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id="toc-Historical_overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_appearances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_appearances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early appearances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_appearances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Theoretical development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_literary_and_architectural_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literary_and_architectural_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 In literary and architectural theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literary_and_architectural_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_influence_of_poststructuralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_influence_of_poststructuralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 The influence of poststructuralism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_influence_of_poststructuralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_scope_expands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_scope_expands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 The scope expands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_scope_expands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_various_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_various_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 In various arts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_various_arts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In various arts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_various_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Dance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Fashion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Film </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graphic_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graphic_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Graphic design </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graphic_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sculpture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sculpture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Sculpture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sculpture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Theater </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 In philosophy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In philosophy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poststructuralist_precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poststructuralist_precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Poststructuralist precursors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poststructuralist_precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jacques_Derrida_and_deconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jacques_Derrida_and_deconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Jacques Derrida and deconstruction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jacques_Derrida_and_deconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Michel_Foucault_on_power_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michel_Foucault_on_power_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Michel Foucault on power relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michel_Foucault_on_power_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gilles_Deleuze_on_productive_difference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gilles_Deleuze_on_productive_difference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Gilles Deleuze on productive difference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gilles_Deleuze_on_productive_difference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jean_Baudrillard_on_hyperreality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jean_Baudrillard_on_hyperreality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Jean Baudrillard on hyperreality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jean_Baudrillard_on_hyperreality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_crisis_of_legitimacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_crisis_of_legitimacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 A crisis of legitimacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_crisis_of_legitimacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Postmodern_Condition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Postmodern_Condition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 The Postmodern Condition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Postmodern_Condition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_philosophical_criticism_of_Jürgen_Habermas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_philosophical_criticism_of_Jürgen_Habermas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 The philosophical criticism of Jürgen Habermas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_philosophical_criticism_of_Jürgen_Habermas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frederic_Jameson's_Marxist_rejoinder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frederic_Jameson's_Marxist_rejoinder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Frederic Jameson's Marxist rejoinder </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frederic_Jameson's_Marxist_rejoinder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Richard_Rorty's_neopragmatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Richard_Rorty's_neopragmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Richard Rorty's neopragmatism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Richard_Rorty's_neopragmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 In society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Anthropology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Archaeology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Feminism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marketing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marketing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Marketing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marketing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_planning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_planning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Urban planning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Theology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post-postmodernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-postmodernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Post-postmodernism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-postmodernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Postmodernism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" > 84 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisme" title="Postmodernisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Postmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmoderne" title="Postmoderne – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Postmoderne" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="حركة ما بعد الحداثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركة ما بعد الحداثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernizm" title="Postmodernizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Postmodernizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="پوست‌مودرنیزم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پوست‌مودرنیزم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="উত্তর আধুনিকতাবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উত্তর আধুনিকতাবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8D%CD%98-hi%C4%81n-t%C4%81i_Ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Hō͘-hiān-tāi Chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hō͘-hiān-tāi Chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Постмадэрнізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Постмадэрнізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Постмадэрнізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Постмадэрнізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Постмодернизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Постмодернизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernizam" title="Postmodernizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Postmodernizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernitat" title="Postmodernitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Postmodernitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmoderna" title="Postmoderna – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Postmoderna" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94l-foderniaeth" title="Ôl-foderniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ôl-foderniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisme" title="Postmodernisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Postmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="تامورعصرييت – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تامورعصرييت" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmoderne" title="Postmoderne – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Postmoderne" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Postmodernism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Μεταμοντερνισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταμοντερνισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posmodernismo" title="Posmodernismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Posmodernismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismo" title="Postmodernismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Postmodernismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismo" title="Postmodernismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Postmodernismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="پسامدرنیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پسامدرنیسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisme" title="Postmodernisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Postmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iar-nua-aoiseachas" title="Iar-nua-aoiseachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Iar-nua-aoiseachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posmodernismo" title="Posmodernismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Posmodernismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="後現代主義 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="後現代主義" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EB%AA%A8%EB%8D%94%EB%8B%88%EC%A6%98" title="포스트모더니즘 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포스트모더니즘" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Postmodernism" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Պոստմոդեռնիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պոստմոդեռնիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="उत्तर आधुनिकतावाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उत्तर आधुनिकतावाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmoderna" title="Postmoderna – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Postmoderna" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pos-modernismo" title="Pos-modernismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Pos-modernismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascamodernisme" title="Pascamodernisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pascamodernisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismo" title="Postmodernismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Postmodernismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Постмодернизм – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Постмодернизм" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3stm%C3%B3dernismi" title="Póstmódernismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Póstmódernismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismo" title="Postmodernismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Postmodernismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="פוסטמודרניזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוסטמודרניזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="პოსტმოდერნიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პოსტმოდერნიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Постмодернизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Постмодернизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B2smod%C3%A8rnism" title="Pòsmodèrnism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Pòsmodèrnism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern%C3%AEzm" title="Postmodernîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Postmodernîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismus" title="Postmodernismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Postmodernismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisms" title="Postmodernisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Postmodernisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernizmas" title="Postmodernizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Postmodernizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posmodernisme" title="Posmodernisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Posmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posztmodern" title="Posztmodern – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Posztmodern" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Постмодернизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Постмодернизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A4" title="ഉത്തരാധുനികത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉത്തരാധുനികത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%87" title="مابعد الحداثه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مابعد الحداثه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascamodenisme" title="Pascamodenisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pascamodenisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisme" title="Postmodernisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Postmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisme" title="Postmodernisme – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Postmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="उत्तर आधुनिकतावाद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="उत्तर आधुनिकतावाद" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%A2%E3%83%80%E3%83%B3" title="ポストモダン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポストモダン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisme" title="Postmodernisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Postmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernisme" title="Postmodernisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Postmodernisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernizm" title="Postmodernizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Postmodernizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%89%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਉੱਤਰਆਧੁਨਿਕਤਾਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਉੱਤਰਆਧੁਨਿਕਤਾਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8D_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87" title="وروستۍ نوواله – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="وروستۍ نوواله" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puosmadanizim" title="Puosmadanizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Puosmadanizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernizm_(filozofia)" title="Postmodernizm (filozofia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Postmodernizm (filozofia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3s-modernismo" title="Pós-modernismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pós-modernismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Postmodernism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Постмодернизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Постмодернизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernizmi" title="Postmodernizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Postmodernizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Postmodernism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmoderna" title="Postmoderna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Postmoderna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the artistic, cultural, and theoretical movement. For the condition or state of being, see <a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Postmodernism (disambiguation)">Postmodernism (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Postmodernism</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid #AAAAAA;width:200px;display:table;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:1px 0 0 1px"><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlton_Bookcase,_by_Ettore_Sottsass,_1981,_wood_veneer_and_plastic_laminate,_Inv._FNAC_1980,_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs,_Paris_(01).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Carlton_Bookcase%2C_by_Ettore_Sottsass%2C_1981%2C_wood_veneer_and_plastic_laminate%2C_Inv._FNAC_1980%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs%2C_Paris_%2801%29.png/200px-Carlton_Bookcase%2C_by_Ettore_Sottsass%2C_1981%2C_wood_veneer_and_plastic_laminate%2C_Inv._FNAC_1980%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs%2C_Paris_%2801%29.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Carlton_Bookcase%2C_by_Ettore_Sottsass%2C_1981%2C_wood_veneer_and_plastic_laminate%2C_Inv._FNAC_1980%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs%2C_Paris_%2801%29.png/300px-Carlton_Bookcase%2C_by_Ettore_Sottsass%2C_1981%2C_wood_veneer_and_plastic_laminate%2C_Inv._FNAC_1980%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs%2C_Paris_%2801%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Carlton_Bookcase%2C_by_Ettore_Sottsass%2C_1981%2C_wood_veneer_and_plastic_laminate%2C_Inv._FNAC_1980%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs%2C_Paris_%2801%29.png/400px-Carlton_Bookcase%2C_by_Ettore_Sottsass%2C_1981%2C_wood_veneer_and_plastic_laminate%2C_Inv._FNAC_1980%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_D%C3%A9coratifs%2C_Paris_%2801%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2643" data-file-height="2866" /></a></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Stuttgart_-_Neue_Staatsgalerie_(35736927202).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Stuttgart_-_Neue_Staatsgalerie_%2835736927202%29.jpg/200px-Stuttgart_-_Neue_Staatsgalerie_%2835736927202%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Stuttgart_-_Neue_Staatsgalerie_%2835736927202%29.jpg/300px-Stuttgart_-_Neue_Staatsgalerie_%2835736927202%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Stuttgart_-_Neue_Staatsgalerie_%2835736927202%29.jpg/400px-Stuttgart_-_Neue_Staatsgalerie_%2835736927202%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa,_poltrona_masters,_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa%2C_poltrona_masters%2C_2009.jpg/200px-Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa%2C_poltrona_masters%2C_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa%2C_poltrona_masters%2C_2009.jpg/300px-Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa%2C_poltrona_masters%2C_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa%2C_poltrona_masters%2C_2009.jpg/400px-Philippe_starck_per_kartell_spa%2C_poltrona_masters%2C_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1674" data-file-height="2460" /></a></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="infobox-caption">Carlton Bookcase, with a complex structure in many colours and a stylized human figure at the top, by <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Sottsass" title="Ettore Sottsass">Ettore Sottsass</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Memphis_Group" title="Memphis Group">Memphis Group</a>, 1981, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs,_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris">Museum of Decorative Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>; <a href="/wiki/Neue_Staatsgalerie" title="Neue Staatsgalerie">Neue Staatsgalerie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, by <a href="/wiki/James_Stirling_(architect)" title="James Stirling (architect)">James Stirling</a>, 1984,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> showing an <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclectic</a>, postmodern mix of <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">classical architecture</a> (like the division of the facade in many horizontal strips that reference <a href="/wiki/Bossage" title="Bossage">bossages</a>) and colorful ironic detailing; Louis Ghost, based on chairs in the <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_style" title="Louis XVI style">Louis XVI style</a> but reinterpreted for the present day, by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Starck" title="Philippe Starck">Philippe Starck</a>, 2009, various locations<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#66ccff;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Postmodernism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> Preceded by <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#aaddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypermodernity" title="Hypermodernity">Hypermodernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperreality" title="Hyperreality">Hyperreality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#aaddff;"> Fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_anthropology" title="Postmodernist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology" title="Post-processual archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school_(criminology)" title="Postmodernist school (criminology)">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_dance" title="Postmodern dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_film" title="Postmodernist