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id="toc-Related_Sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleoecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleoecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Paleoecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleoecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleopalynology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleopalynology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Paleopalynology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleopalynology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview_of_the_paleobotanical_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_the_paleobotanical_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Overview of the paleobotanical record</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_the_paleobotanical_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_fossils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_fossils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Plant fossils</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plant_fossils-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plant fossils subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plant_fossils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preservation_of_plant_fossils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation_of_plant_fossils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Preservation of plant fossils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preservation_of_plant_fossils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil-taxa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil-taxa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Fossil-taxa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil-taxa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil_groups_of_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_groups_of_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fossil groups of plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_groups_of_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_paleobotanists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_paleobotanists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notable paleobotanists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_paleobotanists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleobotany</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="علم النباتات القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النباتات القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A0nica" title="Paleobotànica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Paleobotànica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A6obotanik" title="Palæobotanik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Palæobotanik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A4obotanik" title="Paläobotanik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Paläobotanik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotaanika" title="Paleobotaanika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Paleobotaanika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Παλαιοβοτανική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλαιοβοτανική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nica" title="Paleobotánica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Paleobotánica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotaniko" title="Paleobotaniko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Paleobotaniko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دیرین‌گیاه‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیرین‌گیاه‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A9obotanique" title="Paléobotanique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paléobotanique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nica" title="Paleobotánica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Paleobotánica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%8B%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="고식물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고식물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A7%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հնէաբուսաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնէաբուսաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="पुरावनस्पति विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पुरावनस्पति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotani" title="Paleobotani – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Paleobotani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanica" title="Paleobotanica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Paleobotanica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Палеоботаника – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Палеоботаника" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeobotanica" title="Palaeobotanica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Palaeobotanica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%90sn%C3%B6v%C3%A9nytan" title="Ősnövénytan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ősnövénytan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF" title="പാലിയോബോട്ടണി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പാലിയോബോട്ടണി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanie" title="Paleobotanie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Paleobotanie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古植物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古植物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A2nica" title="Paleobotânica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Paleobotânica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanic%C4%83" title="Paleobotanică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Paleobotanică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Палеоботаника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Палеоботаника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Paleobotany" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanika" title="Paleobotanika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Paleobotanika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Палеоботаника – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Палеоботаника" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotaniikka" title="Paleobotaniikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paleobotaniikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanik" title="Paleobotanik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Paleobotanik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தொல் தாவரவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தொல் தாவரவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="บรรพพฤกษศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บรรพพฤกษศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Палеоботаника – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Палеоботаника" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobotanik" title="Paleobotanik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Paleobotanik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Paleobotany" title="Special:EditPage/Paleobotany">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Paleobotany%22">"Paleobotany"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Paleobotany%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Paleobotany%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Paleobotany%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Paleobotany%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Paleobotany%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Betula_leopoldae_SRIC_SR02-22-19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Betula_leopoldae_SRIC_SR02-22-19.jpg/220px-Betula_leopoldae_SRIC_SR02-22-19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Betula_leopoldae_SRIC_SR02-22-19.jpg/330px-Betula_leopoldae_SRIC_SR02-22-19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Betula_leopoldae_SRIC_SR02-22-19.jpg/440px-Betula_leopoldae_SRIC_SR02-22-19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1454" data-file-height="1747" /></a><figcaption>A fossil <i><a href="/wiki/Betula_leopoldae" title="Betula leopoldae">Betula leopoldae</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>) leaf from the <a href="/wiki/Ypresian" title="Ypresian">Early Eocene</a> of Washington state, approximately 49 million years ago</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0 0em 0.2em; font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em;"><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/220px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/330px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/440px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Fossils</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">Microfossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_preparation" title="Fossil preparation">Fossil preparation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">Index fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of fossils">List of fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">Lagerstätte fossil beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">List of human evolution fossils</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Organs and processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of multicellularity">Multicells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">Mammalian auditory ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution of various taxa</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterfly evolution">Butterflies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Cetaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Mollusca" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of Mollusca">Molluscs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">Sea cows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapods#Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">History of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">Timeline of paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnology">Ichnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate_paleontology" title="Invertebrate paleontology">Invertebrate paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">Micropaleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_paleontology" title="Molecular paleontology">Molecular paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoxylology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoxylology">Palaeoxylology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">Paleobiology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleogenetics" title="Paleogenetics">Paleogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolimnology" title="Paleolimnology">Paleolimnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomycology" title="Paleomycology">Paleomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopedology" title="Paleopedology">Paleopedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleozoology" title="Paleozoology">Paleozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerochronology" title="Sclerochronology">Sclerochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Paleontology" title="Portal:Paleontology">Paleontology Portal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Category:Paleontology" title="Category:Paleontology">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paleontology" title="Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paleontology" title="Template talk:Paleontology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Paleobotany</b>, also spelled as <b>palaeobotany</b>, is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a> dealing with the recovery and identification of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> remains from <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> contexts, and their use for the biological reconstruction of past environments (<a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">paleogeography</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">evolutionary history of plants</a>, with a bearing upon the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of life">evolution of life</a> in general. A synonym is <b>paleophytology</b>. It is a component of <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">paleobiology</a>. The prefix <i>palaeo-</i> or <i>paleo-</i> means "ancient, old",<sup id="cite_ref-Stea04p460_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stea04p460-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> adjective <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">παλαιός</span></span>, <span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">palaios</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-LiddScot40_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LiddScot40-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paleobotany includes the study of <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">terrestrial plant</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a>, as well as the study of <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> marine <a href="/wiki/Photoautotrophism" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoautotrophism">photoautotrophs</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a>. A closely related field