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Emphasis is placed on the essential fatty acids, and particularly the physiologically important long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) of 20 and 22 carbons. We are unaware of any studies of determinants of infant fatty acid status in populations with a cultural dietary pattern with low amounts of linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) and a-linolenic acid (ALA,18:3n-3). Many reports suggest that there may be adverse health effects related to the increased proportion of LA in relation to ALA, which have occurred worldwide due to the increased availability of vegetable oils high in LA. The issue of dietary n-6 to n-3 balance may apply to infant fatty acid status both during fetal and post-natal life; however, this review focuses on the n-3 and n-6 LCPUFA, in particular, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6), which are the predominant n-3 and n-6 LCPUFA found in cell membranes. The evidence that these fatty acids are preferentially transferred from maternal to fetal circulation across the placenta, and the sources and mechanisms for this transfer, are reviewed. We also address the sources of DHA and AA for the newborn including human milk DHA and AA and the factors that influence maternal DHA status and consequently the amount of DHA available for transfer to the fetus and infant via human milk.","publication_date":"2011,,","publication_name":"Maternal \u0026 Child Nutrition","grobid_abstract_attachment_id":"41634185"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Maternal fatty acid status during pregnancy and lactation and relation to newborn and infant status","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [33562962]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "full_page_mobile_sutd_modal"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loginModal = {}; window.loginModal.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon'; 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if (!viewCountBody) { throw new Error('Failed to find work views element'); } viewCountBody.textContent = `${commaizedViewCount} views`; } catch (error) { // Remove the whole views element if there was some issue parsing. document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count')?.parentNode?.remove(); throw new Error(`Failed to parse view count: ${viewCount}`, error); } }; // If the DOM is still loading, wait for it to be ready before updating the view count. if (document.readyState === "loading") { document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => { updateViewCount(viewCount); }); // Otherwise, just update it immediately. } else { updateViewCount(viewCount); } })();</script></div><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">The present review of determinants of infant fatty acid status was undertaken as part of a conference on 'Fatty acid status in early life in low-income countries: determinants and consequences'. Emphasis is placed on the essential fatty acids, and particularly the physiologically important long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) of 20 and 22 carbons. We are unaware of any studies of determinants of infant fatty acid status in populations with a cultural dietary pattern with low amounts of linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) and a-linolenic acid (ALA,18:3n-3). Many reports suggest that there may be adverse health effects related to the increased proportion of LA in relation to ALA, which have occurred worldwide due to the increased availability of vegetable oils high in LA. The issue of dietary n-6 to n-3 balance may apply to infant fatty acid status both during fetal and post-natal life; however, this review focuses on the n-3 and n-6 LCPUFA, in particular, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6), which are the predominant n-3 and n-6 LCPUFA found in cell membranes. The evidence that these fatty acids are preferentially transferred from maternal to fetal circulation across the placenta, and the sources and mechanisms for this transfer, are reviewed. We also address the sources of DHA and AA for the newborn including human milk DHA and AA and the factors that influence maternal DHA status and consequently the amount of DHA available for transfer to the fetus and infant via human milk.</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":41634185,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/20931615/Maternal_fatty_acid_status_during_pregnancy_and_lactation_and_relation_to_newborn_and_infant_status"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":41634185,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/20931615/Maternal_fatty_acid_status_during_pregnancy_and_lactation_and_relation_to_newborn_and_infant_status"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger-container"><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger ds-signup-banner-trigger-control"></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner ds-signup-banner-control"><div id="ds-signup-banner-close-button"><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--inverse"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">close</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-ctas"><img src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-capital-white.svg" /><h4 class="ds2-5-heading-serif-sm">Sign up for access to the world's latest research</h4><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"signup-banner"}">Sign up for free<span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">arrow_forward</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-divider"></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons"><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Get notified about relevant papers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Save papers to use in your research</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Join the discussion with peers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Track your impact</span></div></div></div><script>(() => { // Set up signup banner show/hide behavior: // 1. 