film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/Postmodern_picture_book" title="Postmodern picture book">Picture books</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_music" title="Postmodern music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernism (international relations)">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Marxism" title="Post-Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_psychology" title="Postmodern psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism_in_political_science" title="Postmodernism in political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theatre" title="Postmodern theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theology" title="Postmodern theology">Theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_religion" title="Postmodern religion">Religion</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#aaddff;"> Reactions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_postmodernism" title="Criticism of postmodernism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamodernism" title="Metamodernism">Metamodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-postmodernism" title="Post-postmodernism">Post-postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remodernism" title="Remodernism">Remodernism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#aaddff;"> Related</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">social constructivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_social_construction_of_nature" title="Postmodern social construction of nature">Social construction of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Social construction of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic turn</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Postmodernism" title="Template:Postmodernism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Postmodernism" title="Template talk:Postmodernism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Postmodernism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Postmodernism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Postmodernism is a term used to refer to a variety of <a href="/wiki/Artistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic">artistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> movements that claim to mark a break from <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a>. They have in common the conviction that it is no longer possible to rely upon previous ways of depicting the world. Still, there is disagreement among experts about its more precise meaning even within narrow contexts. The term began to acquire its current range of meanings in literary criticism and architectural theory during the 1950s–1960s. In opposition to modernism's alleged self-seriousness, postmodernism is characterized by its playful use of <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclectic</a> styles and performative <a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">irony</a>, among other features. Critics claim it supplants <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic</a> ideals with mere style and spectacle. In the 1990s, "postmodernism" came to denote a general – and, in general, celebratory – response to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">cultural pluralism</a>. Proponents align themselves with <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonialism</a>. Building upon <a href="/wiki/Poststructural" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructural">poststructural</a> theory, postmodern thought defined itself by the rejection of any single, foundational historical narrative. This called into question the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> account of progress and rationality. Critics allege that its premises lead to a <a href="/wiki/Nihilistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nihilistic">nihilistic</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>. In this sense, it has become a term of abuse in <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a>]</div> "Postmodernism" is "a highly contested term",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> referring to "a particularly unstable concept",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199511-4">[4]</a> that "names many different kinds of cultural objects and phenomena in many different ways".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567-5">[5]</a> It is "diffuse, fragmentary, [and] multi-dimensional".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwitz2008Historical_and_Conceptual_Overview-6">[6]</a> Critics have described it as "an exasperating term"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19953-7">[7]</a> and claim that its indefinability is "a truism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction-8">[8]</a> Put otherwise, postmodernism is "several things at once".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19953-7">[7]</a> It has no single definition, and the term does not name any single unified phenomenon, but rather many diverse phenomena: "postmodernisms rather than one postmodernism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003204-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanhoozer20033-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor200417-11">[11]</a> Although postmodernisms are generally united in their effort to transcend the perceived limits of modernism, "modernism" also means different things to different critics in various arts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19954–5-12">[12]</a> Further, there are outliers on even this basic stance; for instance, literary critic <a href="/wiki/William_Spanos" class="mw-redirect" title="William Spanos">William Spanos</a> conceives postmodernism, not in period terms, but in terms of a certain kind of literary imagination so that pre-modern texts such as <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>' <a href="/wiki/Orestes" title="Orestes">Orestes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cervantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervantes">Cervantes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Don_Quixote" title="Don Quixote">Don Quixote</a> count as postmodern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199546-13">[13]</a> According to scholar <a href="/wiki/Louis_Menand" title="Louis Menand">Louis Menand</a>, "Postmodernism is the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Army_knife" title="Swiss Army knife">Swiss Army knife</a> of critical concepts. It’s definitionally overloaded, and it can do almost any job you need done."<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> From an opposing perspective, media theorist <a href="/wiki/Dick_Hebdige" title="Dick Hebdige">Dick Hebdige</a> criticized the vagueness of the term, enumerating a long list of otherwise unrelated concepts that people have designated as postmodernism, from "the décor of a room" or "a 'scratch' video", to fear of nuclear armageddon and the "implosion of meaning", and stated that anything that could signify all of those things was "a buzzword".<a href="#cite_note-Hebdige-15">[15]</a> All this notwithstanding, scholar Hans Bertens offers the following: <blockquote>If there is a common denominator to all these postmodernisms, it is that of a crisis in representation: a deeply felt loss of faith in our ability to represent the real, in the widest sense. No matter whether they are aesthestic [sic], epistemological, moral, or political in nature, the representations that we used to rely on can no longer be taken for granted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199510-16">[16]</a> </blockquote>In practical terms, postmodernisms share an attitude<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> of skepticism towards grand explanations and established ways of doing things. In art, literature, and architecture, this attitude blurs boundaries between styles and genres, and encourages freely mixing elements, challenging traditional distinctions like <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high art</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In science, it emphasizes multiple ways of seeing things, and how our cultural and personal backgrounds shape how we see the world, making it impossible to be completely <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In philosophy, education, history, politics, and many other fields, it encourages critical re-examination of established institutions and social norms, embracing diversity and breaking down disciplinary boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Though these ideas weren't strictly new, postmodernism amplified them, using an often playful, at times deeply critical, attitude of pervasive skepticism to turn them into defining features.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_overview">Historical overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical overview">edit</a>]</div> Two broad cultural movements, modernism and postmodernism, emerged in response to profound changes in the Western world. The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">technological advances</a>, two <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> deeply disrupted the social order. Modernism emerged in the late 1800s, seeking to redefine fundamental truths and values through a radical rethinking of traditional ideas and forms across many fields. Postmodernism emerged in the mid-20th century with a skeptical perspective that questioned the notion of universal truths and reshaped modernist approaches by embracing the complexity and contradictions of modern life.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The term "postmodernism" first appeared in print in 1870,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelschSandbothe199776-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassan198712ff-30">[30]</a> but it only began to enter circulation with its current range of meanings in the 1950s—60s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003202-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19954-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_appearances">Early appearances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early appearances">edit</a>]</div> The term "postmodern" was first used in 1870 by the artist John Watkins Chapman, who described "a Postmodern style of painting" as a departure from French <a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelschSandbothe199776-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassan198712ff.-33">[33]</a> Similarly, the first citation given by the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> is dated to 1916, describing <a href="/wiki/Gus_Mager" title="Gus Mager">Gus Mager</a> as "one of the few 'post' modern painters whose style is convincing".<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopal</a> priest and cultural commentator J. M. Thompson, in a 1914 article, uses the term to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing, "the raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of <a href="/wiki/Modernism_(Roman_Catholicism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernism (Roman Catholicism)">modernism</a> by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> feeling as well as to Catholic tradition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1914733-35">[35]</a> In 1926, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Iddings_Bell" title="Bernard Iddings Bell">Bernard Iddings Bell</a>, president of <a href="/wiki/Bard_College" title="Bard College">St. Stephen's College</a> and also an Episcopal priest, published Postmodernism and Other Essays, which marks the first use of the term to describe an historical period following modernity.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadsen1995-37">[37]</a> The essay criticizes lingering socio-cultural norms, attitudes, and practices of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. It is also critical of a purported cultural shift away from traditional Christian beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell1926-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirzer2015-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussello2007-40">[40]</a> The term "postmodernity" was first used in an academic historical context as a general concept for a movement by <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold J. Toynbee</a> in a 1939 essay, which states that "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee196143-41">[41]</a> In 1942, the literary critic and author H. R. Hays describes postmodernism as a new literary form.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Also in the arts, the term was first used in 1949 to describe a dissatisfaction with the <a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">modernist architectural movement</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International Style</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567-5">[5]</a> Although these early uses anticipate some of the concerns of the debate in the second part of the 20th century, there is little direct continuity in the discussion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199519-43">[43]</a> Just when the new discussion begins, however, is also a matter of dispute. Various authors place its beginnings in the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003203-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_development">Theoretical development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theoretical development">edit</a>]</div> In the mid-1970s, the American sociologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Daniel Bell</a> provided a general account of the postmodern as an effectively <a href="/wiki/Nihilistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nihilistic">nihilistic</a> response to modernism's alleged assault on the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a> and its rejection of what he upheld as traditional values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199530-45">[45]</a> The ideals of modernity, per his diagnosis, were degraded to the level of consumer choice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20045-46">[46]</a> This research project, however, was not taken up in a significant way by others until the mid-1980s when the work of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Fredric Jameson</a>, building upon art and literary criticism, reintroduced the term to sociology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995201-47">[47]</a> Discussion about the postmodern in the second part of the 20th century was most articulate in areas with a large body of critical discourse around the <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist movement</a>. Even here, however, there continued to be disagreement about such basic issues as whether postmodernism is a break with modernism, a renewal and intensification of modernism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567-5">[5]</a> or even, both at once, a rejection and a radicalization of its historical predecessor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19954–5-12">[12]</a> While discussions in the 1970s were dominated by literary criticism, these were supplanted by architectural theory in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor200412-48">[48]</a> Some of these conversations made use of French poststructuralist thought, but only after these innovations and critical discourse in the arts did postmodernism emerge as a philosophical term in its own right.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction_&_§2-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_literary_and_architectural_theory">In literary and architectural theory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In literary and architectural theory">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Creeley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Creeley.jpg/220px-Creeley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Creeley.jpg/330px-Creeley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Creeley.jpg/440px-Creeley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>The poet Robert Creeley in 1972</figcaption></figure> According to Hans Bertens and <a href="/wiki/Perry_Anderson" title="Perry Anderson">Perry Anderson</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Mountain_poets" title="Black Mountain poets">Black Mountain poets</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Olson" title="Charles Olson">Charles Olson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Creeley" title="Robert Creeley">Robert Creeley</a> first introduced the term "postmodern" in its current sense during the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> Their stance against modernist poetry – and Olson's <a href="/wiki/Heideggerian" class="mw-redirect" title="Heideggerian">Heideggerian</a> orientation – were influential in the identification of postmodernism as a polemical position opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> values championed by the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> project.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199519-43">[43]</a> During the 1960s, this affirmative use gave way to a pejorative use by the <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a>, who used it to describe a waning commitment among youth to the political ideals <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> The literary critic <a href="/wiki/Irving_Howe" title="Irving Howe">Irving Howe</a>, for instance, denounced postmodern literature for being content to merely reflect, rather than actively attempt to refashion, what he saw as the "increasingly shapeless" character of contemporary society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199521-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> In the 1970s, this changed again, largely under the influence of the literary critic <a href="/wiki/Ihab_Hassan" title="Ihab Hassan">Ihab Hassan</a>'s large-scale survey of works that he said could no longer be called modern. Taking the Black Mountain poets an exemplary instance of the new postmodern type, Hassan celebrates its <a href="/wiki/Nietzschean" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzschean">Nietzschean</a> playfulness and cheerfully anarchic spirit, which he sets off against the high seriousness of modernism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199524-52">[52]</a> (Yet, from another perspective, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>'s attack on Western philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>'s critique of metaphysics posed deep theoretical problems not necessarily a cause for aesthetic celebration. Their further influence on the conversation about postmodernism, however, would be largely mediated by French <a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">poststructuralism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199122–23-53">[53]</a>) If literature was at the center of the discussion in the 1970s, architecture was at the center in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor200412-48">[48]</a> The architectural theorist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Jencks" title="Charles Jencks">Charles Jencks</a>, in particular, connected the artistic avant-garde to social change in a way that captured attention outside of academia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> Jenckes, much influenced by the American architect <a href="/wiki/Robert_Venturi" title="Robert Venturi">Robert Venturi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199555-54">[54]</a> celebrated a plurality of forms and encourages participation and active engagement with the local context of the built environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199559–60-55">[55]</a> He presented this as in opposition to the "authoritarian style" of International Modernism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_influence_of_poststructuralism">The influence of poststructuralism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The influence of poststructuralism">edit</a>]</div> In the 1970s, postmodern criticism increasingly came to incorporate poststructuralist theory, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstructive</a> approach to texts most strongly associated with <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>, who attempted to demonstrate that the whole <a href="/wiki/Foundationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Foundationalist">foundationalist</a> approach to language and knowledge was untenable and misguided.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199121-56">[56]</a> It is during this period that postmodernism came to be particularly equated with a kind of anti-representational self-reflexivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199570-57">[57]</a> In the 1980s, some critics began to take an interest in the work of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>. This introduced a political concern about social power-relations into discussions about postmodernism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19957,_79-58">[58]</a> This was also the beginning of the affiliation of postmodernism with <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19958,_70-59">[59]</a> The art critic <a href="/wiki/Craig_Owens_(critic)" title="Craig Owens (critic)">Craig Owens</a>, in particular, not only made the connection to feminism explicit, but went so far as to claim feminism for postmodernism wholesale,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199592-60">[60]</a> a broad claim resisted by even many sympathetic feminists such as <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a> and Linda Nicholson.