fossil of a cycloneuralian worm that was once misidentified as leech[83] from the Silurian Waukesha Biota of Wisconsin."><img alt="Carbonized fossil of a cycloneuralian worm that was once misidentified as leech[83] from the Silurian Waukesha Biota of Wisconsin." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Probable_leech_from_the_Waukesha_Biota.jpg/111px-Probable_leech_from_the_Waukesha_Biota.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Probable_leech_from_the_Waukesha_Biota.jpg/167px-Probable_leech_from_the_Waukesha_Biota.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Probable_leech_from_the_Waukesha_Biota.jpg/223px-Probable_leech_from_the_Waukesha_Biota.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3902" data-file-height="7000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Carbonized fossil of a <a href="/wiki/Cycloneuralia" title="Cycloneuralia">cycloneuralian</a> worm that was once misidentified as <a href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">leech</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the Silurian <a href="/wiki/Waukesha_Biota" title="Waukesha Biota">Waukesha Biota</a> of Wisconsin.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lycopod_axis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Partially coalified axis (branch) of a lycopod from the Devonian of Wisconsin."><img alt="Partially coalified axis (branch) of a lycopod from the Devonian of Wisconsin." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lycopod_axis.jpg/144px-Lycopod_axis.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lycopod_axis.jpg/217px-Lycopod_axis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lycopod_axis.jpg/289px-Lycopod_axis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4038" data-file-height="5591" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Partially coalified axis (branch) of a <a href="/wiki/Lycopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopod">lycopod</a> from the Devonian of <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soft_tissue,_cell_and_molecular_preservation"><span id="Soft_tissue.2C_cell_and_molecular_preservation"></span>Soft tissue, cell and molecular preservation</h3></div> <p>Because of their antiquity, an unexpected exception to the alteration of an organism's tissues by chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules during fossilization has been the discovery of soft tissue in dinosaur fossils, including blood vessels, and the isolation of proteins and evidence for DNA fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MHS1_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MHS1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MHS2_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MHS2-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Emb_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emb-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Higby_Schweitzer" title="Mary Higby Schweitzer">Mary Schweitzer</a> and her colleagues reported the presence of iron particles (<a href="/wiki/Goethite" title="Goethite">goethite</a>-aFeO(OH)) associated with soft tissues recovered from dinosaur fossils. Based on various experiments that studied the interaction of iron in <a href="/wiki/Haemoglobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemoglobin">haemoglobin</a> with blood vessel tissue they proposed that solution hypoxia coupled with iron <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelation</a> enhances the stability and preservation of soft tissue and provides the basis for an explanation for the unforeseen preservation of fossil soft tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-SchweitzerOthers2014a_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SchweitzerOthers2014a-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a slightly older study based on eight <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> ranging in time from the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> found that reasonably well-preserved fibrils that probably represent <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> were preserved in all these fossils and that the quality of preservation depended mostly on the arrangement of the collagen fibers, with tight packing favoring good preservation.<sup id="cite_ref-ZL11_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ZL11-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There seemed to be no correlation between geological age and quality of preservation, within that timeframe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioimmuration">Bioimmuration</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catellocaula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Catellocaula.jpg/220px-Catellocaula.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Catellocaula.jpg/330px-Catellocaula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Catellocaula.jpg/440px-Catellocaula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2940" data-file-height="2874" /></a><figcaption>The star-shaped holes (<i>Catellocaula vallata</i>) in this Upper Ordovician bryozoan represent a soft-bodied organism preserved by bioimmuration in the bryozoan skeleton.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Bioimmuration occurs when a skeletal organism overgrows or otherwise subsumes another organism, preserving the latter, or an impression of it, within the skeleton.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_PD._1990_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_PD._1990-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Usually it is a <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> skeletal organism, such as a <a href="/wiki/Bryozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bryozoan">bryozoan</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oyster</a>, which grows along a <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrate</a>, covering other sessile <a href="/wiki/Sclerobiont" title="Sclerobiont">sclerobionts</a>. Sometimes the bioimmured organism is soft-bodied and is then preserved in negative relief as a kind of external mold. There are also cases where an organism settles on top of a living skeletal organism that grows upwards, preserving the settler in its skeleton. Bioimmuration is known in the fossil record from the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the Recent.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_PD._1990_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_PD._1990-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Index_fossils.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Index_fossils.gif/300px-Index_fossils.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Index_fossils.gif/450px-Index_fossils.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Index_fossils.gif/600px-Index_fossils.gif 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Examples of index fossils</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Index">Index</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">Index fossil</a></div> <p>Index fossils (also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or zone fossils) are fossils used to define and identify <a href="/wiki/Geologic_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic column">geologic periods</a> (or faunal stages). They work on the premise that, although different <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> may look different depending on the conditions under which they were deposited, they may include the remains of the same <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of fossil. The shorter the species' time range, the more precisely different sediments can be correlated, and so rapidly evolving species' fossils are particularly valuable. The best index fossils are common, easy to identify at species level and have a broad distribution—otherwise the likelihood of finding and recognizing one in the two sediments is poor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trace">Trace</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossil</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossils</a> consist mainly of tracks and burrows, but also include <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolites</a> (fossil <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a>) and marks left by feeding.<sup id="cite_ref-UCMPWhatIsPaleo_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCMPWhatIsPaleo-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilized hard parts, and they reflect animal behaviours. Many traces date from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been capable of making them.<sup id="cite_ref-Seilacher1994_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seilacher1994-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whilst exact assignment of trace fossils to their makers is generally impossible, traces may for example provide the earliest physical evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals (comparable to <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FedonkinGehlingEtAl2007RiseOfAnimals-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they give evidence for the animal's behaviour (in this case, diet) rather than morphology. They were first described by <a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a> in 1829. Prior to this they were known as "fossil <a href="/wiki/Conifer_cone#Pinaceae_cones" title="Conifer cone">fir cones</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Bezoar" title="Bezoar">bezoar</a> stones." They serve a valuable purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation and diet of extinct organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to over 60 centimetres. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 185px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CambrianRusophycus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cambrian trace fossils including Rusophycus, made by a trilobite"><img alt="Cambrian trace fossils including Rusophycus, made by a trilobite" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CambrianRusophycus.jpg/200px-CambrianRusophycus.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CambrianRusophycus.jpg/300px-CambrianRusophycus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/CambrianRusophycus.jpg/400px-CambrianRusophycus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossils</a> including <i><a href="/wiki/Rusophycus" title="Rusophycus">Rusophycus</a></i>, made by a <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobite</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 185px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coprolite.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A coprolite of a carnivorous dinosaur found in southwestern Saskatchewan"><img alt="A coprolite of a carnivorous dinosaur found in southwestern Saskatchewan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Coprolite.jpg/200px-Coprolite.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Coprolite.jpg/300px-Coprolite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Coprolite.jpg/400px-Coprolite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A coprolite of a carnivorous dinosaur found in southwestern <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 185px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Climactichnites_wilsoni,_densely_packed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Densely packed, subaerial or nearshore trackways (Climactichnites wilsoni) made by a putative, slug-like mollusk on a Cambrian tidal flat"><img alt="Densely packed, subaerial or nearshore trackways (Climactichnites wilsoni) made by a putative, slug-like mollusk on a Cambrian tidal flat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Climactichnites_wilsoni%2C_densely_packed.jpg/200px-Climactichnites_wilsoni%2C_densely_packed.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Climactichnites_wilsoni%2C_densely_packed.jpg/300px-Climactichnites_wilsoni%2C_densely_packed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Climactichnites_wilsoni%2C_densely_packed.jpg/400px-Climactichnites_wilsoni%2C_densely_packed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Densely packed, subaerial or nearshore trackways (<i><a href="/wiki/Climactichnites" title="Climactichnites">Climactichnites</a> wilsoni</i>) made by a putative, slug-like <a href="/wiki/Mollusk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusk">mollusk</a> on a Cambrian tidal flat</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitional">Transitional</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</a></div><p> A <i>transitional fossil</i> is any fossilized remains of a life form that exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and its derived descendant group.