is <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a>, which is the study of fossilized and <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>. </p><p>Paleobotany is important in the reconstruction of ancient <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> systems and <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatology</a> respectively. It is fundamental to the study of green plant <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. Paleobotany is a historical science much like its adjacent, paleontology. Because of the understanding that paleobotany gives to archeologists, it has become important to the field of <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> as a whole. primarily for the use of <a href="/wiki/Phytolith" title="Phytolith">phytoliths</a> in <a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">relative dating</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">paleoethnobotany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study and discipline of paleobotany was seen as far back as the 19th century. Known as the “Father of Paleobotany”, French botanist <a href="/wiki/Adolphe-Th%C3%A9odore_Brongniart" title="Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart">Adolphe-Theodore Brongniart</a> was a sufficient figure in this emergence of Paleobotany, known for his work on the relationship between the living and extinct plant life. This work not only progressed paleobotany but also the understanding of the earth and its longevity in actuality and the <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> that existed over the earth’s timeline. Paleobotany also succeeded in the hands of German paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Friedrich,_Baron_von_Schlotheim" title="Ernst Friedrich, Baron von Schlotheim">Ernst Friedrich von Schlothiem</a>, and Czech nobleman and scholar, <a href="/wiki/Kaspar_Maria_von_Sternberg" title="Kaspar Maria von Sternberg">Kaspar Maria von Sternberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_Sciences">Related Sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Related Sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Paleoecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As paleobotany is the specification of fossilized <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant life</a> and the environment in which they thrived in, <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a> is the study of all once-living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> and the interactions held in the environments they once existed in, before becoming <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paleoecology is a similar study to that of <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, but paleoecology uses more <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological sciences</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rather than from an <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropological</a> standpoint as paleontologists do. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleopalynology">Paleopalynology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Paleopalynology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Paleopalynology" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleopalynology">Paleopalynology</a>, more commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a>, is the science and study of ancient palynomorphs: particles sized between 5 and 500 micrometers.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would be an inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> and any other micro-organic matter. Paleopalynology is simply paleobotany on a much smaller scale, the two in close association with each other. </p><p>Similar to paleobotany, we can tell a great deal of information about the environment and <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> at the time these <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a> existed prehistorically. These particles also help geologists identify and date the <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">rock strata</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a>. It is also used to find natural oils and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">gas</a> within these rock layers for <a href="/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum" title="Extraction of petroleum">extraction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides uncovering documentation of our past environmental conditions, palynology can also tell us about animal diets, historical standings of human <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergies</a>, and reveal evidence in crime cases.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_the_paleobotanical_record">Overview of the paleobotanical record</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Overview of the paleobotanical record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Macrofossil" title="Macrofossil">Macroscopic remains</a> of true <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a> are first found in the fossil record during the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> Period of the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> era. Some dispersed, fragmentary fossils of disputed affinity, primarily spores and <a href="/wiki/Cuticle" title="Cuticle">cuticles</a>, have been found in rocks from the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> Period in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, and are thought to derive from <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverwort</a>- or <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a>-grade fossil plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman2003_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman2003-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhynie_chert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Rhynie_chert.jpg/220px-Rhynie_chert.