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The objectives of the present study were to investigate the essential fatty acid (EFA) and LCPUFA status at birth of preterm and term Brazilian infants and their mothers, from a population of characteristically low intake of n-3 LCPUFA, and to evaluate the association between fetal and maternal status, by the determination of the fatty acid composition of the erythrocyte membrane. Blood samples from umbilical cord of preterm (26-36 weeks of gestation; n ¼ 30) and term (37-42 weeks of gestation; n ¼ 30) infants and the corresponding maternal venous blood were collected at delivery. The LCPUFA composition of the erythrocyte membrane and DHA status were similar for mothers of preterm and term infants. Neonatal AA was higher (Po0:01) whereas its precursor 18:2n-6 was lower (Po0:01) than maternal levels, as expected. There was no difference in LCPUFA erythrocyte composition between preterm and term infants, except for DHA. Term infants presented a worse DHA status than preterm infants (Po0:01) and than their mothers (Po0:01) at delivery. There was a negative correlation of neonatal DHA with maternal AA and a positive correlation between neonatal AA and maternal AA and 18:2n-6 only at term. These results suggest that the persistent low DHA maternal status, together with the comparatively better AA and 18:2n-6 status, might have affected maternal-fetal transfer of DHA when gestation was completed up to term, and possibly contributed to the worse DHA status of term neonates compared with the preterm neonates. r</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"n-6 and n-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the erythrocyte membrane of Brazilian preterm and term neonates and their mothers at delivery","attachmentId":44936579,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/13799702/n_6_and_n_3_Long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_the_erythrocyte_membrane_of_Brazilian_preterm_and_term_neonates_and_their_mothers_at_delivery","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/13799702/n_6_and_n_3_Long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_the_erythrocyte_membrane_of_Brazilian_preterm_and_term_neonates_and_their_mothers_at_delivery"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="8907167" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/8907167/Article_in_press_uncorrected_proof_Recommendations_and_guidelines_for_perinatal_practice_The_roles_of_long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_pregnancy_lactation_and_infancy_review_of_current_knowledge_and_consensus_recommendations">Article in press -uncorrected proof Recommendations and guidelines for perinatal practice The roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy, lactation and infancy: review of current knowledge and consensus recommendations</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="19610219" href="https://pgia.academia.edu/DilmiEdiriweera">Dilmi Ediriweera</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This paper reviews current knowledge on the role of the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6), in maternal and term infant nutrition as well as infant development. Consensus recommendations and practice guidelines for health-care providers supported by the World Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Early Nutrition Academy, and the Child Health Foundation are provided. The fetus and neonate should receive LC-PUFA in amounts sufficient to support optimal visual and cognitive development. Moreover, the consumption of oils rich in n-3 LC-PUFA during pregnancy reduces the risk for early premature birth. Pregnant and lactating women should aim to achieve an average daily intake of at least 200 mg DHA. For healthy term infants, we recommend and fully endorse breastfeeding, which supplies preformed LC-PUFA, as the preferred method of feeding. When breastfeeding is not possible, we recommend use of an infant formula providing DHA at levels between 0.2 and 0.5 weight percent of total fat, and with the minimum amount of AA equivalent to the contents of DHA. Dietary LC-PUFA supply should continue after the first six months of life, but currently there is not sufficient information for quantitative recommendations.