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995190–96-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_scope_expands">The scope expands</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The scope expands">edit</a>]</div> Although postmodern criticism and thought drew on philosophical ideas from early on, "postmodernism" was only introduced to the expressly philosophical lexicon by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a> in his 1979<a href="#cite_note-62">[a]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Postmodern_Condition:_A_Report_on_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge">The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge</a>. This work served as a catalyst for many of the subsequent intellectual debates around the term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction_&_§2-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> By the 1990s, postmodernism had become increasingly identified with critical and philosophical discourse directly about postmodernity or the postmodern idiom itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20044-63">[62]</a> No longer centered on any particular art or even the arts in general, it instead turned to address the more general problems posed to society in general by a new proliferation of cultures and forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor200412-48">[48]</a> It is during this period that it also came to be associated with <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20045-46">[46]</a> Around this time, postmodernism also began to be conceived in popular culture as a general "philosophical disposition" associated with a loose sort of <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>. In this sense, the term also started to appear as a "casual term of abuse" in non-academic contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20045-46">[46]</a> Others identified it as an aesthetic "lifestyle" of eclecticism and playful self-irony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003203-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_various_arts">In various arts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In various arts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Postmodern art</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warhol-Campbell_Soup-1-screenprint-1968.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/95/Warhol-Campbell_Soup-1-screenprint-1968.jpg/140px-Warhol-Campbell_Soup-1-screenprint-1968.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/95/Warhol-Campbell_Soup-1-screenprint-1968.jpg/210px-Warhol-Campbell_Soup-1-screenprint-1968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/95/Warhol-Campbell_Soup-1-screenprint-1968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="257" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>Andy Warhol's Campbell's Soup I (1968)</figcaption></figure> Postmodernism encompasses a wide range of artistic movements and styles. In visual arts, <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">pop art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">conceptual art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">feminist art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_art" title="Video art">video art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minimalism" title="Minimalism">minimalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neo-expressionism" title="Neo-expressionism">neo-expressionism</a> are among the approaches recognized as postmodern.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> The label extends to diverse musical genres and artists: <a href="/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madonna" title="Madonna">Madonna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Punk_rock" title="Punk rock">punk rock</a> all meet postmodern definitions. Literature, film, architecture, theater, fashion, dance, and many other creative disciplines saw postmodern expression. As an example, <a href="/wiki/Andy_Warhol" title="Andy Warhol">Andy Warhol</a>'s pop art across multiple mediums challenged traditional distinctions between high and low culture, and blurred the lines between fine art and commercial design. His work, exemplified by the iconic <a href="/wiki/Campbell%27s_Soup_Cans" title="Campbell's Soup Cans">Campbell's Soup Cans</a> series during the 1960s, brought the postmodernist sensibility to mainstream attention.<a href="#cite_note-:14-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> Criticism of postmodernist movements in the arts include objections to departure from beauty, the reliance on language for the art to have meaning, a lack of coherence or comprehensibility, deviation from clear structure, and consistent use of dark and negative themes.<a href="#cite_note-paglia-72">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Espicopal_Acad_int.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Espicopal_Acad_int.JPG/220px-Espicopal_Acad_int.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Espicopal_Acad_int.JPG/330px-Espicopal_Acad_int.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Espicopal_Acad_int.JPG/440px-Espicopal_Acad_int.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4271" data-file-height="3203" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the Chapel at the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Academy" title="Episcopal Academy">Episcopal Academy</a> near <a href="/wiki/Newtown_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtown Square">Newtown Square</a>, PA by alumnus of the Academy architect <a href="/wiki/Robert_Venturi" title="Robert Venturi">Robert Venturi</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodern architecture</a></div> Scholarship regarding postmodernism and architecture is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect <a href="/wiki/Charles_Jencks" title="Charles Jencks">Charles Jencks</a>, beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The Rise of Post-Modern Architecture" from 1975.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> His magnum opus, however, is the book The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, first published in 1977, and since running to seven editions<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> (in which he famously wrote: "Modern architecture died in St. Louis, Missouri, on 15 July 1972 at 3:32 p.m. (or thereabouts) when the infamous <a href="/wiki/Pruitt%E2%80%93Igoe" title="Pruitt–Igoe">Pruitt–Igoe</a> scheme, or rather several of its slab blocks, were given the final coup de grâce by dynamite."<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a>). Jencks makes the point that postmodernism (like modernism) varies for each field of art, and that for architecture it is not just a reaction to modernism but what he terms double coding: "Double Coding: the combination of Modern techniques with something else (usually traditional building) in order for architecture to communicate with the public and a concerned minority, usually other architects."<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> In their book, "Revisiting Postmodernism", <a href="/wiki/Terry_Farrell_(architect)" title="Terry Farrell (architect)">Terry Farrell</a> and Adam Furman argue that postmodernism brought a more joyous and sensual experience to the culture, particularly in architecture.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> For instance, in response to the modernist slogan of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a> that "less is more", the postmodernist Robert Venturi rejoined that "less is a bore".<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dance">Dance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_dance" title="Postmodern dance">Postmodern dance</a></div> The term "postmodern dance" is most strongly associated with the <a href="/wiki/Judson_Dance_Theater" title="Judson Dance Theater">Judson Dance Theater</a> located in New York's <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Village" title="Greenwich Village">Greenwich Village</a> during the 1960s and 1970s. Arguably its most important principle is taken from the composer <a href="/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>'s efforts to break down the distinction between art and life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanes2008-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-81">[80]</a> The Judson dancers "[stripped] dance of its theatrical conventions such as virtuoso technique, fanciful costumes, complex storylines, and the traditional stage [and] drew on everyday movements (sitting, walking, kneeling, and other gestures) to create their pieces, often performing them in ordinary spaces."<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> This was developed in particular by the American dancer and choreographer <a href="/wiki/Merce_Cunningham" title="Merce Cunningham">Merce Cunningham</a>, Cage's partner.<a href="#cite_note-:0-81">[80]</a> In the 1980s and 1990s, dance began to incorporate other typically postmodern features such as the mixing of genres, challenging high–low cultural distinctions, and incorporating a political dimension.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanes2008-80">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fashion">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dresses_by_Rei_Kawakubo_-_Sarah_Stierch_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dresses by Rei Kawakubo (1997)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Dresses_by_Rei_Kawakubo_-_Sarah_Stierch_03.jpg/205px-Dresses_by_Rei_Kawakubo_-_Sarah_Stierch_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Dresses_by_Rei_Kawakubo_-_Sarah_Stierch_03.jpg/308px-Dresses_by_Rei_Kawakubo_-_Sarah_Stierch_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Dresses_by_Rei_Kawakubo_-_Sarah_Stierch_03.jpg/410px-Dresses_by_Rei_Kawakubo_-_Sarah_Stierch_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Padded dresses by Rei Kawakubo (1997)</figcaption></figure> One manifestation of postmodernism in fashion explored alternatives to conventional concepts of elegance. <a href="/wiki/Rei_Kawakubo" title="Rei Kawakubo">Rei Kawakubo</a>’s Spring/Summer 1997 collection featured "dresses asymmetrically padded with goose down, creating bumps in unexpected areas of the body". <a href="/wiki/Issey_Miyake" title="Issey Miyake">Issey Miyake</a>’s 1985 <a href="/wiki/Dreadlocks" title="Dreadlocks">dreadlocks</a> hat "offered an immediate, yet impermanent, '<a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multi-culti</a>' fashion experience". <a href="/wiki/Vivienne_Westwood" title="Vivienne Westwood">Vivienne Westwood</a> took "an extremely polyglot approach", from early work with copies of 1950s clothes, to exploration of historic modes and cultural influences: her first runway show, "Pirate", merged British history, 18th- and 19th-century dress, and African textile design, with a rap and ethnic music soundtrack.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-84">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Film">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern film">Postmodern film</a></div> Postmodern film aims to subvert the mainstream <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">conventions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Narrative_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative structure">narrative structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Characterization" title="Characterization">characterization</a>, and to test the audience's <a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_disbelief" title="Suspension of disbelief">suspension of disbelief</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Susan12-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laurent13-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Linda22-87">[86]</a> Typically, such films also break down the cultural divide between <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">low</a> <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> and often upend typical portrayals of <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of humans)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> with the goal of creating something that does not abide by traditional narrative expression.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> Certain key characteristics are used to separate the postmodern from modernist cinema and traditional narrative film.<a href="#cite_note-:2-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-archive.org-90">[89]</a> One is an extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Homage_(arts)" title="Homage (arts)">homage</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pastiche" title="Pastiche">pastiche</a>, imitating the style or character of other artistic works. A second is <a href="/wiki/Meta-reference" title="Meta-reference">meta-reference</a> or self-reference, highlighting the relation of the image to other images in media and not to any kind of external reality.<a href="#cite_note-:2-89">[88]</a> Viewers are reminded that the film itself is only a film, perhaps through the use of <a href="/wiki/Intertextuality" title="Intertextuality">intertextuality</a>, in which the film's characters reference other works of fiction. A third characteristic is stories that <a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_narrative" title="Nonlinear narrative">unfold out of chronological order</a>, deconstructing or fragmenting time to emphasize the constructed nature of film. Another common element is a bridging of the gap between <a href="/wiki/Highbrow" title="Highbrow">highbrow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">lowbrow</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Laurent13-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Linda22-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-89">[88]</a> . <a href="/wiki/Contradictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Contradictions">Contradictions</a> of all sorts are crucial to postmodernism.<a href="#cite_note-Laurent13-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mary1-91">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ridley_Scott" title="Ridley Scott">Ridley Scott</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Blade_Runner" title="Blade Runner">Blade Runner</a> (1982) has been widely studied as a prime example of postmodernism. The setting is a future <a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">dystopia</a> where "replicants", enhanced <a href="/wiki/Android_(robot)" title="Android (robot)">android</a> workers nearly indistinguishable from humans, are hunted down when they escape from their jobs. The film blurs boundaries between genres and cultures, and fuses disparate styles and periods: futuristic visuals "mingle with drab 1940s clothes and offices, punk rock hairstyles, pop Egyptian styles and oriental culture."<a href="#cite_note-:2-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laurent13-86">[85]</a> The blending of <a href="/wiki/Film_noir" title="Film noir">film noir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science-fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Science-fiction">science-fiction</a> into <a href="/wiki/Tech_noir" title="Tech noir">tech noir</a> illustrates the deconstruction of both cinema and genre.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> The film can also be seen as an example of major studios using the "mystique and cachet of the term 'postmodern' as a sales pitch", resulting in <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Hollywood</a> movies that "demonstrate all the postmodern characteristics".<a href="#cite_note-:2-89">[88]</a> From another perspective, "critical responses to Blade Runner fall on either side of a modern/postmodern line" – critical analysis from "modernist" and "postmodernist" approaches produce entirely different interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphic_design">Graphic design</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Graphic design">edit</a>]</div> Early mention of postmodernism as an element of <a href="/wiki/Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">graphic design</a> appeared in the British magazine, "Design".<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> A characteristic of postmodern graphic design is that "retro, techno, punk, grunge, beach, parody, and pastiche were all conspicuous trends. Each had its own sites and venues, detractors and advocates."<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Postmodern literature</a></div> In 1971, the American literary theorist <a href="/wiki/Ihab_Hassan" title="Ihab Hassan">Ihab Hassan</a> made "postmodernism" popular in literary studies with his influential book, The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature. According to scholar David Herwitz, American writers such as <a href="/wiki/John_Barth" title="John Barth">John Barth</a> (who had controversially declared that the novel was "exhausted" as a genre), <a href="/wiki/Donald_Barthelme" title="Donald Barthelme">Donald Barthelme</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pynchon" title="Thomas Pynchon">Thomas Pynchon</a> responded in various ways to the stylistic innovations of <a href="/wiki/Finnegans_Wake" title="Finnegans Wake">Finnegans Wake</a> and the late work of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>. Postmodern literature often calls attention to issues regarding its own complicated connection to reality. The postmodern novel plays with language, twisted plots, multiple narrators, and unresolved endings, unsettling the conventional idea of the novel as faithfully reflecting the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwitz2008History_of_Postmodernism-96">[95]</a> In Postmodernist Fiction (1987), <a href="/wiki/Brian_McHale" title="Brian McHale">Brian McHale</a> details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that postmodern works developed out of modernism, moving from concern with what is there ("<a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> dominant") to concern with how we can know it's there ("<a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> dominant").<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007)<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> follows <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Federman" title="Raymond Federman">Raymond Federman</a>'s lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism. Others argue that postmodernism in literature utilizes compositional and semantic practices such as inclusivity, intentional indiscrimination, nonselection, and "logical impossibility."<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madonna_Adi_9_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Madonna_Adi_9_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Madonna_Adi_9_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Madonna_Adi_9_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Madonna_Adi_9_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Madonna_Adi_9_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Madonna_Adi_9_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>American singer-songwriter <a href="/wiki/Madonna" title="Madonna">Madonna</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_music" title="Postmodern music">Postmodern music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_classical_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern classical music">Postmodern classical music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Art_pop" title="Art pop">Art pop</a></div> Music critic Andy Cush described <a href="/wiki/Talking_Heads" title="Talking Heads">Talking Heads</a> as "New York art-punks" whose "blend of nervy postmodernism and undeniable groove made them one of the defining rock bands of the late 1970s and ’80s."<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media theorist</a> <a href="/wiki/Dick_Hebdige" title="Dick Hebdige">Dick Hebdige</a>, examining the "<a href="/wiki/Road_to_Nowhere" title="Road to Nowhere">Road to Nowhere</a>" (1985) music video, said the group "draw eclectically on a wide range of visual and aural sources to create a distinctive pastiche or hybrid 'house style' which they have used since their formation in the mid-1970s deliberately to stretch received (industrial) definitions of what rock/pop/video/Art/ performance/audience are", calling them "a properly postmodernist band."<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> According to lead vocalist/guitarist/songwriter <a href="/wiki/David_Byrne" title="David Byrne">David Byrne</a>, commenting for a 2011 museum exhibition, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism:_Style_and_Subversion_1970%E2%80%931990" title="Postmodernism: Style and Subversion 1970–1990">Postmodernism: Style and Subversion 1970–1990</a>: "Anything could be mixed and matched – or mashed up, as is said today – and anything was fair game for inspiration.”<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> The composer <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Kramer" title="Jonathan Kramer">Jonathan Kramer</a> has written that avant-garde musical compositions (which some would consider modernist rather than postmodernist) "defy more than seduce the listener, and they extend by potentially unsettling means the very idea of what music is."<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In the 1960s, composers such as <a href="/wiki/Terry_Riley" title="Terry Riley">Terry Riley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henryk_G%C3%B3recki" title="Henryk Górecki">Henryk Górecki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bradley_Joseph" title="Bradley Joseph">Bradley Joseph</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(composer)" title="John Adams (composer)">John Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Reich" title="Steve Reich">Steve Reich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Glass" title="Philip Glass">Philip Glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Nyman" title="Michael Nyman">Michael Nyman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lou_Harrison" title="Lou Harrison">Lou Harrison</a> reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably <a href="/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a> challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to Modernism.