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Rhynie_chert.jpg/330px-Rhynie_chert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Rhynie_chert.jpg/440px-Rhynie_chert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>An unpolished hand sample of the Lower Devonian <a href="/wiki/Rhynie_Chert" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhynie Chert">Rhynie Chert</a> from Scotland</figcaption></figure> <p>An important early land plant fossil locality is the <a href="/wiki/Rhynie_chert" title="Rhynie chert">Rhynie chert</a>, found outside the village of <a href="/wiki/Rhynie,_Aberdeenshire" title="Rhynie, Aberdeenshire">Rhynie</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. The Rhynie chert is an Early <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> sinter (<a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot spring</a>) deposit composed primarily of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a>. It is exceptional due to its preservation of several different <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> of plants, from mosses and <a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">lycophytes</a> to more unusual, problematic forms. Many fossil animals, including <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a>, are also found in the Rhynie chert, and it offers a unique window into the history of early terrestrial life. </p><p>Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in the Late Devonian including <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">tree</a> trunks, <a href="/wiki/Frond" title="Frond">fronds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>. The earliest tree was once thought to be <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteris" title="Archaeopteris">Archaeopteris</a></i>, which bears simple, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a> spirally arranged on branches atop a <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifer</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(botany)" title="Trunk (botany)">trunk</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Meyer1999_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meyer1999-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it is now known to be the recently discovered <i><a href="/wiki/Wattieza" title="Wattieza">Wattieza</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Devonian_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devonian-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Widespread <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> swamp deposits across North America and Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> Period contain a wealth of fossils containing <a href="/wiki/Lepidodendron" title="Lepidodendron">arborescent lycopods</a> up to 30 m tall, abundant <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">seed plants</a>, such as conifers and <a href="/wiki/Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">seed ferns</a>, and countless smaller, <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbaceous plants</a>. </p><p>Angiosperms (<a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>) evolved during the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appeared during the Early <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, approximately 130 million years ago. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_fossils">Plant fossils</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Plant fossils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this section by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A plant fossil is any preserved part of a plant that has long since died. Such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> (before about <a href="/wiki/35th_century_BC" title="35th century BC">3500 BC</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preservation_of_plant_fossils">Preservation of plant fossils</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Preservation of plant fossils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gingkoites_huttoni_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Gingkoites_huttoni_1.jpg/220px-Gingkoites_huttoni_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Gingkoites_huttoni_1.jpg/330px-Gingkoites_huttoni_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Gingkoites_huttoni_1.jpg/440px-Gingkoites_huttoni_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="2103" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgoites" title="Ginkgoites">Ginkgoites</a> huttonii</i>, Middle Jurassic, Yorkshire, UK. Leaves preserved as compressions. Specimen in Munich Palaeontological Museum, Germany.</figcaption></figure> <p>Plant fossils can be preserved in a variety of ways, each of which can give different types of information about the original parent plant. These modes of preservation may be summarised in a paleobotanical context as follows. </p> <ol><li><b>Adpressions (compressions – impressions).</b> These are the most commonly found type of plant fossil. They provide good morphological detail, especially of dorsiventral (flattened) plant parts such as leaves. If the cuticle is preserved, they can also yield fine anatomical detail of the epidermis. Little other detail of cellular anatomy is normally preserved. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhynia_stem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/220px-Rhynia_stem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/330px-Rhynia_stem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/440px-Rhynia_stem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Rhynia" title="Rhynia">Rhynia</a></i>, Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert, Scotland, UK. Transverse section through a stem preserved as a silica petrifaction, showing preservation of cellular structure.</figcaption></figure></li> <li><b>Petrifactions (permineralisations or anatomically preserved fossils).</b> These provide fine detail of the cell anatomy of the plant tissue. Morphological detail can also be determined by serial sectioning, but this is both time consuming and difficult.</li> <li><b>Moulds and casts.</b> These only tend to preserve the more robust plant parts such as seeds or woody stems. They can provide information about the three-dimensional form of the plant, and in the case of casts of tree stumps can provide evidence of the density of the original vegetation. However, they rarely preserve any fine morphological detail or cell anatomy. A subset of such fossils are <b>pith casts</b>, where the centre of a stem is either hollow or has delicate pith. After death, sediment enters and forms a cast of the central cavity of the stem. The best known examples of pith casts are in the Carboniferous Sphenophyta (<i>Calamites</i>) and cordaites (<i>Artisia</i>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossotheca_nodule.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Crossotheca_nodule.JPG/220px-Crossotheca_nodule.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Crossotheca_nodule.JPG/330px-Crossotheca_nodule.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Crossotheca_nodule.JPG/440px-Crossotheca_nodule.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="634" /></a><figcaption> <i><a href="/wiki/Crossotheca" title="Crossotheca">Crossotheca</a> hughesiana</i> Kidston, Middle Pennsylvanian, Coseley, near Dudley, UK. A lyginopteridalean pollen organ preserved as an authigenic mineralization (mineralized <i>in situ</i>). Specimen in Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, UK.