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is especially important where the descendant group is sharply differentiated by gross anatomy and mode of living from the ancestral group. Because of the incompleteness of the fossil record, there is usually no way to know exactly how close a transitional fossil is to the point of divergence. These fossils serve as a reminder that taxonomic divisions are human constructs that have been imposed in hindsight on a continuum of variation.</p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microfossils">Microfossils</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microfossils.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microfossils.JPG/220px-Microfossils.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microfossils.JPG/330px-Microfossils.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microfossils.JPG/440px-Microfossils.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Microfossils about 1 mm</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">Microfossil</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">Micropaleontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protists_in_the_fossil_record" title="Protists in the fossil record">Protists in the fossil record</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">Microfossil</a> is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye. A commonly applied cutoff point between "micro" and <a href="/wiki/Macrofossil" title="Macrofossil">"macro" fossils</a> is 1 mm. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophores</a>) or component parts (such as small teeth or <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">spores</a>) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimate</a> information, and are also commonly used by <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphers</a> to assist in the correlation of rock units.</p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resin">Resin</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">Amber</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leptofoenus_pittfieldae_(male)_rotated.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Leptofoenus_pittfieldae_%28male%29_rotated.JPG/220px-Leptofoenus_pittfieldae_%28male%29_rotated.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Leptofoenus_pittfieldae_%28male%29_rotated.JPG/330px-Leptofoenus_pittfieldae_%28male%29_rotated.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Leptofoenus_pittfieldae_%28male%29_rotated.JPG/440px-Leptofoenus_pittfieldae_%28male%29_rotated.JPG 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>The wasp <i><a href="/wiki/Leptofoenus_pittfieldae" title="Leptofoenus pittfieldae">Leptofoenus pittfieldae</a></i> trapped in <a href="/wiki/Dominican_amber" title="Dominican amber">Dominican amber</a>, from 20 to 16 million years ago. It is known only from this specimen.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fossil resin (colloquially called <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>) is a natural <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> found in many types of strata throughout the world, even the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a>. The oldest fossil resin dates to the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, though most dates to the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>. The excretion of the resin by certain plants is thought to be an evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> for protection from insects and to seal wounds. Fossil resin often contains other fossils called inclusions that were captured by the sticky resin. These include bacteria, fungi, other plants, and animals. Animal inclusions are usually small <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, predominantly <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> such as insects and spiders, and only extremely rarely a <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> such as a small lizard. Preservation of inclusions can be exquisite, including small fragments of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derived_or_reworked"><span class="anchor" id="derived"></span><span class="anchor" id="reworked"></span>Derived or reworked</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Zombie_taxon" title="Zombie taxon">Zombie taxon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CentrumSideView.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/CentrumSideView.jpg/220px-CentrumSideView.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/CentrumSideView.jpg/330px-CentrumSideView.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/CentrumSideView.jpg/440px-CentrumSideView.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Eroded <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">plesiosaur</a> vertebral centrum found in the Lower <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> Faringdon Sponge Gravels in Faringdon, England. An example of a <i>remanié</i> fossil.</figcaption></figure><p> A <i>derived</i>, <i>reworked</i> or <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">remanié fossil</i></span> is a fossil found in rock that accumulated significantly later than when the fossilized animal or plant died.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reworked fossils are created by erosion exhuming (freeing) fossils from the rock formation in which they were originally deposited and their redeposition in a younger sedimentary deposit.</p><div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wood">Wood</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fossil_wood" title="Fossil wood">Fossil wood</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrified_forest_log_2_md.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Petrified_forest_log_2_md.jpg/200px-Petrified_forest_log_2_md.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Petrified_forest_log_2_md.jpg/300px-Petrified_forest_log_2_md.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Petrified_forest_log_2_md.jpg/400px-Petrified_forest_log_2_md.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1009" data-file-height="1009" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Petrified_wood" title="Petrified wood">Petrified wood</a>. The internal structure of the tree and bark are maintained in the <a href="#Permineralization">permineralization</a> process.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrified_wood_close_052615.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Petrified_wood_close_052615.jpg/200px-Petrified_wood_close_052615.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Petrified_wood_close_052615.jpg/300px-Petrified_wood_close_052615.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Petrified_wood_close_052615.jpg/400px-Petrified_wood_close_052615.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3736" data-file-height="2640" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Polished section of petrified wood showing annual rings</div></div></div></div></div><p> Fossil wood is wood that is preserved in the fossil record. Wood is usually the part of a plant that is best preserved (and most easily found). Fossil wood may or may not be <a href="/wiki/Petrified_wood" title="Petrified wood">petrified</a>. The fossil wood may be the only part of the plant that has been preserved;<sup id="cite_ref-strauss_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strauss-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> therefore such wood may get a special kind of <a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">botanical name</a>. This will usually include "xylon" and a term indicating its presumed affinity, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Araucarioxylon_arizonicum" title="Araucarioxylon arizonicum">Araucarioxylon</a></i> (wood of <i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria" title="Araucaria">Araucaria</a></i> or some related genus), <i><a href="/wiki/Palmoxylon" title="Palmoxylon">Palmoxylon</a></i> (wood of an indeterminate <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm</a>), or <i>Castanoxylon</i> (wood of an indeterminate <a href="/wiki/Castanopsis" title="Castanopsis">chinkapin</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-stewart_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stewart-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subfossil">Subfossil</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dodo-Skeleton_Natural_History_Museum_London_England.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dodo-Skeleton_Natural_History_Museum_London_England.jpg/220px-Dodo-Skeleton_Natural_History_Museum_London_England.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dodo-Skeleton_Natural_History_Museum_London_England.jpg/330px-Dodo-Skeleton_Natural_History_Museum_London_England.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dodo-Skeleton_Natural_History_Museum_London_England.jpg/440px-Dodo-Skeleton_Natural_History_Museum_London_England.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2142" data-file-height="2163" /></a><figcaption>A subfossil <a href="/wiki/Dodo" title="Dodo">dodo</a> skeleton</figcaption></figure> <p>The term subfossil can be used to refer to remains, such as bones, nests, or <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">fecal deposits</a>, whose fossilization process is not complete, either because the length of time since the animal involved was living is too short or because the conditions in which the remains were buried were not optimal for fossilization.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subfossils are often found in caves or other shelters where they can be preserved for thousands of years.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main importance of subfossil vs. fossil remains is that the former contain organic material, which can be used for <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> or extraction and <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequencing of DNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein_sequencing" title="Protein sequencing">protein</a>, or other biomolecules. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> ratios can provide much information about the ecological conditions under which extinct animals lived. Subfossils are useful for studying the evolutionary history of an environment and can be important to studies in <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatology</a>. </p><p>Subfossils are often found in depositionary environments, such as lake sediments, oceanic sediments, and soils. Once deposited, physical and chemical <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> can alter the state of preservation, and small subfossils can also be ingested by living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. Subfossil remains that date from the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> are exceptionally rare, are usually in an advanced state of decay, and are consequently much disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast bulk of subfossil material comes from <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> sediments, including many subfossilized <a href="/wiki/Chironomid" class="mw-redirect" title="Chironomid">chironomid</a> head capsules, <a href="/wiki/Ostracod" title="Ostracod">ostracod</a> <a href="/wiki/Carapace" title="Carapace">carapaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theba_geminata_08.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Theba_geminata_08.JPG/220px-Theba_geminata_08.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Theba_geminata_08.JPG/330px-Theba_geminata_08.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Theba_geminata_08.JPG/440px-Theba_geminata_08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="10000" data-file-height="5188" /></a><figcaption>Subfossil <i><a href="/wiki/Theba" title="Theba">Theba geminata</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>For remains such as molluscan <a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">seashells</a>, which frequently do not change their chemical composition over geological time, and may occasionally even retain such features as the original color markings for millions of years, the label 'subfossil' is applied to shells that are understood to be thousands of years old, but are of <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> age, and therefore are not old enough to be from the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> epoch.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_fossils">Chemical fossils</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">Biosignature</a></div><p> Chemical fossils, or chemofossils, are chemicals found in rocks and <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> (petroleum, coal, and natural gas) that provide an organic signature for ancient life. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular fossil">Molecular fossils</a> and isotope ratios represent two types of chemical fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest traces of life on Earth are fossils of this type, including carbon isotope anomalies found in <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircons</a> that imply the existence of life as early as 4.1 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20151019_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20151019-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PNAS-20151014-pdf_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20151014-pdf-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stromatolites">Stromatolites</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">Stromatolite</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stromatolites_Cochabamba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Stromatolites_Cochabamba.jpg/220px-Stromatolites_Cochabamba.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Stromatolites_Cochabamba.jpg/330px-Stromatolites_Cochabamba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Stromatolites_Cochabamba.jpg/440px-Stromatolites_Cochabamba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3516" data-file-height="4494" /></a><figcaption> Lower Proterozoic <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolites</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, South America</figcaption></figure> <p>Stromatolites are layered <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">accretionary</a> <a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structures</a> formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilms</a> of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stromatolites provide some of the most ancient fossil records of life on Earth, dating back more than 3.5 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stromatolites were much more abundant in Precambrian times. While older, <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> fossil remains are presumed to be <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, younger (that is, <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>) fossils may be <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric">primordial</a> forms of the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">eukaryote</a> <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">chlorophytes</a> (that is, <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>). One <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of stromatolite very common in the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geologic record</a> is <i><a href="/wiki/Collenia" title="Collenia">Collenia</a></i>. The earliest stromatolite of confirmed microbial origin dates to 2.724 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Lepot2008_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lepot2008-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2009 discovery provides strong evidence of microbial stromatolites extending as far back as 3.45 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Allwood2009_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allwood2009-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stromatolites are a major constituent of the fossil record for life's first 3.5 billion years, peaking about 1.25 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Allwood2009_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allwood2009-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They subsequently declined in abundance and diversity,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which by the start of the Cambrian had fallen to 20% of their peak. The most widely supported explanation is that stromatolite builders fell victims to grazing creatures (the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_substrate_revolution" title="Cambrian substrate revolution">Cambrian substrate revolution</a>), implying that sufficiently complex organisms were common over 1 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-McNamara1996DatingOriginAnimals_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNamara1996DatingOriginAnimals-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AwramikStromatoliteDiversityMetazoanAppearance_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AwramikStromatoliteDiversityMetazoanAppearance-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bengtson2002OriginsOfPredation_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002OriginsOfPredation-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The connection between grazer and stromatolite abundance is well documented in the younger <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">evolutionary radiation</a>; stromatolite abundance also increased after the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician-Silurian_extinction_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordovician-Silurian extinction events">end-Ordovician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Permian_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian extinction">end-Permian extinctions</a> decimated marine animals, falling back to earlier levels as marine animals recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-SheehanHarris2004ResurgenceAfterOrdovicianExtinction_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SheehanHarris2004ResurgenceAfterOrdovicianExtinction-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fluctuations in <a href="/wiki/Metazoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoan">metazoan</a> population and diversity may not have been the only factor in the reduction in stromatolite abundance. Factors such as the chemistry of the environment may have been responsible for changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Riding2006_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riding2006-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> cyanobacteria themselves reproduce asexually through cell division, they were instrumental in priming the environment for the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">evolutionary development</a> of more complex <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> organisms. Cyanobacteria (as well as <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophile</a> <a href="/wiki/Gammaproteobacteria" title="Gammaproteobacteria">Gammaproteobacteria</a>) are thought to be largely responsible for increasing the amount of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in the primeval Earth's <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> through their continuing <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Cyanobacteria use <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> to create their food. A layer of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> often forms over mats of cyanobacterial cells. In modern microbial mats, debris from the surrounding habitat can become trapped within the mucus, which can be cemented by the calcium carbonate to grow thin laminations of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>. These laminations can accrete over time, resulting in the banded pattern common to stromatolites. The domal morphology of biological stromatolites is the result of the vertical growth necessary for the continued infiltration of sunlight to the organisms for photosynthesis. Layered spherical growth structures termed <a href="/wiki/Oncolite" title="Oncolite">oncolites</a> are similar to stromatolites and are also known from the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thrombolite" title="Thrombolite">Thrombolites</a> are poorly laminated or non-laminated clotted structures formed by cyanobacteria common in the fossil record and in modern sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-Lepot2008_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lepot2008-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Zebra River Canyon area of the Kubis platform in the deeply dissected Zaris Mountains of southwestern <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> provides an extremely well exposed example of the thrombolite-stromatolite-metazoan reefs that developed during the Proterozoic period, the stromatolites here being better developed in updip locations under conditions of higher current velocities and greater sediment influx.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pseudofossils">Pseudofossils</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dendrites01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Dendrites01.jpg/220px-Dendrites01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Dendrites01.jpg/330px-Dendrites01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Dendrites01.jpg/440px-Dendrites01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>An example of a pseudofossil: Manganese dendrites on a limestone bedding plane from <a href="/wiki/Solnhofen" title="Solnhofen">Solnhofen</a>, Germany; scale in mm</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pseudofossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudofossils">Pseudofossils</a></div> <p><i>Pseudofossils</i> are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as geological <a href="/wiki/Dendrite_(crystal)" title="Dendrite (crystal)">dendrite</a> crystals, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and <a href="/wiki/Moss_agate" title="Moss agate">moss agates</a>, which look like moss or plant leaves. <a href="/wiki/Concretion" title="Concretion">Concretions</a>, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</h2></div> <p>It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">biominerals</a> could be important indicators of <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">extraterrestrial life</a> and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present life on the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds_(minerals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds (minerals)">organic components</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">biosignatures</a>) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and <a href="/wiki/Biotic_material" title="Biotic material">biotic</a> reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-SSG_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SSG-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)"><i>Curiosity</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)"><i>Opportunity</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">rovers</a> on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">chemotrophic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Chemolithotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemolithotrophs">chemolithoautotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, as well as ancient water, including <a href="/wiki/Lacustrine_plain" title="Lacustrine plain">fluvio-lacustrine environments</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plains</a> related to ancient <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>) that may have been <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">habitable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20140124a_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124a-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20140124special_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124special-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20140124_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20140124c_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124c-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The search for evidence of <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">habitability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">taphonomy</a> (related to fossils), and <a href="/wiki/Organic_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic carbon">organic carbon</a> on the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> is now a primary <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> objective.<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20140124a_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124a-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20140124special_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124special-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art">Art</h2></div> <p>According to one hypothesis, a Corinthian vase from the 6th century <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">BCE</span></span> is the oldest artistic record of a vertebrate fossil, perhaps a Miocene giraffe combined with elements from other species.