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Article in press -uncorrected proof Recommendations and guidelines for perinatal practice The roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy, lactation and infancy: review of current knowledge and consensus recommendations","attachmentId":35234768,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/8907167/Article_in_press_uncorrected_proof_Recommendations_and_guidelines_for_perinatal_practice_The_roles_of_long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_pregnancy_lactation_and_infancy_review_of_current_knowledge_and_consensus_recommendations","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/8907167/Article_in_press_uncorrected_proof_Recommendations_and_guidelines_for_perinatal_practice_The_roles_of_long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_pregnancy_lactation_and_infancy_review_of_current_knowledge_and_consensus_recommendations"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="18037001" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/18037001/Long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_maternal_and_infant_nutrition">Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in maternal and infant nutrition</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="37973778" href="https://independent.academia.edu/MijnaHaddersalgra">Mijna Hadders-algra</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 2006</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Homo sapiens has evolved on a diet rich in alpha-linolenic acid and long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) . We have, however, gradually changed our diet from about 10,000 years ago and accelerated this change from about 100 to 200 years ago. The many dietary changes, including lower intake of o3-fatty acids, are related to 'typically Western' diseases. After a brief introduction in essential fatty acids (EFA), LCP and their functions, this contribution discusses our present low status of notably LCPo3 in the context of our rapidly changing diet within an evolutionary short time frame. It then focuses on the consequences in pregnancy, lactation and neonatal nutrition, as illustrated by some recent data from our group. We discuss the concept of a 'relative' EFA/LCP deficiency in the fetus as the outcome of high transplacental glucose flux. This flux may in the fetus augment de novo synthesis of fatty acids, which not only dilutes transplacentally transported EFA/LCP, but also causes competition of de novo synthesized oleic acid with linoleic acid for delta-6 desaturation. Such conditions were encountered by us in mothers with high body mass indices, diabetes mellitus and preeclampsia. The unifying factor might be compromised glucose homeostasis. In search of the milk arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) contents of our African ancestors, we investigated women in Tanzania with high intakes of freshwater fish as only animal lipid source. These women had milk AA and DHA contents that were well above present recommendations for infant formulae. Both studies stimulate rethinking of 'optimal homeostasis'. Subtle signs of dysbalanced maternal glucose homeostasis may be important and observations from current Western societies may not provide us with an adequate basis for dietary recommendations. r</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in maternal and infant nutrition","attachmentId":39841816,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/18037001/Long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_maternal_and_infant_nutrition","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/18037001/Long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_maternal_and_infant_nutrition"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="13551814" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/13551814/Similar_Effects_on_Infants_of_n_3_and_n_6_Fatty_Acids_Supplementation_to_Pregnant_and_Lactating_Women">Similar Effects on Infants of n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acids Supplementation to Pregnant and Lactating Women</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32740537" href="https://independent.academia.edu/OSaugstad">Ola Saugstad</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">PEDIATRICS, 2001</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Objective. There have been indications that high intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) during pregnancy may increase birth weight and gestational length. In addition, n-3 longchain PUFAs may be important for the neurobiological development of the infants. High levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3) are found in the gray matter of the cerebral cortex and in the retina, and it seems as if the availability of long-chain PUFAs may be limiting cerebral development. The fetus and the newborn are dependent on a high supply from their mothers, either via the placenta or via breast milk. We supplemented pregnant and lactating women with n-3 or n-6 long-chain PUFAs to evaluate the effect on birth weight, gestational length, and infant development.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Similar Effects on Infants of n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acids Supplementation to Pregnant and Lactating Women","attachmentId":45221796,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/13551814/Similar_Effects_on_Infants_of_n_3_and_n_6_Fatty_Acids_Supplementation_to_Pregnant_and_Lactating_Women","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/13551814/Similar_Effects_on_Infants_of_n_3_and_n_6_Fatty_Acids_Supplementation_to_Pregnant_and_Lactating_Women"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="59150657" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/59150657/Maternal_DHA_Equilibrium_during_Pregnancy_and_Lactation_Is_Reached_at_an_Erythrocyte_DHA_Content_of_8_g_100_g_Fatty_Acids">Maternal DHA Equilibrium during Pregnancy and Lactation Is Reached at an Erythrocyte DHA Content of 8 g/100 g Fatty Acids</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="121185488" href="https://independent.academia.edu/RemkoKuipers">Remko Kuipers</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Nutrition, 2011</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Low long-chain PUFA (LC-PUFA, or LCP) consumption relates to suboptimal neurodevelopment, coronary artery disease, and [postpartum (PP)] depression. Maternal-to-infant LCP transport during pregnancy and lactation is at the expense of maternal status, a process known as biomagnification. Despite biomagnification, maternal and infant LCP status generally declines during lactation. To assess the 1) turning point of biomagnification [level from which maternal (m)LCP status exceeds infant (i)LCP status]; 2) LCP equilibrium (steady-state-level from which mRBC-LCP stop declining during lactation); 3) corresponding iLCP-status; and 4) the relationship between RBC-DHA and RBC-arachidonic acid (AA), we measured RBC-fatty acids in 193 Tanzanian mother-infant pairs with no, intermediate (2-3 times/wk), and high (4-5 times/ wk) freshwater fish consumption at delivery and after 3 mo of exclusive breast-feeding. At 3 mo, mRBC-DHA was lower than the corresponding iRBC-DHA up to a mRBC-DHA of 7.9 g%. mRBC-DHA equilibrium, with equivalent mRBC-DHA at both delivery and at 3 mo PP, occurred at 8.1 g%. This mRBC-DHA equilibrium of 8.1 g% corresponded with an iRBC-DHA of 7.1-7.2 g% at delivery that increased to 8.0 g% at 3 mo. We found between-group differences in mRBC-AA; however, no differences in iRBC-AA were observed at delivery or 3 mo. Relations between RBC-DHA and RBC-AA were bellshaped. We conclude that, at steady-state LCP intakes during lactation: 1) biomagnification occurs up to 8 g% mRBC-DHA; 2) mRBC-DHA equilibrium is reached at 8 g%; 3) mRBC-DHA equilibrium corresponds with an iRBC-DHA of 7 g% at delivery and 8 g% after 3 mo; 4) unlike RBC-DHA, mRBC-AA and iRBC-AA are independently regulated in these populations; and 5) bell-shaped RBC-DHA vs. RBC-AA-relations might support uniform iRBC-AA. A (maternal) RBC-DHA of 8 g% might be optimal for infant neurodevelopment and adult cardiovascular disease incidence.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Maternal DHA Equilibrium during Pregnancy and Lactation Is Reached at an Erythrocyte DHA Content of 8 g/100 g Fatty Acids","attachmentId":73222450,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/59150657/Maternal_DHA_Equilibrium_during_Pregnancy_and_Lactation_Is_Reached_at_an_Erythrocyte_DHA_Content_of_8_g_100_g_Fatty_Acids","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/59150657/Maternal_DHA_Equilibrium_during_Pregnancy_and_Lactation_Is_Reached_at_an_Erythrocyte_DHA_Content_of_8_g_100_g_Fatty_Acids"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="28450268" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/28450268/The_roles_of_long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_pregnancy_lactation_and_infancy_review_of_current_knowledge_and_consensus_recommendations">The roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy, lactation and infancy: review of current knowledge and consensus recommendations</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="53352412" href="https://independent.academia.edu/CuelloConstanza">Constanza Cuello</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This paper reviews current knowledge on the role of the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), doco-sahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6), in maternal and term infant nutrition as well as infant development. Consensus recommendations and practice guidelines for health-care providers supported by the World Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Early Nutrition Academy, and the Child Health Foundation are provided. The fetus and neonate should receive LC-PUFA in amounts sufficient to support optimal visual and cognitive development. Moreover, the consumption of oils rich in n-3 LC-PUFA during pregnancy reduces the risk for early premature birth. Pregnant and lactating women should aim to achieve an average daily intake of at least 200 mg DHA. For healthy term infants, we recommend and fully endorse breastfeeding, which supplies preformed LC-PUFA, as the preferred method of feeding. When breastfeeding is not possible, we recommend use of an infant formula providing DHA at levels between 0.2 and 0.5 weight percent of total fat, and with the minimum amount of AA equivalent to the contents of DHA. Dietary LC-PUFA supply should continue after the first six months of life, but currently there is not sufficient information for quantitative recommendations.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy, lactation and infancy: review of current knowledge and consensus recommendations","attachmentId":48799329,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/28450268/The_roles_of_long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_pregnancy_lactation_and_infancy_review_of_current_knowledge_and_consensus_recommendations","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/28450268/The_roles_of_long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_in_pregnancy_lactation_and_infancy_review_of_current_knowledge_and_consensus_recommendations"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="59150638" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/59150638/A_maternal_erythrocyte_DHA_content_of_approximately_6_g_is_the_DHA_status_at_which_intrauterine_DHA_biomagnifications_turns_into_bioattenuation_and_postnatal_infant_DHA_equilibrium_is_reached">A maternal erythrocyte DHA content of approximately 6 g% is the DHA status at which intrauterine DHA biomagnifications turns into bioattenuation and postnatal infant DHA equilibrium is reached</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="121185488" href="https://independent.academia.edu/RemkoKuipers">Remko Kuipers</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">European Journal of