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Author on postmodernism, Dominic Strinati, has noted, it is also important "to include in this category the so-called '<a href="/wiki/Art_rock" title="Art rock">art rock</a>' musical innovations and mixing of styles associated with groups like <a href="/wiki/Talking_Heads" title="Talking Heads">Talking Heads</a>, and performers like <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Anderson" title="Laurie Anderson">Laurie Anderson</a>, together with the self-conscious 'reinvention of <a href="/wiki/Disco" title="Disco">disco</a>' by the <a href="/wiki/Pet_Shop_Boys" title="Pet Shop Boys">Pet Shop Boys</a>".<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> In the late-20th century, avant-garde academics labelled American singer <a href="/wiki/Madonna" title="Madonna">Madonna</a> as the "personification of the postmodern" because "the postmodern condition is characterized by fragmentation, de-differentiation, pastiche, retrospection and anti-foundationalism", which they argued Madonna embodied.<a href="#cite_note-Brown2003-105">[104]</a> Christian writer <a href="/wiki/Graham_Cray" title="Graham Cray">Graham Cray</a> also said that "Madonna is perhaps the most visible example of what is called post-modernism",<a href="#cite_note-McGregor-106">[105]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Amis" title="Martin Amis">Martin Amis</a> described her as "perhaps the most postmodern personage on the planet".<a href="#cite_note-McGregor-106">[105]</a> She was also suggested by literary critic Olivier Sécardin to epitomise postmodernism.<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDirect-107">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sculpture">Sculpture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sculpture">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kunst_-_Kr%C3%B6ller_M%C3%BCller_Museum_(49806023072).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Kunst_-_Kr%C3%B6ller_M%C3%BCller_Museum_%2849806023072%29.jpg/160px-Kunst_-_Kr%C3%B6ller_M%C3%BCller_Museum_%2849806023072%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Kunst_-_Kr%C3%B6ller_M%C3%BCller_Museum_%2849806023072%29.jpg/240px-Kunst_-_Kr%C3%B6ller_M%C3%BCller_Museum_%2849806023072%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Kunst_-_Kr%C3%B6ller_M%C3%BCller_Museum_%2849806023072%29.jpg/319px-Kunst_-_Kr%C3%B6ller_M%C3%BCller_Museum_%2849806023072%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>"Trowel" (1976) by Claes Oldenburg.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a></figcaption></figure> Sculptor <a href="/wiki/Claes_Oldenburg" title="Claes Oldenburg">Claes Oldenberg</a>, at the forefront of the <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">pop art</a> movement, declared in 1961: "I am for an art that is political-erotical-mystical … I am for an art that embroils itself with everyday crap and still comes out on top."<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> That year, he opened The Store in a <a href="/wiki/Variety_store" title="Variety store">dime store</a> area of <a href="/wiki/East_Village,_Manhattan" title="East Village, Manhattan">New York's Lower East Side</a>, where he blurred the line between art and commerce by producing and selling brightly painted plaster replicas of hamburgers and cans of soda, dresses, underwear, and other everyday objects: "Museum in b[ourgeois] concept equals store in mine".<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> Oldenburg was one of the most recognizable sculptors identified with postmodernism, a group that included <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Koons" title="Jeff Koons">Jeff Koons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eva_Hesse" title="Eva Hesse">Eva Hesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louise_Bourgeois" title="Louise Bourgeois">Louise Bourgeois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anish_Kapoor" title="Anish Kapoor">Anish Kapoor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damien_Hirst" title="Damien Hirst">Damien Hirst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Whiteread" title="Rachel Whiteread">Rachel Whiteread</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Serra" title="Richard Serra">Richard Serra</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theater">Theater</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Theater">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theatre" title="Postmodern theatre">Postmodern theatre</a></div> Postmodern theater emerged as a reaction against modernist theater. Most postmodern productions are centered on highlighting the fallibility of definite truth, instead encouraging the audience to reach their own individual understanding. Essentially, thus, postmodern theater raises questions rather than attempting to supply answers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_philosophy">In philosophy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodern philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_postmodernism" title="Criticism of postmodernism">Criticism of postmodernism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poststructuralist_precursors">Poststructuralist precursors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Poststructuralist precursors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">Poststructuralism</a></div> In the 1970s, a disparate group of French theorists – often grouped together as "poststructuralists" – developed a critique of modern philosophy with roots discernible in <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>'s critique of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199122-112">[111]</a> Although few themselves relied upon the term, they became known to many as postmodern theorists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein199211-113">[112]</a> And, while their ideas exerted a great influence on debates about the postmodern, they themselves did not intervene or attempt to provide their own definitions of the postmodern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199131-114">[113]</a> Poststructuralists, like <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralists</a>, start from the assumption that people's identities, values, and economic conditions determine each other rather than having intrinsic properties that can be understood in isolation.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> While structuralism explores how meaning is produced by a set of essential relationships in an overarching quasi-linguistic system, poststructuralism accepts this premise, but rejects the assumption that such systems can ever be fixed or centered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003205-116">[115]</a> Instead, poststructuralists stress the various ways that cultural structures are produced in history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199120-117">[116]</a> They also emphasize how meaning is generated, rather than discovered, and they replace the traditional concept of "representation" (according to which meaning is determined by the objected signified) to focus instead upon the elastic potentialities of language to generate new meanings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199120-117">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jacques_Derrida_and_deconstruction">Jacques Derrida and deconstruction</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Jacques Derrida and deconstruction">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a> is a practice in philosophy, literary criticism, and close reading developed by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>. It is based on the assumption, which it seeks to validate by textual analysis, that any text harbors inherent points of "undecidability" that undermine any stable meaning intended by the author. The process of writing inevitably, he aims to show, reveals suppressed elements, challenging the oppositions that are thought to sustain the text.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds6=§2._Deconstructive_Strategy-118">[117]</a> Nevertheless, Derrida does not wish to do away with such concepts as "origin" or "truth". What he challenges is any claim to finality. Such metaphysical concepts are, as he puts it, "under erasure", and this, he says, makes deconstructive reading a kind of "double play".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker200366-119">[118]</a> From this perspective, Derrida argues that the practice of metaphysics in the Western tradition depends upon hierarchies and orders of subordination within various dualisms that it does not acknowledge. It prioritizes presence and purity over the contingent and complicated, dismissing them as aberrations irrelevant to philosophical analysis. In essence, according to Derrida, metaphysical thought prioritizes one side of an opposition while ignoring or marginalizing the alternative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds6=§2.a_Metaphysics_of_Presence/Logocentrism-120">[119]</a> He uses the term <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_presence" title="Metaphysics of presence">metaphysics of presence</a> to describe the foundationalist approach to knowledge, taking himself to have demonstrated that we do not have unmediated access to reality. This project of deconstructing and challenging the assumptions of modern philosophy was influential for many postmodern thinkers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199120-117">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Michel_Foucault_on_power_relations">Michel Foucault on power relations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Michel Foucault on power relations">edit</a>]</div> French philosopher and social theorist <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> argued that power operates according to the logics of social institutions that have become unmoored from the intentions of any actual individuals. Individuals, according to Foucault, are both products and participants in these dynamics. Among other strategies, he employed a Nietzsche-inspired "<a href="/wiki/Genealogy_(philosophy)" title="Genealogy (philosophy)">genealogical method</a>" to analyze power-relations across their historical permutations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellylead_section-121">[120]</a> Both Foucault's political orientation and the consistency of his positions continue to be debated among critics and defenders alike. Nevertheless, Foucault's political works share two common elements: a historical perspective and a discursive methodology. He analyzed social phenomena in historical contexts and focused on how they have evolved over time. Additionally, he employed the study of written texts, usually academic texts, as the material for his inquiries. In this way, Foucault sought to understand how the historical formation of discourses has shaped contemporary political thinking and institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellylead_section-121">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gilles_Deleuze_on_productive_difference">Gilles Deleuze on productive difference</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Gilles Deleuze on productive difference">edit</a>]</div> The work of <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> developed a concept of difference as a productive mechanism, rather than as a merely negative phenomenon. He advocated for a critique of reason that emphasizes sensibility and feeling over rational judgment. Following Nietzsche, Deleuze argued that philosophical critique is an encounter between thought and what forces it into action, and that this requires training, discipline, inventiveness, and even a certain "cruelty". He believed that thought cannot activate itself, but needs external forces to awaken and move it. Art, science, and philosophy can provide such activation through their transformative and experimental nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015§4._Productive_Difference-122">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jean_Baudrillard_on_hyperreality">Jean Baudrillard on hyperreality</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Jean Baudrillard on hyperreality">edit</a>]</div> Although trained in sociology, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a> worked across many disciplines. Drawing upon <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan#Three_orders_(plus_one)" title="Jacques Lacan">some of the technical vocabulary</a> of the psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>, Baudrillard argued that social production had shifted from creating real objects to instead producing signs and symbols. This system of symbolic exchange, detached from the real, constitutes hyperreality. In the words of one commentator, "the hyperreal is a system of simulation that simulates itself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015§6._Hyperreality-123">[122]</a> Postmodernity, Baudrillard said, is the condition in which the domain of reality has become so heavily mediated by signs as to become inaccessible in itself, leaving us entirely in the domain of the <a href="/wiki/Simulacra" class="mw-redirect" title="Simulacra">simulacra</a>, images that bear no relation to anything outside of themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor2004568–69-124">[123]</a> This hyperreality is presented as the terminal stage of simulation, where signs and images become entirely self-referential.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015§6._Hyperreality-123">[122]</a> Baudrillard's vision of postmodernity has been described as "apocalyptic",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstable200443–47-125">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995109-126">[125]</a> and scholars disagree about whether his later works are intended as <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> or truthful theoretical claims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellner2020§6._Concluding_Assessment-127">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_crisis_of_legitimacy">A crisis of legitimacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: A crisis of legitimacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Postmodern_Condition">The Postmodern Condition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: The Postmodern Condition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Francois_Lyotard_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Jean-Francois_Lyotard_cropped.jpg/220px-Jean-Francois_Lyotard_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Jean-Francois_Lyotard_cropped.jpg/330px-Jean-Francois_Lyotard_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Jean-Francois_Lyotard_cropped.jpg/440px-Jean-Francois_Lyotard_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="1182" /></a><figcaption>Philosopher Jean-Francois Lyotard, photo by <a href="/wiki/Bracha_L._Ettinger" title="Bracha L. Ettinger">Bracha L. Ettinger</a>, 1995</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a> is credited with being the first to use the term "postmodern" in a philosophical context. This appeared in his 1979 <a href="/wiki/The_Postmodern_Condition:_A_Report_on_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge">The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge</a>. In this influential work, Lyotard provided the following definition: "Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity towards metanarratives".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyotard1984xxiv-128">[127]</a> By "metanarratives", Lyotard meant such overarching narrative frameworks as those provided by <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> that unite and determine our basic sense of our place and significance in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwitz2008Theories_of_the_Postmodern-129">[128]</a> In a society with no unifying narrative, he argued, we are left with heterogeneous, group-specific narratives (or "<a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">language games</a>", as adopted from <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a>) with no universal perspective from which to adjudicate among them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015§2_The_Postmodern_Condition-130">[129]</a> According to Lyotard, this introduced a general crisis of legitimacy, a theme he adopts from the philosopher <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>, whose theory of <a href="/wiki/Communicative_rationality" title="Communicative rationality">communicative rationality</a> Lyotard rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995111-131">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyotard198465–66-132">[131]</a> While he was particularly concerned in that report with the way that this insight undermined claims of scientific objectivity, Lyotard's argument undermines the entire principle of transcendent legitimization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995119–21-133">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyotard1984xxiii–xxv-134">[133]</a> Instead, proponents of a language game must make the case for their legitimacy with reference to such considerations as efficiency or practicality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> Far from celebrating the apparently relativistic consequences of this argument, however, Lyotard focused much of his subsequent work on how links among games could be established, particularly with respect to ethics and politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGratton2018§§3.2–3.4-135">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_philosophical_criticism_of_Jürgen_Habermas">The philosophical criticism of Jürgen Habermas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The philosophical criticism of Jürgen Habermas">edit</a>]</div> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>, a prominent critic of philosophical postmodernism, argued in his 1985 work <a href="/wiki/The_Philosophical_Discourse_of_Modernity" title="The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity">The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity</a> that postmodern thinkers were caught in a performative contradiction, more specifically, that their critiques of modernity rely on concepts and methods that are themselves products of modern reason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015§9-136">[135]</a> Habermas criticized these thinkers for their rejection of the subject and their embrace of experimental, avant-garde strategies. He asserted that their critiques of modernism ultimately lead to a longing for the very subject they seek to dismantle. Habermas also took issue with postmodernists' leveling of the distinction between philosophy and literature. He argued that such rhetorical strategies undermine the importance of argument and <a href="/wiki/Communicative_rationality" title="Communicative rationality">communicative reason</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015§9-136">[135]</a> Habermas's critique of postmodernism set the stage for much of the subsequent debate by clarifying some of its key underlying issues. According to scholar Gary Aylesworth – against those who would dismiss postmodernist discourse as simple nonsense – the fact that Habermas was "able to read postmodernist texts closely and discursively testifies to their intelligibility". His engagement with their ideas has lead some postmodern philosophers, such as Lyotard, to similarly engage with Habermas's criticisms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015§9-136">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frederic_Jameson's_Marxist_rejoinder">Frederic Jameson's Marxist rejoinder</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Frederic Jameson's Marxist rejoinder">edit</a>]</div> The appearance of linguistic relativism also inspired an extensive rebuttal by the Marxist critic <a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Fredric Jameson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995108-137">[136]</a> Building upon the theoretical foundations laid out by the Marxist economist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Mandel">Ernst Mandel</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> and observations in the early work of the sociologist <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20043-138">[137]</a> Jameson developed his own conception of the postmodern as "the cultural logic of <a href="/wiki/Late_capitalism" title="Late capitalism">late capitalism</a>" in the form of an enormous cultural expansion into an economy of spectacle and style, rather than the production of goods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20043–4-139">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">[3]</a> According to Jameson, because the postmodernism is result of political and historical circumstances that make up the social world, it is not something that can be simply embraced or condemned. Instead, it must be analyzed and understood so that we may confront the world as it is.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2000120-140">[139]</a> Jameson categorizes a variety of features of the postmodern. One is the elision of the distinction between high culture and mass culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2000121-141">[140]</a> Also, because of our loss of a unified "bourgeois ego", subjectivity is less focused, and we experience what he terms a "waning of the affect", an emotional disengagement from the social world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2000124-142">[141]</a> This loss of significance leads to what he calls "depthlessness", a difficulty in getting beneath the surfaces of cultural objects to find any deeper significance than is offered directly to the subject.