</figcaption></figure></li> <li><b>Authigenic mineralisations.</b> These can provide very fine, three-dimensional morphological detail, and have proved especially important in the study of reproductive structures that can be severely distorted in adpressions. However, as they are formed in mineral nodules, such fossils can rarely be of large size.</li> <li><b>Fusain</b>. Fire normally destroys plant tissue but sometimes charcoalified remains can preserve fine morphological detail that is lost in other modes of preservation; some of the best evidence of early flowers has been preserved in fusain. Fusain fossils are delicate and often small, but because of their buoyancy can often drift for long distances and can thus provide evidence of vegetation away from areas of sedimentation.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil-taxa">Fossil-taxa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fossil-taxa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant fossils almost always represent disarticulated parts of plants; even small herbaceous plants are rarely preserved whole. The few examples of plant fossils that appear to be the remains of whole plants are in fact incomplete as the internal cellular tissue and fine micromorphological detail is normally lost during fossilization. Plant remains can be preserved in a variety of ways, each revealing different features of the original parent plant.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of this, paleobotanists usually assign different taxonomic names to different parts of the plant in different modes of preservation. For instance, in the subarborescent Palaeozoic <a href="/wiki/Calamites" title="Calamites">sphenophytes</a>, an impression of a leaf might be assigned to the genus <i>Annularia</i>, a compression of a cone assigned to <i>Palaeostachya</i>, and the stem assigned to either <i>Calamites</i> or <i>Arthroxylon</i> depending on whether it is preserved as a cast or a petrifaction. All of these fossils may have originated from the same parent plant but they are each given their own taxonomic name. This approach to naming plant fossils originated with the work of <a href="/wiki/Adolphe-Th%C3%A9odore_Brongniart" title="Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart">Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For many years this approach to naming plant fossils was accepted by paleobotanists but not formalised within the <i>International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, <a href="#CITEREFThomas1935">Thomas (1935)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFJongmansHalleGothan1935">Jongmans, Halle & Gothan (1935)</a> proposed a set of formal provisions, the essence of which was introduced into the 1952 <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Botanical_Nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="International Code of Botanical Nomenclature">International Code of Botanical Nomenclature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early provisions allowed fossils representing particular parts of plants in a particular state of preservation to be placed in organ-genera. In addition, a small subset of organ-genera, to be known as form-genera, were recognised based on the artificial taxa introduced by Brongniart mainly for foliage fossils. The concepts and regulations surrounding organ- and form-genera were modified within successive codes of nomenclature, reflecting a failure of the paleobotanical community to agree on how this aspect of plant taxonomic nomenclature should work (a history reviewed by Cleal and Thomas in 2020<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). The use of organ- and fossil-genera was abandoned with the <i>St Louis Code</i>, and replaced by "morphotaxa".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The situation in the <i>Vienna Code</i> of 2005 was that any plant taxon whose type is a fossil, except <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, can be described as a <b>morphotaxon</b>, a particular part of a plant preserved in a particular way.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the name is always fixed to the type specimen, the circumscription (i.e. range of specimens that may be included within the taxon) is defined by the taxonomist who uses the name. Such a change in circumscription could result in an expansion of the range of plant parts or preservation states that could be incorporated within the taxon. For instance, a fossil-genus originally based on compressions of ovules could be used to include the multi-ovulate cupules within which the ovules were originally borne. A complication can arise if, in this case, there was an already named fossil-genus for these cupules. If paleobotanists were confident that the type of the ovule fossil-genus and of the cupule fossil-genus could be included in the same genus, then the two names would compete as to being the correct one for the newly emended genus. In general, there would be competing priority whenever plant parts that had been given different names were discovered to belong to the same species. It appeared that morphotaxa offered no real advantage to paleobotanists over normal fossil-taxa and the concept was abandoned with the 2011 botanical congress and the 2012 <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fossil_groups_of_plants">Fossil groups of plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fossil groups of plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lycopod_axis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lycopod_axis.jpg/250px-Lycopod_axis.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lycopod_axis.jpg/375px-Lycopod_axis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lycopod_axis.jpg/500px-Lycopod_axis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4038" data-file-height="5591" /></a><figcaption>Lycopod axis (branch) from the Middle Devonian of <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StigmariaOhioPennsylvanian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/StigmariaOhioPennsylvanian.jpg/250px-StigmariaOhioPennsylvanian.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/StigmariaOhioPennsylvanian.jpg/375px-StigmariaOhioPennsylvanian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/StigmariaOhioPennsylvanian.jpg/500px-StigmariaOhioPennsylvanian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="942" /></a><figcaption><i>Stigmaria</i>, a common fossil tree root. Upper <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> of northeastern <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LepidodendronOhio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LepidodendronOhio.jpg/250px-LepidodendronOhio.