Nutrition, 2012</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Purpose Higher long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) in infant compared with maternal lipids at delivery is named biomagnification. The decline of infant and maternal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) status during lactation in Western countries suggests maternal depletion. We investigated whether biomagnification persists at lifelong high fish intakes and whether the latter prevents a postpartum decline of infant and/or maternal DHA status. Methods We studied 3 Tanzanian tribes with low (Maasai: 0/week), intermediate (Pare: 2-3/week), and high (Sengerema: 4-5/week) fish intakes. DHA and arachidonic acid (AA) were determined in maternal (m) and infant (i) erythrocytes (RBC) during pregnancy (1st trimester n = 14, 2nd = 103, 3rd = 88), and in mother-infant pairs at delivery (n = 63) and at 3 months postpartum (n = 104). Results At delivery, infants of all tribes had similar iRBC-AA which was higher than, and unrelated to, mRBC-AA. Transplacental DHA biomagnification occurred up to 5.6 g% mRBC-DHA; higher mRBC-DHA was associated with ''bioattenuation'' (i.e., iRBC-DHA \ mRBC-DHA). Compared to delivery, mRBC-AA after 3 months was higher, while iRBC-AA was lower. mRBC-DHA after 3 months was lower, while iRBC-DHA was lower (low fish intake), equal (intermediate fish intake), and higher (high fish intake) compared to delivery. We estimated that postpartum iRBC-DHA equilibrium is reached at 5.9 g%, which corresponds to a mRBC-DHA of 6.1 g% throughout pregnancy. Conclusion Uniform high iRBC-AA at delivery might indicate the importance of intrauterine infant AA status. Biomagnification reflects low maternal DHA status, and bioattenuation may prevent intrauterine competition of DHA with AA. A mRBC-DHA of about 6 g% during pregnancy predicts maternal-fetal equilibrium at delivery, postnatal iRBC-DHA equilibrium, but is unable to prevent a postnatal mRBC-DHA decline. Keywords Biomagnification Á Bioattenuation Á Pregnancy Á Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids Á Docosahexaenoic acid Á Arachidonic acid Á Equilibrium Martine F. Luxwolda and Remko S. Kuipers contributed equally to this paper.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"A maternal erythrocyte DHA content of approximately 6 g% is the DHA status at which intrauterine DHA biomagnifications turns into bioattenuation and postnatal infant DHA equilibrium is reached","attachmentId":73222447,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/59150638/A_maternal_erythrocyte_DHA_content_of_approximately_6_g_is_the_DHA_status_at_which_intrauterine_DHA_biomagnifications_turns_into_bioattenuation_and_postnatal_infant_DHA_equilibrium_is_reached","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/59150638/A_maternal_erythrocyte_DHA_content_of_approximately_6_g_is_the_DHA_status_at_which_intrauterine_DHA_biomagnifications_turns_into_bioattenuation_and_postnatal_infant_DHA_equilibrium_is_reached"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="49539711" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/49539711/Maternal_Fatty_Acids_and_Their_Association_with_Birth_Outcome_A_Prospective_Study">Maternal Fatty Acids and Their Association with Birth Outcome: A Prospective Study</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="69187415" href="https://independent.academia.edu/GirijaWagh">Girija Wagh</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">PloS one, 2016</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Maternal nutrition, especially LCPUFA, is an important factor in determining fetal growth and development. Our earlier cross sectional study reports lower docosahexanoic acid (DHA) levels at the time of delivery in mothers delivering low birth weight (LBW) babies. This study was undertaken to examine the role of the maternal omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid profile across the gestation in fetal growth. This is a hospital based study where women were recruited in early gestation. Maternal blood was collected at 3 time points, i.e., T1 = 16th-20th week, T2 = 26th-30th week and T3 = at delivery. Cord blood was collected at delivery. At delivery, these women were divided into 2 groups: those delivering at term a baby weighing &gt;2.5kg [Normal birth weight (NBW) group] and those delivering at term a baby weighing &lt;2.5kg [LBW group]. The study reports data on 111 women recruited at T1, out of which 60 women delivered an NBW baby at term and 51 women delivered an LBW baby at term. Fatty ...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Maternal Fatty Acids and Their Association with Birth Outcome: A Prospective Study","attachmentId":67869398,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/49539711/Maternal_Fatty_Acids_and_Their_Association_with_Birth_Outcome_A_Prospective_Study","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/49539711/Maternal_Fatty_Acids_and_Their_Association_with_Birth_Outcome_A_Prospective_Study"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="123172603" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/123172603/Effect_of_%CE%B1_linolenic_acid_supplementation_during_pregnancy_on_maternal_and_neonatal_polyunsaturated_fatty_acid_status_and_pregnancy_outcome">Effect of α-linolenic acid supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal polyunsaturated fatty acid status and pregnancy outcome</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="53132236" href="https://independent.academia.edu/FransRoumen">Frans Roumen</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2004</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Background: Maternal essential fatty acid status declines during pregnancy, and as a result, neonatal concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6nϪ3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4nϪ6) may not be optimal. Objective: Our objective was to improve maternal and neonatal fatty acid status by supplementing pregnant women with a combination of ␣-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3nϪ3) and linoleic acid (LA, 18:2nϪ6), the ultimate dietary precursors of DHA and AA, respectively. Design: From week 14 of gestation until delivery, pregnant women consumed daily 25 g margarine supplying either 2.8 g ALA ϩ 9.0 g LA (n ϭ 29) or 10.9 g LA (n ϭ 29). Venous blood was collected for plasma phospholipid fatty acid analyses at weeks 14, 26, and 36 of pregnancy, at delivery, and at 32 wk postpartum. Umbilical cord blood and vascular tissue samples were collected to study neonatal fatty acid status also. Pregnancy outcome variables were assessed. Results: ALAϩLA supplementation did not prevent decreases in maternal DHA and AA concentrations during pregnancy and, compared with LA supplementation, did not increase maternal and neonatal DHA concentrations but significantly increased eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5nϪ3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22:5nϪ3) concentrations. In addition, ALAϩLA supplementation lowered neonatal AA status. No significant differences in pregnancy outcome variables were found. Conclusions: Maternal ALAϩLA supplementation did not promote neonatal DHAϩAA status. The lower concentrations of Osbond acid (22:5nϪ6) in maternal plasma phospholipids and umbilical arterial wall phospholipids with ALAϩLA supplementation than with LA supplementation suggest only that functional DHA status improves with ALAϩLA supplementation.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Effect of α-linolenic acid supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal polyunsaturated fatty acid status and pregnancy outcome","attachmentId":117669637,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/123172603/Effect_of_%CE%B1_linolenic_acid_supplementation_during_pregnancy_on_maternal_and_neonatal_polyunsaturated_fatty_acid_status_and_pregnancy_outcome","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/123172603/Effect_of_%CE%B1_linolenic_acid_supplementation_during_pregnancy_on_maternal_and_neonatal_polyunsaturated_fatty_acid_status_and_pregnancy_outcome"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="49705614" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/49705614/Composition_of_fatty_acids_in_the_maternal_and_umbilical_cord_plasma_of_adolescent_and_adult_mothers_relationship_with_anthropometric_parameters_of_newborn">Composition of fatty acids in the maternal and umbilical cord plasma of adolescent and adult mothers: relationship with anthropometric parameters of newborn</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="39156954" href="https://independent.academia.edu/F%C3%A1timaSardinha">Fátima Sardinha</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Lipids in Health and Disease, 2012</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Background: Considering the importance of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to fetal development and the lack of studies that have compared the status of fatty acids between adolescents and adults mothers, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the composition of fatty acids in maternal and umbilical cord plasma from adolescent and adults mothers. Methods: Forty pregnant adolescents and forty pregnant adults were selected to assess the distribution profile of fatty acids in the maternal and umbilical cord plasma. Quantification of fatty acids in the total lipids of the sample groups was performed through the use of gas-liquid chromatography. Results: The maternal and umbilical cord plasma of the adolescents showed a greater concentration of AA than did that of the adults (P < 0.05). However, a greater percentage of EPA was found in the umbilical cord plasma of the adults (P < 0.05). DHA in the plasma of the adolescent mothers correlated positively to birth weight and head circumference. Conclusions: This suggests that in situations of greater nutritional risk, as in adolescent pregnancy, n-3PUFA concentrations have a greater influence on the proper development of newborns. Moreover, variations in fatty acid concentrations in the maternal and cord plasma of adolescents and adults may indicate that pregnancy affects the LC-PUFA status of adults and adolescents in distinct ways.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Composition of fatty acids in the maternal and umbilical cord plasma of adolescent and adult mothers: relationship with anthropometric parameters of newborn","attachmentId":67977714,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/49705614/Composition_of_fatty_acids_in_the_maternal_and_umbilical_cord_plasma_of_adolescent_and_adult_mothers_relationship_with_anthropometric_parameters_of_newborn","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/49705614/Composition_of_fatty_acids_in_the_maternal_and_umbilical_cord_plasma_of_adolescent_and_adult_mothers_relationship_with_anthropometric_parameters_of_newborn"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":41634185,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":41634185,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_41634185" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. 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