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2000126-143">[142]</a> Reduced to a set of styles, history looses its political force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2000128-144">[143]</a> This phenomenon finds expression, for instance, in the shift from "parody", in which styles are mixed in the interest of making a point, to "pastiche", in which styles are mixed together without attention to their original contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2000133-145">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Richard_Rorty's_neopragmatism">Richard Rorty's neopragmatism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Richard Rorty's neopragmatism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> was an American philosopher known for his linguistic form of <a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">neopragmatism</a>. Initially attracted to <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>, Rorty later rejected its representationalism. His major influences, rather than the poststructuralists, include <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Gadamer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Georg Gadamer">Hans Georg Gadamer</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>, and Martin Heidegger.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrippelead_section-146">[145]</a> Rorty challenged the notion of a mind-independent, language-independent reality. He argued that language is a tool used to adapt to the environment and achieve desired ends. This <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalistic</a> approach led him to abandon the traditional quest for a privileged mental power that allows direct access to things-in-themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrippelead_section-146">[145]</a> Instead, Rorty advocated for a focus on imaginative alternatives to present beliefs rather than the pursuit of independently grounded truths. He believed that creative, <a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular humanism</a>, free from authoritarian assertions about truth and goodness, is the key to a better future. Rorty saw his neopragmatism as a continuation of the Enlightenment project, aiming to demystify human life and replace traditional power relations with those based on tolerance and freedom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrippelead_section-146">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_society">In society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: In society">edit</a>]</div> Postmodernism is more fully understood by observing its effects in society at large, in such diverse fields as law, education, urban planning, religious studies, politics and many others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinn1996xiv-147">[146]</a> Its influence varies widely across disciplines, reflecting the extent to which postmodern theories and ideas have been integrated into actual practices. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Anthropology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_anthropology" title="Postmodernist anthropology">Postmodernist anthropology</a></div> Postmodern theory in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> originated in the 1960s, alongside the literary postmodern movement. Anthropologists working in a postmodern vein seek to dissect, interpret and write cultural critiques, analyzing of cultural texts and practices, rather than relying on empirical observation. The issue of subjectivity is a concern: as <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographies</a> are influenced by the perspective of the author, the question arises in the study of individual cultures as to whether the author's opinions should be considered scientific.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a>, considered a founding member of postmodernist anthropology,<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> advocates that, "anthropological writings are themselves interpretations, and second and third order ones to boot. (By definition, only a 'native' makes first order ones: it's his culture.)"<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> In the 21st century, some anthropologists use a form of <a href="/wiki/Standpoint_theory" title="Standpoint theory">standpoint theory</a>, which prioritizes the perspectives of the subject over the perspective of the observer in cultural interpretation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Central to postmodernist anthropology are an emphasis on including the opinions and perspectives of the people being studied;<a href="#cite_note-:5-151">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, considering values and beliefs relative to their own cultural context, as a method of inquiry;<a href="#cite_note-Garder1996-152">[151]</a> skepticism towards the claims of science to producing objective and universally valid knowledge;<a href="#cite_note-Spiro1996-153">[152]</a> and the rejection of grand, universal schemes or theories which explain other cultures.<a href="#cite_note-:5-151">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Archaeology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology" title="Post-processual archaeology">Post-processual archaeology</a></div> Significant postmodern influence is found in post-processual archaeology, sometimes called interpretative archaeology,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson199998–99-154">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> an Anglo-American movement in <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_theory" title="Archaeological theory">archaeological theory</a> that emphasizes the <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a> of archaeological interpretations, and the importance of understanding the <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">social environment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> Despite having a vague series of similarities, post-processualism consists of "very diverse strands of thought coalesced into a loose cluster of traditions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1999101-157">[156]</a> Post-processualism was heavily critical of a key tenet of processualism, namely its assertion that archaeological interpretations could, if the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> was applied, come to completely <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a> conclusions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The post-processual movement originated in the United Kingdom during the late 1970s and early 1980s, pioneered by archaeologists such as <a href="/wiki/Ian_Hodder" title="Ian Hodder">Ian Hodder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Miller_(anthropologist)" title="Daniel Miller (anthropologist)">Daniel Miller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Tilley" title="Christopher Tilley">Christopher Tilley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ucko" title="Peter Ucko">Peter Ucko</a>, responding to three central influences: Marxist-inspired <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a> that developed in France in the 1960s, postmodernism, and the new <a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_anthropology" title="Postmodernist anthropology">cultural anthropology</a> that emerged in the US.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger2007444-450-158">[157]</a> Parallel developments soon followed in the US.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Initially, post-processualism was primarily a reaction to and critique of <a href="/wiki/Processual_archaeology" title="Processual archaeology">processual archaeology</a>, a paradigm developed in the 1960s which had become dominant in Anglophone archaeology by the 1970s; proponents of processualism claimed that rigorous use of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> made it possible to get past the limits of the archaeological record.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The processual approach was itself a critique of <a href="/wiki/Culture-historical_archaeology" title="Culture-historical archaeology">culture-historical archaeology</a>, the movement that accompanied the 19th century emergence of archaeology as a distinct discipline, that defined human history in terms of ethnic and cultural groupings, studied through the objects and architecture of their <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Although itself no longer a central topic of academic debate, post-processualism's practical influence remains significant.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> In the US, archaeologists widely see post-processualism as an accompaniment to the <a href="/wiki/Processual_archaeology" title="Processual archaeology">processual movement</a>, while in the UK, they remain largely thought of as separate and opposing theoretical movements. In other parts of the world, post-processualism has made less of an impact on archaeological thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger2007477–478-161">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminism">Feminism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Feminism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern feminism</a></div> Postmodern feminism mixes <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">postmodern theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="French feminism">French feminism</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-162">[161]</a> that rejects a universal female subject.<a href="#cite_note-:1-163">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-164">[163]</a> The goal is to destabilize the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> norms entrenched in society that have led to gender inequality.<a href="#cite_note-:1-163">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a>, philosophy, and universal truths are opposed, in favor of embracing the differences that exist amongst women to demonstrate that not all women are the same.<a href="#cite_note-:4-164">[163]</a> Applying universal truths to all women in a society minimizes individual experience; ideas displayed as the norm in society stem from masculine notions of how women should be portrayed.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> Postmodern feminism seeks to analyze notions that have led to gender inequality, and attempts to promote equality through critiquing <a href="/wiki/Logocentrism" title="Logocentrism">logocentrism</a>, supporting multiple discourses, deconstructing texts, and seeking to promote <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-162">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-164">[163]</a> This approach is not readily accepted by all feminists—some believe postmodern thought undermines the attacks that <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a> attempts to create, while other feminists are in favor of the union.<a href="#cite_note-:3-162">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_law" title="Postmodern law">Postmodern law</a></div> Postmodern interpretations of the law can involve critically considering legal inequalities connected to <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Class_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Class (social)">class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of humans)">race</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a> by acknowledging "diversity and multiplicity". Critical practices connected to postmodern philosophy, such as <a href="/wiki/Critical_literacy" title="Critical literacy">critical literacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a>, can be used as an interpretative tool to ensure that a range of different and <a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">diverse</a> values and norms are acknowledged or considered.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marketing">Marketing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Marketing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_marketing" title="Postmodern marketing">Postmodern marketing</a></div> Postmodernism in marketing focuses on customized experiences where broad market generalizations are no longer applied.<a href="#cite_note-sbrown-pg192-167">[166]</a> According to academic Stephen Brown, "Marketers know about consumers, consumers know about marketers, marketers know consumers know about marketers, and consumers know marketers know consumers know about marketers." Brown, writing in 1993, stated that the postmodern approach in many ways rejects attempts to impose order and work in silos. Instead marketers should work collectively with "artistic" attributes of intuition, creativity, spontaneity, speculation, emotion, and involvement.<a href="#cite_note-sbrown-pg192-167">[166]</a> A 2020 paper in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Research" title="Journal of Business Research">Journal of Business Research</a> sought to identify the transition from postmodernism to post-postmodernism to benefit marketing efforts. Focusing on "the changing social conditions that lead the consumer to consume in a particular manner", the study takes the approach of analyzing and comparing song lyrics. Madonna is identified as postmodern and <a href="/wiki/Taylor_Swift" title="Taylor Swift">Taylor Swift</a> as post-postmodern, with <a href="/wiki/Lady_Gaga" title="Lady Gaga">Lady Gaga</a> used as a transitional example. Noting that "definitions of postmodernism are notoriously messy, frequently paradoxical and multi-faceted", five themes and characteristics of postmodernism consistently found in marketing literature – <a href="/wiki/Anti-foundationalism" title="Anti-foundationalism">anti-foundationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dedifferentiation" title="Dedifferentiation">de-differentiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(sociology)" title="Fragmentation (sociology)">fragmentation</a>, the reversal of production and consumption, and <a href="/wiki/Hyperreality" title="Hyperreality">hyper-reality</a> – were employed in the comparative analysis.<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Psychology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_psychology" title="Postmodern psychology">Postmodern psychology</a></div> Postmodernism in psychology challenges the <a href="/wiki/Modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist">modernist</a> view of psychology as the science of the individual,<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> in favor of seeing humans as a cultural/communal product, dominated by language rather than by an inner self.<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_planning">Urban planning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Urban planning">edit</a>]</div> Modernism sought to design and plan cities that followed the logic of the new model of industrial <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a>; reverting to large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardisation, and <a href="/wiki/Prefabrication" title="Prefabrication">prefabricated</a> design solutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodchild1990119–137-171">[170]</a> Modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards homogeneous landscapes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonsen199057-172">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a>'s 1961 book <a href="/wiki/The_Death_and_Life_of_Great_American_Cities" title="The Death and Life of Great American Cities">The Death and Life of Great American Cities</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrving1993479-174">[173]</a> Postmodernism has involved theories that embrace and aim to create diversity. It exalts uncertainty, flexibility, and change and rejects utopianism while embracing a utopian way of thinking and acting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatukad'Hooghe200720–27-175">[174]</a> The postmodernity of "resistance" seeks to deconstruct modernism and is a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrving1993460-176">[175]</a> As a result of postmodernism, planners are much less inclined to lay a firm or steady claim to there being one single '"right way" of engaging in urban planning and are more open to different styles and ideas of "how to plan".<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> Emerging in the mid-1980s, the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_School" title="Los Angeles School">Los Angeles School</a> of urbanism, an academic movement loosely centered around the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a>' Urban Planning Department, considered contemporary Los Angeles to be the quintessential postmodern city. This was in contrast with what had been the dominant ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago School</a>, formed in the 1920s at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, with its framework of urban ecology and emphasis on functional areas of use within a city and the concentric circles to understand the sorting of different population groups.<a href="#cite_note-Soja_2014-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Soja" title="Edward Soja">Edward Soja</a> of the Los Angeles School combined Marxist and postmodern perspectives and focused on the economic and social changes (globalization, specialization, industrialization/deindustrialization, neo-liberalism, mass migration) that lead to the creation of large city-regions with their patchwork of population groups and economic uses.<a href="#cite_note-Soja_2014-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theology">Theology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Theology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theology" title="Postmodern theology">Postmodern theology</a></div> The postmodern theological movement interprets <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a> in light of postmodern theory and various forms of post-<a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heideggerian</a> thought, using approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a> to question fixed interpretations, explore the role of <a href="/wiki/Lived_experience" title="Lived experience">lived experience</a>, and uncover hidden textual assumptions and contradictions.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> The movement emerged in the 1980s and 1990s when a handful of philosophers who took philosopher <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> as a common point of departure began publishing influential books engaging with Christian theology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanhoozer200322–25-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> Such works include <a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a>'s God Without Being (1982), <a href="/wiki/Mark_C._Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Mark C. Taylor (philosopher)">Mark C. Taylor</a>'s Erring (1984), <a href="/wiki/Charles_Winquist" title="Charles Winquist">Charles Winquist</a>'s Desiring Theology (1994), <a href="/wiki/John_D._Caputo" title="John D. Caputo">John D. Caputo</a>'s The Prayers and Tears of Jacques Derrida (1997), and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Raschke" title="Carl Raschke">Carl Raschke</a>'s The End of Theology (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Postmodern Theology (2003) combined and expanded on other scholarly classifications to present seven types of postmodern theology: postliberal, postmetaphysical, deconstructive, reconstructive, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">feminist</a>, Anglo-American postmodernity, and <a href="/wiki/Radical_orthodoxy" title="Radical orthodoxy">radical orthodoxy</a>. It notes that the typology should be considered "provisional and fallible [yet] not entirely arbitrary", having met two main criteria: each is an approach taken by more than one theologian, and each "believes itself to be responding to, rejecting, or passing through modernity, not inhabiting it."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanhoozer200320-184">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing sentiment in popular culture and in academia that postmodernism "has gone out of fashion".<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> Others argue that postmodernism is dead in the context of current cultural production.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> In "White Noise/White Heat, or Why the Postmodern Turn in Rock Music Led to Nothing but Road" (2004), literary critic and professor of English and comparative literature <a href="/wiki/Larry_McCaffery" title="Larry McCaffery">Larry McCaffery</a> reexamined his rock music essay, "White Noise", published in the journal <a href="/wiki/American_Book_Review" title="American Book Review">American Book Review</a> in 1990. He noted "the almost casual assurance" of its definition of postmodernism, and the "easy assumption throughout that it is possible to draw analogies about the 'innovative features' of fundamentally different media, such as music and fiction." From his 2004 perspective, he says, "If I were writing such an essay today I would omit 'postmodernism' entirely because I no longer believe that I (or anyone else for that matter) can articulate with any degree of coherence or specificity what 'postmodernism' is, or was, what it's supposed to mean, or, indeed, whether it ever existed at all."<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> In 2011, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism:_Style_and_Subversion_1970%E2%80%931990" title="Postmodernism: Style and Subversion 1970–1990">Postmodernism: Style and Subversion 1970–1990</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a> in London, was billed as "the first in-depth survey of art, design and architecture of the 1970s and 1980s".<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> The first of three "broadly chronological" sections focused mainly on architecture, "the discipline in which the ideas of postmodernism first emerged", as well as certain designers. The second section featured 1980s design, art, music, fashion, performance, and club culture. The final section examined "the hyper-inflated commodity culture of the 1980s", focusing on money as "a source of endless fascination for artists, designers and authors".<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> A review in the journal <a href="/wiki/Design_Issues" title="Design Issues">Design Issues</a> noted the "daunting prospect" of critiquing an exhibition "on what might be considered the most slippery, indefinable 'movement'", and wondered what the curators must have felt: "One reviewer thought it 'a risky curatorial undertaking,' and even the curators themselves admit it could be seen as 'a fool's errand.'"