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a subsequent study using artificial intelligence and expert evaluations reject this idea, because mammals do not have the eye bones shown in the painted monster. Morphologically, the vase painting correspond to a carnivorous reptile of the Varanidae family that still lives in regions occupied by the ancient Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trading_and_collecting">Trading and collecting</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fossil_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil trading">Fossil trading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fossil_collecting" title="Fossil collecting">Fossil collecting</a></div> <p>Fossil trading is the practice of buying and selling fossils. This is many times done illegally with artifacts stolen from research sites, costing many important scientific specimens each year.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem is quite pronounced in China, where many specimens have been stolen.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fossil collecting (sometimes, in a non-scientific sense, fossil hunting) is the collection of fossils for scientific study, hobby, or profit. Fossil collecting, as practiced by amateurs, is the predecessor of modern paleontology and many still collect fossils and study fossils as amateurs. Professionals and amateurs alike collect fossils for their scientific value. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_medicine">As medicine</h2></div> <p>The use of fossils to address health issues is rooted in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a> and include the use of fossils as <a href="/wiki/Talisman" title="Talisman">talismans</a>. The specific fossil to use to alleviate or cure an illness is often based on its resemblance to the symptoms or affected organ. The usefulness of fossils as medicine is almost entirely a <a href="/wiki/Placebo_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Placebo effect">placebo effect</a>, though fossil material might conceivably have some <a href="/wiki/Antacid" title="Antacid">antacid</a> activity or supply some <a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">essential minerals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of dinosaur bones as "dragon bones" has persisted in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a> into modern times, with mid-Cretaceous dinosaur bones being used for the purpose in <a href="/wiki/Ruyang_County" title="Ruyang County">Ruyang County</a> during the early 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_fossils_found_high_in_the_Himalayas._Collection_of_the_Abbot_of_Dhankar_Gompa,_HP,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine fossils found high in the Himalayas. Collection of the Abbot of Dhankar Gompa, HP, India"><img alt="Marine fossils found high in the Himalayas. Collection of the Abbot of Dhankar Gompa, HP, India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Marine_fossils_found_high_in_the_Himalayas._Collection_of_the_Abbot_of_Dhankar_Gompa%2C_HP%2C_India.jpg/200px-Marine_fossils_found_high_in_the_Himalayas._Collection_of_the_Abbot_of_Dhankar_Gompa%2C_HP%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Marine_fossils_found_high_in_the_Himalayas._Collection_of_the_Abbot_of_Dhankar_Gompa%2C_HP%2C_India.jpg/300px-Marine_fossils_found_high_in_the_Himalayas._Collection_of_the_Abbot_of_Dhankar_Gompa%2C_HP%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Marine_fossils_found_high_in_the_Himalayas._Collection_of_the_Abbot_of_Dhankar_Gompa%2C_HP%2C_India.jpg/400px-Marine_fossils_found_high_in_the_Himalayas._Collection_of_the_Abbot_of_Dhankar_Gompa%2C_HP%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Marine fossils found high in the Himalayas. Collection of the Abbot of <a href="/wiki/Dhankar_Gompa" title="Dhankar Gompa">Dhankar Gompa</a>, HP, India</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amonite_Cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Three small ammonite fossils, each approximately 1.5 cm across"><img alt="Three small ammonite fossils, each approximately 1.5 cm across" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Amonite_Cropped.jpg/200px-Amonite_Cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Amonite_Cropped.jpg/300px-Amonite_Cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Amonite_Cropped.jpg/400px-Amonite_Cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Three small <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonite</a> fossils, each approximately 1.5 cm across</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cockerellites_liops_Green_River_Formation.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eocene fossil fish Priscacara liops from the Green River Formation of Wyoming"><img alt="Eocene fossil fish Priscacara liops from the Green River Formation of Wyoming" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cockerellites_liops_Green_River_Formation.jpg/200px-Cockerellites_liops_Green_River_Formation.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cockerellites_liops_Green_River_Formation.jpg/300px-Cockerellites_liops_Green_River_Formation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cockerellites_liops_Green_River_Formation.jpg/400px-Cockerellites_liops_Green_River_Formation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5736" data-file-height="3258" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> fossil fish <i>Priscacara liops</i> from the <a href="/wiki/Green_River_Formation" title="Green River Formation">Green River Formation</a> of Wyoming</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asaphus_kowalewskii_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A permineralized trilobite, Asaphus kowalewskii"><img alt="A permineralized trilobite, Asaphus kowalewskii" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Asaphus_kowalewskii_3.jpg/200px-Asaphus_kowalewskii_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Asaphus_kowalewskii_3.jpg/300px-Asaphus_kowalewskii_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Asaphus_kowalewskii_3.jpg/400px-Asaphus_kowalewskii_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A permineralized <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobite</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Asaphus_kowalewskii" title="Asaphus kowalewskii">Asaphus kowalewskii</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carcharodontosaurus_and_Megalodon_teeth.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Megalodon and Carcharodontosaurus teeth. The latter was found in the Sahara Desert."><img alt="Megalodon and Carcharodontosaurus teeth. The latter was found in the Sahara Desert." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Carcharodontosaurus_and_Megalodon_teeth.jpg/200px-Carcharodontosaurus_and_Megalodon_teeth.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Carcharodontosaurus_and_Megalodon_teeth.jpg/300px-Carcharodontosaurus_and_Megalodon_teeth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Carcharodontosaurus_and_Megalodon_teeth.jpg/400px-Carcharodontosaurus_and_Megalodon_teeth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Megalodon" title="Megalodon">Megalodon</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Carcharodontosaurus" title="Carcharodontosaurus">Carcharodontosaurus</a></i> teeth. The latter was found in the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara Desert</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossil shrimp (Cretaceous)"><img alt="Fossil shrimp (Cretaceous)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg/200px-The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg/300px-The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg/400px-The_fossils_from_Cretaceous_age_found_in_Lebanon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4286" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fossil <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PetrifiedWood.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Petrified wood in Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona"><img alt="Petrified wood in Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/PetrifiedWood.jpg/200px-PetrifiedWood.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/PetrifiedWood.jpg/300px-PetrifiedWood.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/PetrifiedWood.jpg/400px-PetrifiedWood.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Petrified wood in <a href="/wiki/Petrified_Forest_National_Park" title="Petrified Forest National Park">Petrified Forest National Park</a>, Arizona</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrified_Araucaria_cone_from_patagonia-Edit3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Petrified cone of Araucaria mirabilis from Patagonia, Argentina dating from the Jurassic Period (approx. 210 Ma)"><img alt="Petrified cone of Araucaria mirabilis from Patagonia, Argentina dating from the Jurassic Period (approx. 210 Ma)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Petrified_Araucaria_cone_from_patagonia-Edit3.jpg/200px-Petrified_Araucaria_cone_from_patagonia-Edit3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Petrified_Araucaria_cone_from_patagonia-Edit3.jpg/300px-Petrified_Araucaria_cone_from_patagonia-Edit3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Petrified_Araucaria_cone_from_patagonia-Edit3.jpg/400px-Petrified_Araucaria_cone_from_patagonia-Edit3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Petrified <a href="/wiki/Conifer_cone" title="Conifer cone">cone</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria_mirabilis" title="Araucaria mirabilis">Araucaria mirabilis</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> dating from the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurassic Period">Jurassic Period</a> (approx. 210 <a href="/wiki/Ma_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma (unit)">Ma</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A fossil gastropod from the Pliocene of Cyprus. A serpulid worm is attached."><img alt="A fossil gastropod from the Pliocene of Cyprus. A serpulid worm is attached." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG/200px-CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG/300px-CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG/400px-CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2990" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A fossil <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropod</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Serpulidae" title="Serpulidae">serpulid worm</a> is attached.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Silurian Orthoceras fossil"><img alt="Silurian Orthoceras fossil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg/200px-OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg/300px-OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg/400px-OrhtocerasNautiloid092313.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2394" data-file-height="639" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> <a href="/wiki/Orthoceras" title="Orthoceras">Orthoceras</a> fossil</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eocene_fossil_flower,_Clare_Family_Florissant_Fossil_Quarry,_Florissant,_Colorado,_USA_-_20100807.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eocene fossil flower from Florissant, Colorado"><img alt="Eocene fossil flower from Florissant, Colorado" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Eocene_fossil_flower%2C_Clare_Family_Florissant_Fossil_Quarry%2C_Florissant%2C_Colorado%2C_USA_-_20100807.jpg/187px-Eocene_fossil_flower%2C_Clare_Family_Florissant_Fossil_Quarry%2C_Florissant%2C_Colorado%2C_USA_-_20100807.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Eocene_fossil_flower%2C_Clare_Family_Florissant_Fossil_Quarry%2C_Florissant%2C_Colorado%2C_USA_-_20100807.jpg/281px-Eocene_fossil_flower%2C_Clare_Family_Florissant_Fossil_Quarry%2C_Florissant%2C_Colorado%2C_USA_-_20100807.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Eocene_fossil_flower%2C_Clare_Family_Florissant_Fossil_Quarry%2C_Florissant%2C_Colorado%2C_USA_-_20100807.jpg/375px-Eocene_fossil_flower%2C_Clare_Family_Florissant_Fossil_Quarry%2C_Florissant%2C_Colorado%2C_USA_-_20100807.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1780" data-file-height="1900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Eocene fossil flower from Florissant, Colorado</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Micraster echinoid fossil from England"><img alt="Micraster echinoid fossil from England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG/200px-RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG/300px-RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG/400px-RoyLindmanMicraster.