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LepidodendronOhio.jpg/375px-LepidodendronOhio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LepidodendronOhio.jpg/500px-LepidodendronOhio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1821" data-file-height="1251" /></a><figcaption>External mold of <i><a href="/wiki/Lepidodendron" title="Lepidodendron">Lepidodendron</a></i> from the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Carboniferous" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Carboniferous">Upper Carboniferous</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></div> <p>Some plants have remained almost unchanged throughout earth's geological time scale. <a href="/wiki/Horsetail" class="mw-redirect" title="Horsetail">Horsetails</a> had evolved by the Late Devonian,<sup id="cite_ref-Elgorriaga_2018_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elgorriaga_2018-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> early ferns had evolved by the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippian age">Mississippian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">conifers</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a>. Some plants of prehistory are the same ones around today and are thus <a href="/wiki/Living_fossil" title="Living fossil">living fossils</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo biloba</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sciadopitys" title="Sciadopitys">Sciadopitys verticillata</a></i>. Other plants have changed radically, or became extinct. </p><p>Examples of prehistoric plants are: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria_mirabilis" title="Araucaria mirabilis">Araucaria mirabilis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteris" title="Archaeopteris">Archaeopteris</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Calamites" title="Calamites">Calamites</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dillhoffia" title="Dillhoffia">Dillhoffia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glossopteris" title="Glossopteris">Glossopteris</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hymenaea_protera" title="Hymenaea protera">Hymenaea protera</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nelumbo_aureavallis" title="Nelumbo aureavallis">Nelumbo aureavallis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pachypteris" title="Pachypteris">Pachypteris</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palaeoraphe" title="Palaeoraphe">Palaeoraphe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peltandra_primaeva" title="Peltandra primaeva">Peltandra primaeva</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Protosalvinia" title="Protosalvinia">Protosalvinia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trochodendron_nastae" title="Trochodendron nastae">Trochodendron nastae</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_paleobotanists">Notable paleobotanists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notable paleobotanists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Paleobotany" title="Special:EditPage/Paleobotany">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Berry" title="Edward W. Berry">Edward W. Berry</a> (1875–1945), <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">phytogeography</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_Chaloner" title="William Gilbert Chaloner">William Gilbert Chaloner</a> (1928–2016)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabel_Cookson" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabel Cookson">Isabel Cookson</a> (1893–1973), early vascular plants, <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">palynology</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Bryan_Davis" title="Margaret Bryan Davis">Margaret Bryan Davis</a>, (1931-), American paleoecologist and palynologist<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianne_Edwards" title="Dianne Edwards">Dianne Edwards</a> (1942–), colonization of land by early terrestrial floras<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_von_Ettingshausen" title="Constantin von Ettingshausen">Constantin von Ettingshausen</a> (1826–1897), Tertiary floras</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Maxwell_Harris" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Maxwell Harris">Thomas Maxwell Harris</a> (1903–1983), Mesozoic plants of Jameson Land (Greenland) and Yorkshire.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kidston" title="Robert Kidston">Robert Kidston</a> (1852–1924), early land plants, Devonian and Carboniferous floras, and their use in stratigraphy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ana_Mar%C3%ADa_Ragonese" title="Ana María Ragonese">Ana María Ragonese</a> (1928–1999), fossil wood morphology, spermatophytes<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_I._Sanborn" title="Ethel I. Sanborn">Ethel Ida Sanborn</a> (1883–1952), extinct flora of Oregon and the Western United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birbal_Sahni" title="Birbal Sahni">Birbal Sahni</a> (1891–1949), Revision of Indian Gondwana Plants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkinfield_Henry_Scott" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunkinfield Henry Scott">Dunkinfield Henry Scott</a> (1854–1934), analysis of the structures of fossil plants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaspar_Maria_von_Sternberg" title="Kaspar Maria von Sternberg">Kaspar Maria von Sternberg</a> (1761–1838), the "father of paleobotany"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Unger" title="Franz Unger">Franz Unger</a> (1800–1870), pioneer in plant physiology, phytotomy and soil science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_A._Wolfe" title="Jack A. Wolfe">Jack A. Wolfe</a> (1936–2005), Tertiary paleoclimate of western North America</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilbert_Arthur_Leisman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilbert Arthur Leisman (page does not exist)">Gilbert Arthur Leisman</a> (1924–1996), known for work on Carboniferous lycophytes of central North America.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptospores" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptospores">Cryptospores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleophycology" title="Paleophycology">Paleophycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric life">Prehistoric life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">Timeline of plant evolution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Stea04p460-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stea04p460_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStearn2004" class="citation book cs1">Stearn, W.T. (2004). <i>Botanical Latin</i> (4th (p/b) ed.). Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. p. 460. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7153-1643-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7153-1643-6"><bdi>978-0-7153-1643-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Botanical+Latin&rft.place=Portland%2C+Oregon&rft.pages=460&rft.edition=4th+%28p%2Fb%29&rft.pub=Timber+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7153-1643-6&rft.aulast=Stearn&rft.aufirst=W.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiddScot40-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LiddScot40_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott1940" class="citation book cs1">Liddell, Henry George & Scott, Robert (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpalaio%2Fs">"παλαιός"</a>. <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8C%CF%82&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Dpalaio%252Fs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Cabanes, D. (2020). Phytolith Analysis in Paleoecology and Archaeology. In Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology (pp. 255-288) doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-42622-4_11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/brongniart-adolphe-theodore-0">"Brongniart, Adolphe-Théodore"</a>. <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i>. Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Brongniart%2C+Adolphe-Th%C3%A9odore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fscience%2Fdictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases%2Fbrongniart-adolphe-theodore-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClealLazarusTownsend2005" class="citation book cs1">Cleal, Christopher J.; Lazarus, Maureen; Townsend, Annette (2005). "Illustrations and illustrators during the 'Golden Age' of palaeobotany: 1800–1840". In Bowden, A. J.; Burek, C. V.; Wilding, R. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.plantfossilnames.org&rft.atitle=Dianne+Edwards+%7C+Plant+Fossil+Names&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.plantfossilnames.org%2Fauthor%2F49%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaloner1985" class="citation journal cs1">Chaloner, William Gilbert (1985-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1985.0009">"Thomas Maxwell Harris, 8 January 1903 - 1 May 1983"</a>. <i>Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</i>. <b>31</b>: 228–260. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1985.0009">10.1098/rsbm.1985.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-4606">0080-4606</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Thomas+Maxwell+Harris%2C+8+January+1903+-+1+May+1983&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=228-260&rft.date=1985-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1985.0009&rft.issn=0080-4606&rft.aulast=Chaloner&rft.aufirst=William+Gilbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1985.0009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacigalupoGuaglianone1999" class="citation journal cs1">Bacigalupo, Nélida M.; Guaglianone, E. Rosa (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23223919">"Ana María Ragonese (1928-1999)"</a>. <i>Darwiniana</i>. <b>37</b> (3/4): 351. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-6793">0011-6793</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23223919">23223919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Darwiniana&rft.atitle=Ana+Mar%C3%ADa+Ragonese+%281928-1999%29&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=351&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23223919%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0011-6793&rft.aulast=Bacigalupo&rft.aufirst=N%C3%A9lida+M.&rft.au=Guaglianone%2C+E.+Rosa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23223919&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrongniart1822" class="citation cs2">Brongniart, A. (1822), "Sur la classification et la distribution des végétaux fossiles en général, et sur ceux des terrains de sediment supérieur en particulier", <i>Mém. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat.</i>, <b>8</b>: 203–240, 297–348</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=M%C3%A9m.+Mus.+Natl.+Hist.+Nat.&rft.atitle=Sur+la+classification+et+la+distribution+des+v%C3%A9g%C3%A9taux+fossiles+en+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral%2C+et+sur+ceux+des+terrains+de+sediment+sup%C3%A9rieur+en+particulier&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=203-240%2C+297-348&rft.date=1822&rft.aulast=Brongniart&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClealThomas2010" class="citation cs2">Cleal, C.J. & Thomas, B.A. (2010), "Botanical nomenclature and plant fossils", <i>Taxon</i>, <b>59</b>: 261–268, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ftax.591024">10.1002/tax.591024</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Botanical+nomenclature+and+plant+fossils&rft.volume=59&rft.pages=261-268&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Ftax.591024&rft.aulast=Cleal&rft.aufirst=C.J.&rft.au=Thomas%2C+B.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreuterMcNeillBarrieBurdet2000" class="citation cs2">Greuter, W.; McNeill, J.; Barrie, F R.; Burdet, H.M.; Demoulin, V.; Filgueiras, T.S.; Nicolson, D.H.; Silva, P.C.; Skog, J.E.; Turland, N.J. & Hawksworth, D.L. (2000), <i>International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Saint Louis Code)</i>, Königstein.: Koeltz Scientific Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-904144-22-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-904144-22-3"><bdi>978-3-904144-22-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Code+of+Botanical+Nomenclature+%28Saint+Louis+Code%29&rft.place=K%C3%B6nigstein.&rft.pub=Koeltz+Scientific+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-904144-22-3&rft.aulast=Greuter&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=McNeill%2C+J.&rft.au=Barrie%2C+F+R.&rft.au=Burdet%2C+H.M.&rft.au=Demoulin%2C+V.&rft.au=Filgueiras%2C+T.S.&rft.au=Nicolson%2C+D.H.&rft.au=Silva%2C+P.C.&rft.au=Skog%2C+J.E.&rft.au=Turland%2C+N.J.&rft.au=Hawksworth%2C+D.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJongmansHalleGothan1935" class="citation cs2">Jongmans, W.J.; Halle, T.G. & Gothan, W. (1935), <i>Proposed additions to the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature adopted by the fifth International Botanical Congress Cambridge1930</i>, Heerlen, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/700752855">700752855</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proposed+additions+to+the+International+Rules+of+Botanical+Nomenclature+adopted+by+the+fifth+International+Botanical+Congress+Cambridge1930&rft.pub=Heerlen&rft.date=1935&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F700752855&rft.aulast=Jongmans&rft.aufirst=W.J.