<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-postmodernism">Post-postmodernism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Post-postmodernism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metamodernism" title="Metamodernism">Metamodernism</a></div> The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and <a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">cyborgism</a> has led to a challenge to postmodernism, for which the terms <a href="/wiki/Post-postmodernism" title="Post-postmodernism">Post-postmodernism</a> and postpoststructuralism were first coined in 2003:<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> More recently <a href="/wiki/Metamodernism" title="Metamodernism">metamodernism</a>, post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth-Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace". A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), <a href="/wiki/Gilles_Lipovetsky" title="Gilles Lipovetsky">Gilles Lipovetsky</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypermodernity" title="Hypermodernity">hypermodernity</a>), <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Bourriaud" title="Nicolas Bourriaud">Nicolas Bourriaud</a> (<a href="/wiki/Altermodern" title="Altermodern">altermodern</a>), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories or labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. Sociocultural anthropologist Nina Müller-Schwarze offers neostructuralism as a possible direction.<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215345927">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .multicol-float{width:auto!important}}.mw-parser-output .multicol-float{clear:none;float:left}.mw-parser-output .multicol-float-clear{clear:both}</style><div class="multicol-float" style="width:35em"> <dl><dt>Theory</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-foundationalism" title="Anti-foundationalism">Anti-foundationalism</a> – Epistemology without sure premises</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmodernism" title="Transmodernism">Transmodernism</a> – Philosophical and cultural movement</li></ul> <dl><dt>Culture and politics</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defamiliarization" title="Defamiliarization">Defamiliarization</a> – Artistic technique of presenting common things in an unfamiliar or strange way</li></ul> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215345927"><div class="multicol-float" style="width:35em"> <dl><dt>Religion</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_religion" title="Postmodern religion">Postmodern religion</a> – Religion influenced by postmodernism</li></ul> <dl><dt>History</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_modernity" title="Second modernity">Second modernity</a> – Industrial society transformed into a more reflexive network society or information society</li></ul> <dl><dt>Opposed by</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altermodern" title="Altermodern">Altermodern</a> – term for art that reacts against standardisation and commercialismPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remodernism" title="Remodernism">Remodernism</a> – Present-day modernist philosophical movement</li></ul> </div><div class="multicol-float-clear" style=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> English translation, 1984. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHall2019" class="citation book cs1">Hall, William (2019). Stone. Phaidon. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7925-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7925-3"><bdi>978-0-7148-7925-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stone&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smow.com/philippe-starck/louis-ghost.html">"Philippe Starck, a pair of 'Louis Ghost' armchairs, Kartell. - Bukowskis"</a>. smow.com. Retrieved 19 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=smow.com&rft.atitle=Philippe+Starck%2C+a+pair+of+%27Louis+Ghost%27+armchairs%2C+Kartell.+-+Bukowskis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smow.com%2Fphilippe-starck%2Flouis-ghost.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchanan2018_3-12">m</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuchanan2018">Buchanan 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199511-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199511_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor2013567_5-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFConnor2013">Connor 2013</a>, p. 567. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwitz2008Historical_and_Conceptual_Overview-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerwitz2008Historical_and_Conceptual_Overview_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerwitz2008">Herwitz 2008</a>, Historical and Conceptual Overview. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19953-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens19953_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens19953_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAylesworth2015">Aylesworth 2015</a>, Introduction. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003204-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003204_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrooker2003">Brooker 2003</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVanhoozer20033-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVanhoozer20033_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVanhoozer2003">Vanhoozer 2003</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor200417-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor200417_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConnor2004">Connor 2004</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19954–5-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens19954–5_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens19954–5_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199546-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199546_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenand2009" class="citation magazine cs1">Menand, Louis (15 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/02/23/saved-from-drowning">"Saved from Drowning"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>. Retrieved 5 November 2024. <q>This is partly because, like many terms that begin with "post," it is fundamentally ambidextrous. Postmodernism can mean, "We're all modernists now. Modernism has won." Or it can mean, "No one can be a modernist anymore. Modernism is over."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Saved+from+Drowning&rft.date=2009-02-15&rft.aulast=Menand&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2009%2F02%2F23%2Fsaved-from-drowning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_magazine" title="Template:Cite magazine">cite magazine</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Hebdige-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Hebdige_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHebdige2006" class="citation book cs1">Hebdige, Dick (2006). "Postmodernism and "the other side"". In Storey, John (ed.). Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A reader. London: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Postmodernism+and+%22the+other+side%22&rft.btitle=Cultural+Theory+and+Popular+Culture%3A+A+reader&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Hebdige&rft.aufirst=Dick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199510-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199510_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJin2023" class="citation journal cs1">Jin, Huimin (September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/publications/4m90f310d">"Postmodernism in the 21st Century Pros and Cons"</a>. Journal of East-West Thought. 13 (3): 19 – via ScholarWorks. <q>[W]hen we talk about what postmodernism is, we are not talking about any individual theorist titled postmodern, but those common characteristics he or she shares with a community of similarly titled theorists. In this sense, postmodernism is not peculiar to any individual theorist but refers to a trend of thought, a climate, and an atmosphere to which none is immune,.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+East-West+Thought&rft.atitle=Postmodernism+in+the+21st+Century+Pros+and+Cons&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=19&rft.date=2023-09&rft.aulast=Jin&rft.aufirst=Huimin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.calstate.edu%2Fconcern%2Fpublications%2F4m90f310d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartMartinHinrichs2020" class="citation book cs1">Hart, James D.; Martin, Wendy; Hinrichs, Danielle, eds. (2020). "postmodernism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191872112.001.0001/acref-9780191872112">The Concise Oxford Companion to American Literature</a> (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191872112.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780191872112.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-187211-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-187211-2"><bdi>978-0-19-187211-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=postmodernism&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Literature&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191872112.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-187211-2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191872112.001.0001%2Facref-9780191872112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeise2004" class="citation cs2">Heise, Ursula K. (2004), Connor, Steven (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-postmodernism/science-technology-and-postmodernism/7DB89463B7564CFED387E95223F365A0">"Science, technology, and postmodernism"</a>, The Cambridge Companion to Postmodernism, Cambridge Companions to Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 136–167, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fccol0521640520.008">10.1017/ccol0521640520.008</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64052-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64052-7"><bdi>978-0-521-64052-7</bdi></a>, retrieved 13 November 2024, <q>These critiques do not form a homogeneous body of argument. They differ substantially and sometimes contradict one another .. Nevertheless, certain basic lines of reasoning recur frequently enough ... that they can convey the conceptual backbone of many postmodernist critiques of science.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Postmodernism&rft.atitle=Science%2C+technology%2C+and+postmodernism&rft.pages=136-167&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fccol0521640520.008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64052-7&rft.aulast=Heise&rft.aufirst=Ursula+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-companion-to-postmodernism%2Fscience-technology-and-postmodernism%2F7DB89463B7564CFED387E95223F365A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGantt2024" class="citation web cs1">Gantt, Edwin E. (22 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publicsquaremag.org/media-education/education/the-academys-creed-of-skepticism/">"The Academy's Creed of Skepticism"</a>. Public Square Magazine. Retrieved 15 October 2024. <q>Rather than a clearly defined system of thought, fixed body of ideas, or unified movement and set of agreed-upon critical methods and techniques, however, postmodernism is perhaps "best understood as a state of mind, a critical, self-referential posture, and style, a different way of seeking and working." Indeed, a persistent rejection of scientific methodologies, moral understandings, universal truth, and reductive rationalistic explanation is a hallmark of the postmodern response to ... scientistic aspirations of Enlightenment modernism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Public+Square+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Academy%27s+Creed+of+Skepticism&rft.date=2024-03-22&rft.aulast=Gantt&rft.aufirst=Edwin+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublicsquaremag.org%2Fmedia-education%2Feducation%2Fthe-academys-creed-of-skepticism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErmarth2016" class="citation cs2">Ermarth, Elizabeth Deeds (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/postmodernism/v-1">"Postmodernism"</a>, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1 ed.), London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-n044-1">10.4324/9780415249126-n044-1</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6"><bdi>978-0-415-25069-6</bdi></a>, retrieved 7 October 2024, <q>Although diverse and eclectic, postmodernism can be recognized by two key assumptions: first, the assumption that there is no common denominator – in 'nature' or 'truth' or 'God' or 'time' – that guarantees either the One-ness of the world or the possibility of neutral, objective thought; second, the assumption that all human systems operate like language as self-reflexive rather than referential systems, in other words systems of differential function that are powerful but finite, and that construct and maintain meaning and value.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Postmodernism&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780415249126-n044-1&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25069-6&rft.aulast=Ermarth&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Deeds&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Fthematic%2Fpostmodernism%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlages2001" class="citation web cs1">Klages, Mary (6 December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~sflores/KlagesPostmodernism.html">"Postmodernism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Idaho" title="University of Idaho">University of Idaho</a>. Retrieved 15 October 2024. <q>Postmodernism, like modernism [rejects] boundaries between high and low forms of art, rejecting rigid genre distinctions, emphasizing pastiche, parody, bricolage, irony, and playfulness. Postmodern art (and thought) favors reflexivity and self-consciousness, fragmentation and discontinuity (especially in narrative structures), ambiguity, simultaneity, and an emphasis on the destructured, decentered, dehumanized subject. But--while postmodernism seems very much like modernism in these ways, it differs from modernism in its attitude toward a lot of these trends. ... Modernism, for example, tends to present a fragmented view of human subjectivity and history ... as something tragic, something to be lamented and mourned as a loss. ... Postmodernism, in contrast, doesn't lament the idea of fragmentation, provisionality, or incoherence, but rather celebrates that. The world is meaningless? Let's not pretend that art can make meaning then, let's just play with nonsense.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Idaho&rft.atitle=Postmodernism&rft.date=2001-12-06&rft.aulast=Klages&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webpages.uidaho.edu%2F~sflores%2FKlagesPostmodernism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath1996" class="citation book cs1">McGrath, Alister E. (1996). A passion for truth: the intellectual coherence of evangelicalism (1. publ ed.). Leicester: Apollos. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85111-447-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85111-447-7"><bdi>978-0-85111-447-7</bdi></a>. <q>Postmodernism is generally taken to be something of a cultural sensibility without absolutes, fixed certainties or foundations, which takes delight in pluralism and divergence, and which aims to think through the radical 'situatedness' of all human thought</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+passion+for+truth%3A+the+intellectual+coherence+of+evangelicalism&rft.place=Leicester&rft.pages=184&rft.edition=1.+publ&rft.pub=Apollos&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-85111-447-7&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBestKellner1991">Best & Kellner 1991</a>: "Aesthetic modernity emerged in the new avant-garde modernist movements and bohemian subcultures, which rebelled against the alienating aspects of industrialization and rationalization, while seeking to transform culture and to find creative self-realization in art. Modernity entered everyday life through the dissemination of modern art, the products of consumer society, new technologies, and new modes of transportation and communication. The dynamics by which modernity produced a new industrial and colonial world can be described as ‘modernization’ - a term denoting those processes of individualization, secularization, industrialization, cultural differentiation, commodification, urbanization, bureaucratization, and rationalization which together have constituted the modern world.", p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2014" class="citation book cs1">Scott, John, ed. (2014). A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford Reference (4. ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968358-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968358-1"><bdi>978-0-19-968358-1</bdi></a>. <q>Postmodernity, in whatever guise it appears, thus implies the disintegration of modernist symbolic orders. It denies the existence of all 'universals', including the philosophy of the transcendental self, on the grounds that the discourse and referential categories of modernity (the subject, community, the state, use-value, social class, and so forth) are no longer appropriate to the description of disorganized capitalism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Sociology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+Reference&rft.edition=4.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-968358-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGambino2011" class="citation web cs1">Gambino, Megan (22 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ask-an-expert-what-is-the-difference-between-modern-and-postmodern-art-87883230/">"Ask an Expert: What is the Difference Between Modern and Postmodern Art?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian Magazine">Smithsonian Magazine</a>. Retrieved 19 November 2024. <q>"I have heard all kinds of theories," says [museum curator Melissa] Ho. "I think the truth is that modernity didn't happen at a particular date. It was this gradual transformation that happened over a couple hundred of years." Of course, the two times that, for practical reasons, dates need to be set are when teaching art history courses and organizing museums. In Ho's experience, modern art typically starts around the 1860s, while the postmodern period takes root at the end of the 1950s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Ask+an+Expert%3A+What+is+the+Difference+Between+Modern+and+Postmodern+Art%3F&rft.date=2011-09-22&rft.aulast=Gambino&rft.aufirst=Megan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Farts-culture%2Fask-an-expert-what-is-the-difference-between-modern-and-postmodern-art-87883230%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerman1991" class="citation journal cs1">Herman, David J. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1772982">"Modernism versus Postmodernism: Towards an Analytic Distinction"</a>. Poetics Today. 12 (1): 55–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1772982">10.2307/1772982</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0333-5372">0333-5372</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1772982">1772982</a>. <q>Thus one and the same set of evaluative criteria allows commentators to specify in two contradictory ways the relation that modernism bears to postmodernism. On the basis of these criteria modernism can be seen, under different conditions of observation, either as (1) the genuinely emancipatory cultural movement to which postmodernism is but a parasitical and reactionary successor, or as (2) a germ of liberation whose outworn husk it took the radical energies of postmodernism to strip away at last.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Poetics+Today&rft.atitle=Modernism+versus+Postmodernism%3A+Towards+an+Analytic+Distinction&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-86&rft.date=1991&rft.issn=0333-5372&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1772982%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1772982&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1772982&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaither2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gaither, Gloria (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/article/218346">"John Steinbeck: The Postmodern Mind in the Modern Age"</a>. Steinbeck Review. 1 (1): 53–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fstr.2007.0006">10.1353/str.2007.0006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1938-6214">1938-6214</a>. <q>In real life experience Modern individualism, autonomy and personal freedom had too often produced isolation, loneliness, estrangement, and the disintegration of community. The science that was to free humanity from vulnerability to nature and solve medical, societal, and governmental problems was beginning to be questioned as a savior, as pollution, toxin-generated illness, and stress-induced diseases began to emerge as threats. At present the disillusionment with the Modern promise has blossomed into a recognizable era with some identifiable (though not easily definable) sensibilities commonly known as postmodern.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Steinbeck+Review&rft.atitle=John+Steinbeck%3A+The+Postmodern+Mind+in+the+Modern+Age&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-68&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fstr.2007.0006&rft.issn=1938-6214&rft.aulast=Gaither&rft.aufirst=Gloria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F218346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelschSandbothe199776-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelschSandbothe199776_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWelschSandbothe199776_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWelschSandbothe1997">Welsch & Sandbothe 1997</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassan198712ff-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHassan198712ff_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHassan1987">Hassan 1987</a>, pp. 12ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003202-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003202_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrooker2003">Brooker 2003</a>, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19954-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens19954_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHassan198712ff.