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Micraster" title="Micraster">Micraster</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Echinoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoid">echinoid</a> fossil from England</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Productid_Permian_Texas.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Productid brachiopod ventral valve; Roadian, Guadalupian (Middle Permian); Glass Mountains, Texas."><img alt="Productid brachiopod ventral valve; Roadian, Guadalupian (Middle Permian); Glass Mountains, Texas." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Productid_Permian_Texas.JPG/200px-Productid_Permian_Texas.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Productid_Permian_Texas.JPG/300px-Productid_Permian_Texas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Productid_Permian_Texas.JPG/400px-Productid_Permian_Texas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1528" data-file-height="1105" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Productid <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopod</a> ventral valve; Roadian, <a href="/wiki/Guadalupian" title="Guadalupian">Guadalupian</a> (Middle <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>); Glass Mountains, Texas.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fossil_agatized_coral_Florida.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Agatized coral from the Hawthorn Group (Oligocene–Miocene), Florida. An example of preservation by replacement."><img alt="Agatized coral from the Hawthorn Group (Oligocene–Miocene), Florida. An example of preservation by replacement." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fossil_agatized_coral_Florida.JPG/200px-Fossil_agatized_coral_Florida.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fossil_agatized_coral_Florida.JPG/300px-Fossil_agatized_coral_Florida.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fossil_agatized_coral_Florida.JPG/400px-Fossil_agatized_coral_Florida.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3440" data-file-height="2460" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Agate" title="Agate">Agatized</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Hawthorn_Group" title="Hawthorn Group">Hawthorn Group</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>–<a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>), <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>. An example of preservation by replacement.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fossils_from_Gotland_beaches.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossils from beaches of the Baltic Sea island of Gotland, placed on paper with 7 mm (0.28 inch) squares"><img alt="Fossils from beaches of the Baltic Sea island of Gotland, placed on paper with 7 mm (0.28 inch) squares" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fossils_from_Gotland_beaches.jpg/200px-Fossils_from_Gotland_beaches.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fossils_from_Gotland_beaches.jpg/300px-Fossils_from_Gotland_beaches.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fossils_from_Gotland_beaches.jpg/400px-Fossils_from_Gotland_beaches.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fossils from beaches of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> island of <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a>, placed on paper with 7 mm (0.28 inch) squares</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinosaur_footprints_in_ToroToro_Bolivia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dinosaur footprints from Torotoro National Park in Bolivia."><img alt="Dinosaur footprints from Torotoro National Park in Bolivia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dinosaur_footprints_in_ToroToro_Bolivia.jpg/133px-Dinosaur_footprints_in_ToroToro_Bolivia.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dinosaur_footprints_in_ToroToro_Bolivia.jpg/200px-Dinosaur_footprints_in_ToroToro_Bolivia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Dinosaur_footprints_in_ToroToro_Bolivia.jpg/266px-Dinosaur_footprints_in_ToroToro_Bolivia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="5760" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dinosaur footprints from <a href="/wiki/Torotoro_National_Park" title="Torotoro National Park">Torotoro National Park</a> in Bolivia.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png/28px-Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png/42px-Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png/56px-Allosaurus_Jardin_des_Plantes.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Paleontology" title="Portal:Paleontology">Paleontology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/28px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/42px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/56px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">Bioerosion</a> – Erosion of hard substrates by living organisms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptospore" title="Cryptospore">Cryptospore</a> – Fossilised primitive plant spore</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a> – Organism living inside a rock</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_parks" title="List of fossil parks">List of fossil parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_fossil" title="Living fossil">Living fossil</a> – Organism resembling a form long shown in the fossil records</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">Paleobiology</a> – Study of organic evolution using fossils</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a> – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schultz%27s_rule" title="Schultz's rule">Schultz's rule</a> – Relationship between tooth wear and lifespan of fossil organisms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_tooth" title="Shark tooth">Shark tooth</a> – Teeth of a shark</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signor%E2%80%93Lipps_effect" title="Signor–Lipps effect">Signor–Lipps effect</a> – Sampling bias in the fossil record raising difficulties to characterize extinctions</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Oldest+%27microfossils%27+raise+hopes+for+life+on+Mars&rft.date=2011-08-21&rft.au=Brian+Vastag&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnational%2Fhealth-science%2Foldest-microfossils-hail-from-34-billion-years-ago-raise-hopes-for-life-on-mars%2F2011%2F08%2F19%2FgIQAHK8UUJ_story.html%3Fhpid%3Dz3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2011" class="citation news cs1">Wade, Nicholas (21 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/22/science/earth/22fossil.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss&src=ig">"Geological Team Lays Claim to Oldest Known Fossils"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130501085118/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/22/science/earth/22fossil.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss&src=ig">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Geological+Team+Lays+Claim+to+Oldest+Known+Fossils&rft.date=2011-08-21&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F08%2F22%2Fscience%2Fearth%2F22fossil.html%3F_r%3D1%26partner%3Drss%26emc%3Drss%26src%3Dig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AP-20151019-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AP-20151019_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AP-20151019_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorenstein2015" class="citation news cs1">Borenstein, Seth (19 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html">"Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Excite_(web_portal)" title="Excite (web portal)">Excite</a></i>. Yonkers, NY: <a href="/wiki/Mindspark_Interactive_Network" title="Mindspark Interactive Network">Mindspark Interactive Network</a>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151023200248/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Excite&rft.atitle=Hints+of+life+on+what+was+thought+to+be+desolate+early+Earth&rft.date=2015-10-19&rft.aulast=Borenstein&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapnews.excite.com%2Farticle%2F20151019%2Fus-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PNAS-20151014-pdf-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PNAS-20151014-pdf_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PNAS-20151014-pdf_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellBoehnikeHarrisonMao2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; et al. 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U.S.A</i>. <b>112</b> (47): 14518–21. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PNAS..11214518B">2015PNAS..11214518B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1517557112">10.1073/pnas.1517557112</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1091-6490">1091-6490</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4664351">4664351</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26483481">26483481</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151106021508/http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Potentially+biogenic+carbon+preserved+in+a+4.1+billion-year-old+zircon&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=47&rft.pages=14518-21&rft.date=2015-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4664351%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PNAS..11214518B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26483481&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1517557112&rft.issn=1091-6490&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rft.au=Boehnike%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Harrison%2C+T.+Mark&rft.au=Mao%2C+Wendy+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcontent%2Fearly%2F2015%2F10%2F14%2F1517557112.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span> Early edition, published online before print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestallDe_WitDannVan_Der_Gaast2001" class="citation journal cs1">Westall, Frances; et al. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Fossil+Collectors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.geolsoc.org.uk%2FGeoscientist%2FArchive%2FJune-2012%2FPrehistoric-fossil-collectors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190210044430/http://www.wondersandmarvels.com/2016/09/ancient-egyptians-collected-fossils.html">"Ancient Egyptians Collected Fossils"</a>. 5 September 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wondersandmarvels.com/2016/09/ancient-egyptians-collected-fossils.html">the original</a> on 10 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptians+Collected+Fossils&rft.date=2016-09-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wondersandmarvels.com%2F2016%2F09%2Fancient-egyptians-collected-fossils.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1931" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (1931) [350 <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">BCE</span></span>]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.3.iii.html">"Book <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">III</span></span> part 6"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></i>. Translated by E. W. Webster. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140218151153/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.3.iii.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2023</span> – via The Internet Classics Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+%3Cspan+class%3D%22smallcaps%22%3E%3Cspan+style%3D%22font-variant%3A+small-caps%3B+text-transform%3A+lowercase%3B%22%3EIII%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E+part+6&rft.btitle=Meteorology&rft.date=1931&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fmeteorology.3.iii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudwick1985" class="citation book cs1">Rudwick, M. J. S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Fossils%3A+Episodes+in+the+History+of+Palaeontology&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-226-73103-2&rft.aulast=Rudwick&rft.aufirst=M.+J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-NuYXr8BszwC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sharkteeth-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sharkteeth_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sharkteeth_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sharkteeth_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170730044544/http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/fossils/cartilage.htm">"Cartilaginous fish"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/fossils/cartilage.htm">the original</a> on 30 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cartilaginous+fish&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwydir.demon.co.uk%2Fjo%2Ffossils%2Fcartilage.