&rft.au=Halle%2C+T.G.&rft.au=Gothan%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanjouwBaehniMerrillRickett1952" class="citation cs2">Lanjouw, J.; Baehni, C.; Merrill, E.D.; Rickett, H.W.; Robyns, W.; Sprague, T.A. & Stafleu, F.A. (1952), <i>International Code of Botanical Nomenclature: Adopted by the Seventh International Botanical Congress; Stockholm, July 1950</i>, Regnum Vegetabile 3, Utrecht: International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy of the International Association for Plant Taxonomy, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/220069027">220069027</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Code+of+Botanical+Nomenclature%3A+Adopted+by+the+Seventh+International+Botanical+Congress%3B+Stockholm%2C+July+1950&rft.place=Utrecht&rft.series=Regnum+Vegetabile+3&rft.pub=International+Bureau+for+Plant+Taxonomy+of+the+International+Association+for+Plant+Taxonomy&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F220069027&rft.aulast=Lanjouw&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Baehni%2C+C.&rft.au=Merrill%2C+E.D.&rft.au=Rickett%2C+H.W.&rft.au=Robyns%2C+W.&rft.au=Sprague%2C+T.A.&rft.au=Stafleu%2C+F.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill2006" class="citation cs2">McNeill, J.; et al., eds. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121006231936/http://ibot.sav.sk/icbn/main.htm"><i>International code of botanical nomenclature (Vienna Code) adopted by the seventeenth International Botanical Congress, Vienna, Austria, July 2005</i></a> (electronic ed.), Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ibot.sav.sk/icbn/main.htm">the original</a> on 6 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-02-20</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+code+of+botanical+nomenclature+%28Vienna+Code%29+adopted+by+the+seventeenth+International+Botanical+Congress%2C+Vienna%2C+Austria%2C+July+2005&rft.place=Vienna&rft.edition=electronic&rft.pub=International+Association+for+Plant+Taxonomy&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fibot.sav.sk%2Ficbn%2Fmain.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer-BerthaudSchecklerWendt1999" class="citation cs2">Meyer-Berthaud, Brigitte; Scheckler, S.E. & Wendt, J. (1999), "<i>Archaeopteris</i> is the Earliest Modern Tree", <i>Nature</i>, <b>398</b> (6729): 700–701, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.398..700M">1999Natur.398..700M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F19516">10.1038/19516</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4419663">4419663</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Archaeopteris+is+the+Earliest+Modern+Tree&rft.volume=398&rft.issue=6729&rft.pages=700-701&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4419663%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F19516&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Natur.398..700M&rft.aulast=Meyer-Berthaud&rft.aufirst=Brigitte&rft.au=Scheckler%2C+S.E.&rft.au=Wendt%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1935" class="citation cs2">Thomas, H.H. (1935), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.bsbi.org.uk/Journal_of_Botany_1935.pdf">"Proposed additions to the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature suggested by British palæobotanists"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Journal of Botany</i>, <b>73</b>: 111</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Proposed+additions+to+the+International+Rules+of+Botanical+Nomenclature+suggested+by+British+pal%C3%A6obotanists&rft.volume=73&rft.pages=111&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=H.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.bsbi.org.uk%2FJournal_of_Botany_1935.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleobotany" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wilson N. Stewart and Gar W. Rothwell. 2010. <i>Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants</i>, Second edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38294-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38294-6">978-0-521-38294-6</a>.</li> <li>Thomas N. Taylor, Edith L. Taylor, and Michael Krings. 2008. <i>Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants</i>, 2nd edition. Academic Press (an imprint of Elsevier): Burlington, MA; New York, NY; San Diego, CA, USA, London, UK. 1252 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373972-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373972-8">978-0-12-373972-8</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleobotany&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="http://www.dartmouth.edu/~daghlian/paleo/">Botanical Society of America – Paleobotanical Section</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191021125043/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~daghlian/paleo/">Archived</a> 2019-10-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051025141647/http://www.uni-muenster.de/GeoPalaeontologie/Palaeo/Palbot/ebot.html">Paleobotany Research Group, University Münster, Germany</a> (archived 25 October 2005)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/">The Biota of Early Terrestrial Ecosystems: The Rhynie Chert, University of Aberdeen, UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070312151629/http://paleobotany.bio.ku.edu/BiblioOfPaleo.htm">Bibliography of Paleobotany</a> (archived 12 March 2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.univie.ac.at/sternberg/">The Sternberg Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/paleonet/">PaleoNet – listservs and links related to paleontology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ww0803.htm">Jurassic Park plants</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071021022459/http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ww0803.htm">Archived</a> 2007-10-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Plants that lived when dinosaurs roamed the earth.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ifpni.org/">The International Fossil Plant Names Index (IFPNI): Global registry of scientific names of fossil organisms</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.equisetites.de/palbot1.html">Links for Palaeobotanists</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Botany" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Botany" title="Template:Botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Botany" title="Template talk:Botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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