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190102155131/http://gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/fossils/pliny.htm">"References to fossils by Pliny the Elder"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/fossils/pliny.htm">the original</a> on 2 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=References+to+fossils+by+Pliny+the+Elder&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwydir.demon.co.uk%2Fjo%2Ffossils%2Fpliny.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayor2013" class="citation book cs1">Mayor, Adrienne (24 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jb9dAQAAQBAJ&q=fossil+legends+of+the+first+americans"><i>Fossil Legends of the First Americans</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4931-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4931-4"><bdi>978-1-4008-4931-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317062708/https://books.google.com/books?id=jb9dAQAAQBAJ&q=fossil+legends+of+the+first+americans">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2019</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fossil+Legends+of+the+First+Americans&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013-10-24&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4931-4&rft.aulast=Mayor&rft.aufirst=Adrienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djb9dAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfossil%2Blegends%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bfirst%2Bamericans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-know-that-ancient-african-people-valued-fossils-and-rocks-110321">"How we know that ancient African people valued fossils and rocks"</a>. 29 January 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190210152607/http://theconversation.com/how-we-know-that-ancient-african-people-valued-fossils-and-rocks-110321">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+we+know+that+ancient+African+people+valued+fossils+and+rocks&rft.date=2019-01-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fhow-we-know-that-ancient-african-people-valued-fossils-and-rocks-110321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://culture.people.com.cn/BIG5/n/2013/0517/c22219-21521301.html">"4億年前"書法化石"展出黃庭堅曾刻下四行詩[圖]"</a> [400 million-year-old fossil appeared in exhibition with poem by Huang Tingjian]. <i><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily Net</a></i> (in Traditional Chinese). 17 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141515/http://culture.people.com.cn/BIG5/n/2013/0517/c22219-21521301.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=People%27s+Daily+Net&rft.atitle=4%E5%84%84%E5%B9%B4%E5%89%8D%22%E6%9B%B8%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3%22%E5%B1%95%E5%87%BA+%E9%BB%83%E5%BA%AD%E5%A0%85%E6%9B%BE%E5%88%BB%E4%B8%8B%E5%9B%9B%E8%A1%8C%E8%A9%A9%5B%E5%9C%96%5D&rft.date=2013-05-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fculture.people.com.cn%2FBIG5%2Fn%2F2013%2F0517%2Fc22219-21521301.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sivin, Nathan (1995). <i>Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections</i>. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. III, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nj-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nj_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nj_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Joseph. (1959). <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 603–618.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). <i>Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine</i>. Singapore: <a href="/wiki/Singapore_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Singapore University Press">Singapore University Press</a>. p. 15. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-69-259-7" title="Special:BookSources/9971-69-259-7">9971-69-259-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._6-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._6_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rafferty, John P. (2012). <i>Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks</i>. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 6. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615305445" title="Special:BookSources/9781615305445">9781615305445</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Desmond, Adrian. "The Discovery of Marine Transgressions and the Explanation of Fossils in Antiquity", <i>American Journal of Science</i>, 1975, Volume 275: 692–707.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rafferty_2012_pp_5–6-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_pp_5–6_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rafferty, John P. (2012). <i>Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks</i>. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, pp. 5–6. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615305445" title="Special:BookSources/9781615305445">9781615305445</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlistair_Cameron_Crombie1990" class="citation book cs1">Alistair Cameron Crombie (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zWrH7h9jNgUC&pg=PA108"><i>Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought</i></a>. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 108–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-907628-79-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-907628-79-8"><bdi>978-0-907628-79-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230317062732/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWrH7h9jNgUC&pg=PA108">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=8+Types+of+Imaginary+Creatures+%22Discovered%22+In+Fossils&rft.date=2015-05-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmentalfloss.com%2Farticle%2F64093%2F8-types-imaginary-creatures-discovered-fossils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-echinoderm-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-echinoderm_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depositsmag.com/2017/04/04/folklore-of-fossil-echinoderms/">"Folklore of Fossil Echinoderms"</a>. 4 April 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190217142211/https://depositsmag.com/2017/04/04/folklore-of-fossil-echinoderms/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Connective+Tissue+Research&rft.atitle=Identification+of+Proteinaceous+Material+in+the+Bone+of+the+Dinosaur+Iguanodon&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.pages=41-6&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2249126%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12952172&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03008200390152070&rft.aulast=Embery&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Milner%2C+AC&rft.au=Waddington%2C+RJ&rft.au=Hall%2C+RC&rft.au=Langley%2C+ML&rft.au=Milan%2C+AM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F10586201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SchweitzerOthers2014a-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SchweitzerOthers2014a_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite 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J.; Wilson, MA (1988). "Parasitism of Ordovician bryozoans and the origin of pseudoborings". <i>Palaeontology</i>. <b>31</b>: 939–949.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontology&rft.atitle=Parasitism+of+Ordovician+bryozoans+and+the+origin+of+pseudoborings&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=939-949&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=T.+J.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+MA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor,_PD._1990-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_PD._1990_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_PD._1990_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1990" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, P. D. (1990). 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"A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>343</b> (6169): 1242777. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Sci...343A.386G">2014Sci...343A.386G</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.455.3973">10.1.1.455.3973</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1242777">10.1126/science.1242777</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24324272">24324272</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52836398">52836398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=A+Habitable+Fluvio-Lacustrine+Environment+at+Yellowknife+Bay%2C+Gale+Crater%2C+Mars&rft.volume=343&rft.issue=6169&rft.pages=1242777&rft.date=2014-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52836398%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014Sci...343A.386G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.455.3973%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24324272&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1242777&rft.au=Grotzinger%2C+J.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayor2000" class="citation journal cs1">Mayor, A. 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London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091128064539/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/fossil-theft-one-of-our-dinosaurs-is-missing-1826931.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Fossil+theft%3A+One+of+our+dinosaurs+is+missing&rft.date=2009-11-25&rft.aulast=Milmo&rft.aufirst=Cahal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Ffossil-theft-one-of-our-dinosaurs-is-missing-1826931.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimons" class="citation web cs1">Simons, Lewis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227170051/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/fossil-wars.html">"Fossil Wars"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/fossil-wars.html">the original</a> on 27 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Fossil+Wars&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.nationalgeographic.com%2Fscience%2Fprehistoric-world%2Ffossil-wars.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis,_PaulClark,_TimDennis,_Carina2002" class="citation web cs1">Willis, Paul; Clark, Tim; Dennis, Carina (18 April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s532586.htm">"Fossil Trade"</a>. <i>Catalyst</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120524090915/http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s532586.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Times+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=Cretaceous+crimes+that+fuel+the+fossil+trade&rft.date=1999-11-05&rft.aulast=Farrar&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timeshighereducation.co.uk%2Fstory.asp%3FstoryCode%3D148688%26sectioncode%3D26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams" class="citation magazine cs1">Williams, Paige. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-black-market-for-dinosaurs">"The Black Market for Dinosaurs"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200922223219/https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-black-market-for-dinosaurs">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Black+Market+for+Dinosaurs&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Paige&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Ftech%2Fannals-of-technology%2Fthe-black-market-for-dinosaurs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_GeerDermitzakis2010" class="citation journal cs1">van der Geer, Alexandra; Dermitzakis, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130619041702/http://www.hellenjgeosci.geol.uoa.gr/45/van%20der%20Geer%20%26%20Dermitzakis.pdf">"Fossils in pharmacy: from "snake eggs" to "Saint's bones"; an overview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Journal_of_Geosciences" title="Hellenic Journal of Geosciences">Hellenic Journal of Geosciences</a></i>. <b>45</b>: 323–332. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hellenjgeosci.geol.uoa.gr/45/van%20der%20Geer%20&%20Dermitzakis.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hellenic+Journal+of+Geosciences&rft.atitle=Fossils+in+pharmacy%3A+from+%22snake+eggs%22+to+%22Saint%27s+bones%22%3B+an+overview&rft.volume=45&rft.pages=323-332&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=van+der+Geer&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft.au=Dermitzakis%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hellenjgeosci.geol.uoa.gr%2F45%2Fvan%2520der%2520Geer%2520%26%2520Dermitzakis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna19606626">"Chinese villagers ate dinosaur 'dragon bones'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. 5 July 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200122072720/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/19606626/ns/world_news-asia_pacific/t/chinese-villagers-ate-dinosaur-dragon-bones">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+villagers+ate+dinosaur+%27dragon+bones%27&rft.pub=MSNBC&rft.date=2007-07-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna19606626&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/grand-canyon-cliff-collapse-reveals-313-million-year-old-fossil-footprints/ar-BB18dTeR?ocid=spartan-ntp-feeds">"Grand Canyon cliff collapse reveals 313 million-year-old fossil footprints"</a> 21 August 2020, <i><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200304045107/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/hints-of-dna-discovered-in-a-dinosaur-fossil/">"Hints of fossil DNA discovered in dinosaur skull"</a> by Michael Greshko, 3 March 2020, <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyOjxjFHW-c">"Fossils for Kids | Learn all about how fossils are formed, the types of fossils and more!"</a> Video (2:23), 27 January 2020, <i>Clarendon Learning</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/in-in-class-10-biology/in-in-heredity-and-evolution/in-in-evolution-classification/v/fossils-their-formation-heredity-evolution-biology-khan-academy">"Fossil & their formation"</a> Video (9:55), 15 November 2019, <i><a href="/wiki/Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/how-are-fossils-formed.html">"How are dinosaur fossils formed?</a> by Lisa Hendry, <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum, London</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRuSmxJo_iA">"Fossils 101"</a> Video (4:27), 22 August 2019, <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/find-fossils-urban-geology?">"How to Spot the Fossils Hiding in Plain Sight"</a> by Jessica Leigh Hester, 23 February 2018, <i><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Obscura" title="Atlas Obscura">Atlas Obscura</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://judson.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/12/30/reflections-on-an-oyster/">"It's extremely hard to become a fossil"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090904085750/http://judson.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/12/30/reflections-on-an-oyster/">Archived</a> 4 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Olivia_Judson" title="Olivia Judson">Olivia Judson</a>, 30 December 2008, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://judson.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/03/04/bones-are-not-the-only-fossils/">"Bones Are Not the Only Fossils"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090315163045/http://judson.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/03/04/bones-are-not-the-only-fossils/">Archived</a> 15 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Olivia_Judson" title="Olivia Judson">Olivia Judson</a>, 4 March 2008, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Fossils" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Fossils">Fossils</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Fossils_and_absolute_dating" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Fossils and absolute dating">Fossils and absolute dating</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Fossil" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Fossil">Fossil</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fossil" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:fossil">fossil</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fossils" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Fossils">fossils</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547d3">Fossils</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fossilmuseum.net/">The Virtual Fossil Museum throughout Time and Evolution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paleoportal.org/">Paleoportal, geology and fossils of the United States</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090930070415/http://www.paleoportal.org/">Archived</a> 30 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120503234246/http://www.fossilrecord.net/">The Fossil Record, a complete listing of the families, orders, class and phyla found in the fossil record</a> (archived 3 May 2012)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnest_Ingersoll1920" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Ingersoll" title="Ernest Ingersoll">Ernest Ingersoll</a> (1920). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Fossils"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Fossils">"Fossils" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fossils&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rft.au=Ernest+Ingersoll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Fossil"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Fossil">"Fossil" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fossil&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFossil" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Skeletonization" title="Skeletonization">Skeletonization</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Human_growth_pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Human growth pattern">Stages of human development</a> </b><br />Fossilization </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold">None</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Death" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Death" title="Template:Death"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Death" title="Template talk:Death"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Death" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Death"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Death" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Death</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cell_death" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Cell death</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">Necrosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avascular_necrosis" title="Avascular necrosis">Avascular necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coagulative_necrosis" title="Coagulative necrosis">Coagulative necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquefactive_necrosis" title="Liquefactive necrosis">Liquefactive necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">Gangrenous necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caseous_necrosis" title="Caseous necrosis">Caseous necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_necrosis" title="Fat necrosis">Fat necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis" title="Fibrinoid necrosis">Fibrinoid necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe_necrosis" title="Temporal lobe necrosis">Temporal lobe necrosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activation-induced_cell_death" title="Activation-induced cell death">AICD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoikis" title="Anoikis">Anoikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autophagy" title="Autophagy">Autophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_apoptosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic apoptosis">Intrinsic apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necroptosis" title="Necroptosis">Necroptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraptosis" title="Paraptosis">Paraptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthanatos" title="Parthanatos">Parthanatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenoptosis" title="Phenoptosis">Phenoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoapoptosis" title="Pseudoapoptosis">Pseudoapoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroptosis" title="Pyroptosis">Pyroptosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">Autolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoschizis" title="Autoschizis">Autoschizis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschar" title="Eschar">Eschar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenic_cell_death" title="Immunogenic cell death">Immunogenic cell death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_cell_death" title="Ischemic cell death">Ischemic cell death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyknosis" title="Pyknosis">Pyknosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyorrhexis" title="Karyorrhexis">Karyorrhexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyolysis" title="Karyolysis">Karyolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitotic_catastrophe" title="Mitotic catastrophe">Mitotic catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_gene" title="Suicide gene">Suicide gene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accidental_death" title="Accidental death">Accidental death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">Brain death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brainstem_death" title="Brainstem death">Brainstem death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_death" title="Clinical death">Clinical death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_on_arrival" title="Dead on arrival">DOA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_death" title="Manner of death">Death by natural causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_rattle" title="Death rattle">Death rattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysthanasia" title="Dysthanasia">Dysthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-of-life_care" title="End-of-life care">End-of-life care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_sign" title="Lazarus sign">Lazarus sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_syndrome" title="Lazarus syndrome">Lazarus syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_death#Medical_declaration" title="Legal death">Medical declaration of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">Organ donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_illness" title="Terminal illness">Terminal illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_death" title="Manner of death">Unnatural death</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Death-related_lists" title="Category:Death-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">Causes of death by rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deaths_by_year" title="Lists of deaths by year">Notable deaths by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expressions_related_to_death" class="mw-redirect" title="List of expressions related to death">Expressions related to death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of natural disasters by death toll">Natural disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_people_by_cause_of_death" title="Lists of people by cause of death">People by cause of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_premature_obituaries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of premature obituaries">Premature obituaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventable_causes_of_death" title="Preventable causes of death">Preventable causes of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unusual_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of unusual deaths">Unusual deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ways_people_dishonor_the_dead" title="List of ways people dishonor the dead">List of ways people dishonor the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ways_people_honor_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ways people honor the dead">List of ways people honor the dead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mortality</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birthday_effect" title="Birthday effect">Birthday effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality" title="Excess mortality">Excess mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gompertz%E2%80%93Makeham_law_of_mortality" title="Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality">Gompertz–Makeham law of mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_death" title="Maternal death">Maternal death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_mortality_in_fiction" title="Maternal mortality in fiction">Maternal mortality in fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memento_mori" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micromort" title="Micromort">Micromort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Risk_adjusted_mortality_rate" title="Risk adjusted mortality rate">RAMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortality_salience" title="Mortality salience">Mortality salience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Perinatal mortality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">After death</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><b><a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">Body</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallor_mortis" title="Pallor mortis">Pallor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livor_mortis" title="Livor mortis">Livor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algor_mortis" title="Algor mortis">Algor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigor_mortis" title="Rigor mortis">Rigor mortis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putrefaction" title="Putrefaction">Putrefaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletonization" title="Skeletonization">Skeletonization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fossilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryopreservation" title="Cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropreservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropreservation">Neuropreservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embalming" title="Embalming">Embalming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maceration_(bone)" title="Maceration (bone)">Maceration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastination" title="Plastination">Plastination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosection" title="Prosection">Prosection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxidermy" title="Taxidermy">Taxidermy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Disposal_of_human_corpses" title="Disposal of human corpses">Disposal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">Burial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_burial" title="Natural burial">Natural burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_burial" title="Sky burial">Sky burial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismemberment" title="Dismemberment">Dismemberment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excarnation" title="Excarnation">Excarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promession" title="Promession">Promession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_hydrolysis_(body_disposal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline hydrolysis (body disposal)">Resomation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beating_heart_cadaver" title="Beating heart cadaver">Beating heart cadaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_donation" title="Body donation">Body donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadaveric_spasm" title="Cadaveric spasm">Cadaveric spasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffin_birth" title="Coffin birth">Coffin birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_erection" title="Death erection">Death erection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">Dissection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbeting" title="Gibbeting">Gibbeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmortem_caloricity" title="Postmortem caloricity">Postmortem caloricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_interval" title="Post-mortem interval">Post-mortem interval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><b>Other aspects</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">Carrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery" title="Cemetery">Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness_after_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Consciousness after death">Consciousness after death</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Death_customs" title="Category:Death customs">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crematorium" title="Crematorium">Crematorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration_of_graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Desecration of graves">Desecration of graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_oblivion" title="Eternal oblivion">Eternal oblivion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_examiner" title="Medical examiner">Examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grief" title="Grief">Grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_the_Internet" title="Death and the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_midwife" title="Death midwife">Midwife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourning" title="Mourning">Mourning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_mourning" title="Online mourning">Online mourning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obituary" title="Obituary">Obituary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palingenesis" title="Palingenesis">Palingenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underworld" title="Underworld">Underworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigil" title="Vigil">Vigil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paranormal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">Ghosts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-death_experience" title="Near-death experience">Near-death experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-death_studies" title="Near-death studies">Near-death studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-body_experience" title="Out-of-body experience">Out-of-body experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reincarnation_research" title="Template:Reincarnation research">Reincarnation research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_of_death" title="Cause of death">Cause of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">Civil death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coroner" title="Coroner">Coroner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death-qualified_jury" title="Death-qualified jury">Death-qualified jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_certificate" title="Death certificate">Death certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_death" title="Presumption of death">Declared death <i>in absentia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_row" title="Death row">Death row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying_declaration" title="Dying declaration">Dying declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquest" title="Inquest">Inquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_death" title="Legal death">Legal death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necropolitics" title="Necropolitics">Necropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_dying" title="Prohibition of dying">Prohibition of dying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_die" title="Right to die">Right to die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspicious_death" title="Suspicious death">Suspicious death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Death_tech&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Death tech (page does not exist)">Death tech</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_Tech" class="extiw" title="pt:Death Tech">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_director" title="Funeral director">Funeral director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortuary_science" title="Mortuary science">Mortuary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Necrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratinomy" title="Biostratinomy">Biostratinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanatology" title="Thanatology">Thanatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_burial_money" title="Chinese burial money">Chinese burial money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coins_for_the_dead" title="Coins for the dead">Coins for the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_tourism" title="Dark tourism">Dark tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Awards" title="Darwin Awards">Darwin Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_culture" title="Death and culture">Death and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_anniversary" title="Death anniversary">Death anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_anxiety" title="Death anxiety">Death anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_death_deities" title="List of death deities">Death deity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personifications_of_death" title="Personifications of death">Personification of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying-and-rising_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dying-and-rising deity">Dying-and-rising god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">Psychopomp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Death camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_from_laughter" title="Death from laughter">Death from laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_hoax" title="Death hoax">Death hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_knell" title="Death knell">Death knell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death march</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_messenger" title="Death messenger">Death messenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_notification" title="Death notification">Death notification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_panel" title="Death panel">Death panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_poem" title="Death poem">Death poem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opisthotonic_death_pose" title="Opisthotonic death pose">Death pose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death-positive_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Death-positive movement">Death-positive movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">Death squad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_threat" title="Death threat">Death threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_trajectory" title="Death trajectory">Death trajectory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignified_death" title="Dignified death">Dignified death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_of_the_Dead" title="Festival of the Dead">Festival of the Dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascination_with_death" title="Fascination with death">Fascination with death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_death" title="Hierarchy of death">Hierarchy of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_rites" title="Last rites">Last rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">Longevity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Death" title="Museum of Death">Museum of Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necronym" title="Necronym">Necronym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrophilia" title="Necrophilia">Necrophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrophobia" title="Necrophobia">Necrophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_death" title="Philosophy of death">Philosophy of death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">Suicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">Assisted suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thanabot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thanabot (page does not exist)">Thanabot</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief_bot" class="extiw" title="ca:Grief bot">ca</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanatosensitivity" title="Thanatosensitivity">Thanatosensitivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Death" title="Category:Death">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_death" title="Outline of death">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40614#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40614#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q40614#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4017999-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh89005492">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Fossiles"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11956262f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Fossiles"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11956262f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565096">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="fosilie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116775&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Fósiles"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526061">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000069373&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007534580105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10637263">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=33980">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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