-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHassan198712ff._33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHassan1987">Hassan 1987</a>, pp. 12ff.. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/postmodern_adj?tab=factsheet">"postmodern (adjective & noun)"</a>. Oxford English Dictionary. 2006. Retrieved 9 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=postmodern+%28adjective+%26+noun%29&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpostmodern_adj%3Ftab%3Dfactsheet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1914733-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1914733_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThompson1914">Thompson 1914</a>, p. 733. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merriam+Webster%27s+Collegiate+Dictionary&rft.date=2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadsen1995-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadsen1995_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadsen1995">Madsen 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell1926-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell1926_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBell1926">Bell 1926</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirzer2015-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirzer2015_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBirzer2015">Birzer 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussello2007-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussello2007_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRussello2007">Russello 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee196143-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToynbee196143_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFToynbee1961">Toynbee 1961</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/postmodernism_n">"postmodernism (n.)"</a>. OED. 2006. Retrieved 8 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OED&rft.atitle=postmodernism+%28n.%29&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpostmodernism_n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199519-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199519_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199519_43-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003203-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003203_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrooker2003203_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrooker2003">Brooker 2003</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199530-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199530_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20045-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor20045_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor20045_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor20045_46-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFConnor2004">Connor 2004</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995201-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens1995201_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor200412-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor200412_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor200412_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor200412_48-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFConnor2004">Connor 2004</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction_&_§2-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction_&_§2_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAylesworth2015Introduction_&_§2_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAylesworth2015">Aylesworth 2015</a>, Introduction & §2. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1998" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Perry (1998). The Origins of Postmodernity. Verso. pp. 6–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Postmodernity&rft.pages=6-12&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Perry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199521-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199521_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199524-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199524_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199122–23-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199122–23_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBestKellner1991">Best & Kellner 1991</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199555-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199555_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199559–60-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199559–60_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, pp. 59–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199121-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBestKellner199121_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBestKellner1991">Best & Kellner 1991</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199570-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199570_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19957,_79-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens19957,_79_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, pp. 7, 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens19958,_70-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens19958,_70_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, pp. 8, 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens199592-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens199592_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertens1995190–96-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBertens1995190–96_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBertens1995">Bertens 1995</a>, pp. 190–96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor20044-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnor20044_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConnor2004">Connor 2004</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2015" class="citation web cs1">Jenkins, Sarah (25 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theartstory.org/definition/postmodernism/">"Postmodern Art"</a>. The Art Story. Retrieved 23 October 2024. <q>The [postmodern] reaction took on multiple artistic forms for the next four decades, including Conceptual art, Minimalism, Video art, Performance art, Institutional Critique, and Identity Art. These movements are diverse and disparate but connected by certain characteristics: ironical and playful treatment of a fragmented subject, the breakdown of high and low culture hierarchies, undermining of concepts of authenticity and originality, and an emphasis on image and spectacle.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Art+Story&rft.atitle=Postmodern+Art&rft.date=2015-01-25&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theartstory.org%2Fdefinition%2Fpostmodernism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/postmodernism">"Postmodernism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tate_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tate Museum">Tate Museum</a>. Retrieved 23 October 2024. <q>As an art movement postmodernism to some extent defies definition – as there is no one postmodern style or theory on which it is hinged. It embraces many different approaches to art making, and may be said to begin with pop art in the 1960s and to embrace much of what followed including conceptual art, neo-expressionism, feminist art, and the Young British Artists of the 1990s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tate+Museum&rft.atitle=Postmodernism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tate.org.uk%2Fart%2Fart-terms%2Fp%2Fpostmodernism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/contemporary_art/background1.html">"About Contemporary Art"</a>. <a href="/wiki/J_Paul_Getty_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="J Paul Getty Museum">J Paul Getty Museum</a>. Retrieved 23 October 2024. <q>Contemporary artists working within the postmodern movement reject the concept of mainstream art and embrace the notion of "artistic pluralism," the acceptance of a variety of artistic intentions and styles. Whether influenced by or grounded in performance art, pop art, Minimalism, conceptual art, or video, contemporary artists pull from an infinite variety of materials, sources, and styles to create art. For this reason, it is difficult to briefly summarize and accurately reflect the complexity of concepts and materials used by contemporary artists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=J+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.atitle=About+Contemporary+Art&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.getty.edu%2Feducation%2Fteachers%2Fclassroom_resources%2Fcurricula%2Fcontemporary_art%2Fbackground1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarg2024" class="citation web cs1">Karg, Alexandra (27 August 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecollector.com/postmodern-art/">"What is Postmodern Art? The Genre Defined in 8 Iconic Works"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Collector" title="The Collector">The Collector</a>. Retrieved 23 October 2024. <q>It must be emphasized ... that postmodern art cannot be limited to a single style or theory. Many art forms are considered postmodern art. These include Pop Art, Conceptual Art, Neo-Expressionism, Feminist Art, and the art of the Young British Artists in the 1990s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Collector&rft.atitle=What+is+Postmodern+Art%3F+The+Genre+Defined+in+8+Iconic+Works&rft.date=2024-08-27&rft.aulast=Karg&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecollector.com%2Fpostmodern-art%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-68"><a href="#cite_ref-:14_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcocella2020" class="citation magazine cs1">Acocella, Joan (1 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/06/08/untangling-andy-warhol">"Untangling Andy Warhol"</a>. The New Yorker. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-792X">0028-792X</a>. Retrieved 1 April 2024. <q>There was no huger reputation than Warhol's in the art of the sixties, and in late-twentieth-century art there was no more important decade than the sixties. Much of the art that has followed, in the United States, is unthinkable without him (...)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Untangling+Andy+Warhol&rft.date=2020-06-01&rft.issn=0028-792X&rft.aulast=Acocella&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2020%2F06%2F08%2Funtangling-andy-warhol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-69"><a href="#cite_ref-:13_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalf2018" class="citation news cs1">Metcalf, Stephen (6 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/01/andy-warhol-pop-art-whitney/576412/">"Andy Warhol, Cold and Mute, Is the Perfect Artist for Our Times"</a>. The Atlantic. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2151-9463">2151-9463</a>. Retrieved 1 April 2024. <q>He's now widely regarded as the most important artist of the second half of the 20th century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Andy+Warhol%2C+Cold+and+Mute%2C+Is+the+Perfect+Artist+for+Our+Times&rft.date=2018-12-06&rft.issn=2151-9463&rft.aulast=Metcalf&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2019%2F01%2Fandy-warhol-pop-art-whitney%2F576412%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theartstory.org/artist/warhol-andy/">"Andy Warhol"</a>. The Art Story. Retrieved 26 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Art+Story&rft.atitle=Andy+Warhol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theartstory.org%2Fartist%2Fwarhol-andy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2012" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Brenna (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://origins.osu.edu/milestones/november-2012-andy-warhol-s-campbell-s-soup-cans-1962">"Andy Warhol's Campbell's Soup Cans, 1962"</a>. Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective, <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a>. Retrieved 25 October 2024. <q>In the 50 years since they first went on display, Andy Warhol's 32 Campbell's Soup Cans have become a canonical symbol of American Pop Art.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Origins%3A+Current+Events+in+Historical+Perspective%2C+Ohio+State+University&rft.atitle=Andy+Warhol%27s+Campbell%27s+Soup+Cans%2C+1962&rft.date=2012-11&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Brenna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forigins.osu.edu%2Fmilestones%2Fnovember-2012-andy-warhol-s-campbell-s-soup-cans-1962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-paglia-72"><a href="#cite_ref-paglia_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150131083911/http://www.ipod.org.uk/reality/art_bollocks.asp">"Art Bollocks"</a>. Ipod.org.uk. 5 May 1990. Archived from the original on 31 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Art+Bollocks&rft.pub=Ipod.org.uk&rft.date=1990-05-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipod.org.uk%2Freality%2Fart_bollocks.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Castro2015" class="citation magazine cs1">de Castro, Eliana (12 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faustomag.com/camille-paglia-postmodernism-is-a-plague-upon-the-mind-and-the-heart/">"Camille Paglia: "Postmodernism is a plague upon the mind and the heart""</a>. FAUSTO - Filosofia, Cultura e Literatura Clássica. <q>Postmodernism is a plague upon the mind and the heart.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FAUSTO+-+Filosofia%2C+Cultura+e+Literatura+Cl%C3%A1ssica&rft.atitle=Camille+Paglia%3A+%22Postmodernism+is+a+plague+upon+the+mind+and+the+heart%22&rft.date=2015-12-12&rft.aulast=de+Castro&rft.aufirst=Eliana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffaustomag.com%2Fcamille-paglia-postmodernism-is-a-plague-upon-the-mind-and-the-heart%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJencks1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Jencks" title="Charles Jencks">Jencks, Charles</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fdtUAAAAMAAJ&q=The+rise+of+Post-Modern+architecture">"The Rise of Post Modern Architecture"</a>. Architectural Association Quarterly. 7 (4): 3–14 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Architectural+Association+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Post+Modern+Architecture&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=3-14&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Jencks&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfdtUAAAAMAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Brise%2Bof%2BPost-Modern%2Barchitecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJencks1977" class="citation book cs1">Jencks, Charles (1977). The language of post-modern architecture. New York: Rizzoli. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-0167-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-0167-5"><bdi>0-8478-0167-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+language+of+post-modern+architecture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Rizzoli&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-8478-0167-5&rft.aulast=Jencks&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeal2022" class="citation web cs1">Beal, Justin (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jencksfoundation.org/explore/text/what-is-was-post-modern-or-never-take-the-marble-for-granite#77c4d4167e90">"What is/was Post-Modern (or Never Take the Marble for Granite)"</a>. Jencks Foundation. Retrieved 6 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jencks+Foundation&rft.atitle=What+is%2Fwas+Post-Modern+%28or+Never+Take+the+Marble+for+Granite%29&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Beal&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jencksfoundation.org%2Fexplore%2Ftext%2Fwhat-is-was-post-modern-or-never-take-the-marble-for-granite%2377c4d4167e90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJencks1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Jencks" title="Charles Jencks">Jencks, Charles</a> (1974). The Language of Post-Modern Architecture. London: Academy Editions.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+Post-Modern+Architecture&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Academy+Editions&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Jencks&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrell2017" class="citation book cs1">Farrell, Terry (2017). Revisiting Postmodernism. Newcastle upon Tyne: <a href="/wiki/RIBA_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="RIBA Publishing">RIBA Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85946-632-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85946-632-2"><bdi>978-1-85946-632-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revisiting+Postmodernism&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=RIBA+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-85946-632-2&rft.aulast=Farrell&rft.aufirst=Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchudel2018" class="citation web cs1">Schudel, Matt (28 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/robert-venturi-postmodern-architect-less-is-a-bore-a8555936.html">"Remembering Robert Venturi, the US architect who said: 'Less is a bore'"</a>. Independent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221016075701/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/robert-venturi-postmodern-architect-less-is-a-bore-a8555936.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 24 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Independent&rft.atitle=Remembering+Robert+Venturi%2C+the+US+architect+who+said%3A+%27Less+is+a+bore%27&rft.date=2018-09-28&rft.aulast=Schudel&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Frobert-venturi-postmodern-architect-less-is-a-bore-a8555936.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanes2008-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanes2008_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBanes2008_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBanes2008">Banes 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_81-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuadagnino2019" class="citation web cs1">Guadagnino, Kate (20 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/20/t-magazine/postmodern-dance.html">"The pioneers of postmodern dance, 60 years later"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>. Retrieved 19 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+pioneers+of+postmodern+dance%2C+60+years+later&rft.date=2019-03-20&rft.aulast=Guadagnino&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F03%2F20%2Ft-magazine%2Fpostmodern-dance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCustodio2019" class="citation web cs1">Custodio, Isabel (24 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moma.org/magazine/articles/29">"The Voices of Judson Dance Theater"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">MoMA Magazine</a>. Retrieved 19 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MoMA+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Voices+of+Judson+Dance+Theater&rft.date=2019-01-24&rft.aulast=Custodio&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.moma.org%2Fmagazine%2Farticles%2F29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeihl2009" class="citation web cs1">Deihl, Nancy (2 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/display/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7002082725">"Post-modernism in fashion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Art_Online" title="Grove Art Online">Grove Art Online</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.article.t2082725">10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t2082725</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884446-05-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884446-05-4"><bdi>978-1-884446-05-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 14 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grove+Art+Online&rft.atitle=Post-modernism+in+fashion&rft.date=2009-07-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.article.t2082725&rft.isbn=978-1-884446-05-4&rft.aulast=Deihl&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordartonline.com%2Fgroveart%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.001.0001%2Foao-9781884446054-e-7002082725&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-84"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeihl2009" class="citation web cs1">Deihl, Nancy (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/display/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7002081175">"Westwood [née Swire], Vivienne"</a>. Grove Art Online. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.article.t2081175">10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t2081175</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884446-05-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884446-05-4"><bdi>978-1-884446-05-4</bdi></a>. 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Beginning postmodernism (1st ed.). Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. pp. 214–218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5211-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5211-8"><bdi>978-0-7190-5211-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beginning+postmodernism&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pages=214-218&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-5211-8&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive.org-90"><a href="#cite_ref-archive.org_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetz2009" class="citation web cs1">Betz, Mark (23 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/betz_beyond-the-subtitle-remapping-european-art-cinema">"Beyond the subtitle : remapping European art cinema"</a>. Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+subtitle+%3A+remapping+European+art+cinema&rft.pub=Minneapolis+%3A+University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2009-03-23&rft.aulast=Betz&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbetz_beyond-the-subtitle-remapping-european-art-cinema&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mary1-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Mary1_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlemany-Galway2002" class="citation book cs1">Alemany-Galway, Mary (2002). A Postmodern Cinema. Kent, England: Scarecrow Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Postmodern+Cinema&rft.place=Kent%2C+England&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Alemany-Galway&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherlock2021" class="citation web cs1">Sherlock, Ben (21 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gamerant.com/80s-movie-invented-tech-noir/">"One Movie Both Invented and Perfected the Tech Noir"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Game_Rant" class="mw-redirect" title="Game Rant">Game Rant</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Game+Rant&rft.atitle=One+Movie+Both+Invented+and+Perfected+the+Tech+Noir&rft.date=2021-02-21&rft.aulast=Sherlock&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgamerant.com%2F80s-movie-invented-tech-noir%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBegley2004" class="citation journal cs1">Begley, Varun (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43797175">""Blade Runner" and the Postmodern: A Reconsideration"</a>. Literature/Film Quarterly. 32 (3): 186–192. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0090-4260">0090-4260</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43797175">43797175</a>. <q>Roughly speaking, critical responses to Blade Runner fall on either side of a modern/postmodern line. Postmodernist accounts diametrically oppose reading strategies dependent on conventional aesthetic notions (narrative, character, structure, reference, metaphor, symbol, etc.) that collectively we might term modernist. These two approaches entail radically different positions on the nature and function of interpretation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Literature%2FFilm+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%22Blade+Runner%22+and+the+Postmodern%3A+A+Reconsideration&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=186-192&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43797175%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0090-4260&rft.aulast=Begley&rft.aufirst=Varun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43797175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoynor2003" class="citation book cs1">Poynor, Rick (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nomorerulesgraph00poyn_0/page/18">No more rules: graphic design and postmodernism</a>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nomorerulesgraph00poyn_0/page/18">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10034-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10034-5"><bdi>0-300-10034-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+more+rules%3A+graphic+design+and+postmodernism&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-10034-5&rft.aulast=Poynor&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnomorerulesgraph00poyn_0%2Fpage%2F18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDruckerMcVarish2008" class="citation book cs1">Drucker, Johanna; <a href="/wiki/Emily_McVarish" title="Emily McVarish">McVarish, Emily</a> (2008). Graphic Design History. Pearson. pp. 305–306. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-241075-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-241075-5"><bdi>978-0-13-241075-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Graphic+Design+History&rft.pages=305-306&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-241075-5&rft.aulast=Drucker&rft.aufirst=Johanna&rft.au=McVarish%2C+Emily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwitz2008History_of_Postmodernism-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerwitz2008History_of_Postmodernism_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerwitz2008">Herwitz 2008</a>, History of Postmodernism. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcHale2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_McHale" title="Brian McHale">McHale, B.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ec2HAgAAQBAJ">Postmodernist Fiction</a>. <a href="/wiki/Abingdon-on-Thames" title="Abingdon-on-Thames">Abingdon-on-Thames</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134949162" title="Special:BookSources/1134949162"><bdi>1134949162</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postmodernist+Fiction&rft.place=Abingdon-on-Thames&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1134949162&rft.aulast=McHale&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dec2HAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcHale2007" class="citation journal cs1">McHale, Brian (20 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electronicbookreview.com/essay/what-was-postmodernism/">"What Was Postmodernism?"</a>. Electronic Book Review. Retrieved 4 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Book+Review&rft.atitle=What+Was+Postmodernism%3F&rft.date=2007-12-20&rft.aulast=McHale&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felectronicbookreview.com%2Fessay%2Fwhat-was-postmodernism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinda_Schermer_Raphael" class="citation book cs1">Linda Schermer Raphael. Narrative Skepticism: Moral Agency and Representations of Consciousness in Fiction. 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Retrieved 25 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pitchfork&rft.atitle=Talking+Heads%27+Original+Lineup+on+Stop+Making+Sense%2C+Their+Early+Days%2C+and+the+Future&rft.date=2023-09-21&rft.aulast=Cush&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpitchfork.com%2Ffeatures%2Finterview%2Ftalking-heads-reunion-2023-stop-making-sense%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell1989" class="citation journal cs1">Mitchell, Tony (October 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3208181">"Performance and the Postmodern in Pop Music"</a>. Theatre Journal. 41 (3): 284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3208181">10.2307/3208181</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3208181">3208181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theatre+Journal&rft.atitle=Performance+and+the+Postmodern+in+Pop+Music&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=284&rft.date=1989-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3208181&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3208181%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3208181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen2022" class="citation web cs1">Jensen, Emily (27 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jingdaily.com/posts/virgil-abloh-off-white-louis-vuitton-postmodern-fashion">"How Virgil Abloh Defined Postmodern Fashion"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://labri.org/england/resources/05052008/JM01_Madonna.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 December 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Madonna%3A+Icon+of+Postmodernity&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=McGregor&rft.aufirst=Jock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flabri.org%2Fengland%2Fresources%2F05052008%2FJM01_Madonna.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ScienceDirect-107"><a href="#cite_ref-ScienceDirect_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiverMcCamley2020" class="citation journal cs1">River, Canavan; McCamley, Claire (February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jbusres.2018.12.005">"The passing of the postmodern in pop? Epochal consumption and marketing from Madonna, through Gaga, to Taylor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Research" title="Journal of Business Research">Journal of Business Research</a>. 107: 222–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jbusres.2018.12.005">10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0148-2963">0148-2963</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Business+Research&rft.atitle=The+passing+of+the+postmodern+in+pop%3F+Epochal+consumption+and+marketing+from+Madonna%2C+through+Gaga%2C+to+Taylor&rft.volume=107&rft.pages=222-230&rft.date=2020-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jbusres.2018.12.005&rft.issn=0148-2963&rft.aulast=River&rft.aufirst=Canavan&rft.au=McCamley%2C+Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jbusres.2018.12.005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Graaf2017" class="citation web cs1">de Graaf, Eline (January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://krollermuller.nl/en/how-the-silver-trowel-became-blue">"How the silver trowel became blue"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kr%C3%B6ller-M%C3%BCller_Museum" title="Kröller-Müller Museum">Kröller-Müller Museum</a>. 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Today, their conventional meaning and dichotomy are under attack by the postmodern ways of thinking. During the past few decades, any mention of words and expressions such as truth, knowledge, value free, objectivity, bias, fact, reality, and correspondence between word and world has come to be regarded with increasing suspicion, up to the point where many scientists seem unwilling to run the risk of using them at all. This trend ... seems to be much more pronounced in the humanities than in the natural sciences.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Qualitative+Health+Research&rft.atitle=Objectivity+and+Subjectivity+in+the+Ethnographic+Method&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=647-668&rft.date=2005-05&rft.issn=1049-7323&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15802541&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1049732304273933&rft.aulast=Hegelund&rft.aufirst=Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F1049732304273933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Erickson, P. (2017). A History of Anthropological Theory. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (pp.130) </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretations of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, Inc. (pp.15) </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_151-1">b</a> Barrett, S. (1996). Anthropology: a Students Guide to Theory and Method. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (pp. 150-163) </li> <li id="cite_note-Garder1996-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Garder1996_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaty_Garder_and_David_Lewis1996" class="citation book cs1">Katy Garder and David Lewis (1996). Anthropology, Development and the Post-Modernist Challenge. London, UK: Pluto Press. pp. 22–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0745307469" title="Special:BookSources/0745307469"><bdi>0745307469</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthropology%2C+Development+and+the+Post-Modernist+Challenge&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0745307469&rft.au=Katy+Garder+and+David+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spiro1996-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Spiro1996_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpiro1996" class="citation journal cs1">Spiro, Melford E. (October 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/current/readings/spiro-anti-pomo.pdf">"Postmodernist Anthropology, Subjectivity, and Science: A Modernist Critique"</a> (PDF). Comparative Studies in Society and History. 38 (4): 759–780. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0010417500020521">10.1017/s0010417500020521</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18702184">18702184</a>. Retrieved 29 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=Postmodernist+Anthropology%2C+Subjectivity%2C+and+Science%3A+A+Modernist+Critique&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=759-780&rft.date=1996-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0010417500020521&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18702184%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Spiro&rft.aufirst=Melford+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unl.edu%2Frhames%2Fcourses%2Fcurrent%2Freadings%2Fspiro-anti-pomo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson199998–99-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson199998–99_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, pp. 98–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology#Joh10" title="Post-processual archaeology">Johnson 2010</a>. p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPreucel2018">Preucel 2018</a>, "Post-processual archaeology has two distinct lineages. One lineage can be traced through the contributions of the British prehistorian Ian Hodder, and the other can be identified by the work of the American historical archaeologist Mark Leone. Both of these scholars were trained as processual archaeologists, and they both came to question some of the fundamental assumptions underpinning the approach. The outcome was a more humanist approach committed to understanding people and practices, social relationships and organizations, and ideology and power." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1999101-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1999101_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger2007444-450-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger2007444-450_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrigger2007">Trigger 2007</a>, p. 444-450. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPreucel2018">Preucel 2018</a>, "Significantly, post-processual archaeology expanded the reach of the field by opening up spaces for the investigation of gender, practice, materiality, and identity. It also encouraged archaeologists to acknowledge the relationships of humans and their object worlds and the different possible trajectories they travel. A key insight is that studies of materiality cannot simply focus upon the characteristics of objects; they must engage in the dialectic of people and things. Although post-processual archaeology per se no longer is the focus of contemporary debates, its legacy continues through these ongoing projects and interventions." </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltorf2007" class="citation web cs1">Holtorf, Cornelius (3 June 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/archaeolog/cgi-bin/archaeolog/2007/06/03/what-comes-after-post-processualism/">"'What comes after Post-processualism???'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. Retrieved 26 November 2024. <q>There is a large variety now of what is considered theoretically sound and appropriate. Many different approaches to archaeological research are growing, and some blossoming, at the same time, with some of them dominant in one part of the world, others in other parts, and many existing side-by-side throughout the Western world. Although this may very well be the best answer one could give ... archaeology has moved on tremendously over the last two decades with profound changes both to the entire discipline and the socio-political context in which it is operating. All of that has been happening though beyond the relatively narrow field of University-centred 'archaeological theory'. We have to face the fact that archaeological theory is quite simply no longer at the heart of archaeology, as it perhaps was from the 1960s until the end of the 1980s. Instead we have seen over the last few decades an enormous expansion of commercial archaeology, now controlling far more funding than the Universities and responsible for the lion share of archaeological research.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University&rft.atitle=%27What+comes+after+Post-processualism%3F%3F%3F%27&rft.date=2007-06-03&rft.aulast=Holtorf&rft.aufirst=Cornelius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Farchaeolog%2Fcgi-bin%2Farchaeolog%2F2007%2F06%2F03%2Fwhat-comes-after-post-processualism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: url-status (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrigger2007477–478-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrigger2007477–478_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrigger2007">Trigger 2007</a>, pp. 477–478. </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_162-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_162-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandsNuccio1992" class="citation journal cs1">Sands, Roberta; Nuccio, Kathleen (November 1992). "Postmodern Feminist Theory and Social Work: A Deconstruction". Social Work. 37: 489. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fsw%2F40.6.831">10.1093/sw/40.6.831</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-6846">1545-6846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Work&rft.atitle=Postmodern+Feminist+Theory+and+Social+Work%3A+A+Deconstruction&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=489&rft.date=1992-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fsw%2F40.6.831&rft.issn=1545-6846&rft.aulast=Sands&rft.aufirst=Roberta&rft.au=Nuccio%2C+Kathleen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_163-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbert1991" class="citation journal cs1">Ebert, Teresa L. (December 1991). "The "Difference" of Postmodern Feminism". College English. 53 (8): 886–904. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F377692">10.2307/377692</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-0994">0010-0994</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/377692">377692</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=College+English&rft.atitle=The+%22Difference%22+of+Postmodern+Feminism&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=886-904&rft.date=1991-12&rft.issn=0010-0994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F377692%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F377692&rft.aulast=Ebert&rft.aufirst=Teresa+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_164-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_164-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTong1989" class="citation book cs1">Tong, Rosemarie (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feministthoughtc00tong">Feminist thought : a comprehensive introduction</a>. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feministthoughtc00tong/page/217">217</a>–224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429493836" title="Special:BookSources/9780429493836"><bdi>9780429493836</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1041706991">1041706991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminist+thought+%3A+a+comprehensive+introduction&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colorado&rft.pages=217-224&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1041706991&rft.isbn=9780429493836&rft.aulast=Tong&rft.aufirst=Rosemarie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffeministthoughtc00tong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallin2001" class="citation book cs1">Wallin, Dawn C (2001). Postmodern Feminism and Educational Policy Development. McGill Journal of Education. pp. 27–43. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/967130390">967130390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postmodern+Feminism+and+Educational+Policy+Development&rft.pages=27-43&rft.pub=McGill+Journal+of+Education&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F967130390&rft.aulast=Wallin&rft.aufirst=Dawn+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathieu2008" class="citation book cs1">Mathieu, Deflem (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deflem.blogspot.com/2008/01/socoflaw.html">Sociology of law : visions of a scholarly tradition</a>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521857253" title="Special:BookSources/9780521857253"><bdi>9780521857253</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173368722">173368722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology+of+law+%3A+visions+of+a+scholarly+tradition&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173368722&rft.isbn=9780521857253&rft.aulast=Mathieu&rft.aufirst=Deflem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeflem.blogspot.com%2F2008%2F01%2Fsocoflaw.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sbrown-pg192-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sbrown-pg192_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sbrown-pg192_167-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1993" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Steven (1993). "Postmodern Marketing?". European Journal of Marketing. 27 (4). European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 27 Iss: 4: 19–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F03090569310038094">10.1108/03090569310038094</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0309-0566">0309-0566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Marketing&rft.atitle=Postmodern+Marketing%3F&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=19-34&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F03090569310038094&rft.issn=0309-0566&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanavanMcCamley2020" class="citation journal cs1">Canavan, Brendan; McCamley, Claire (1 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296318306167">"The passing of the postmodern in pop? Epochal consumption and marketing from Madonna, through Gaga, to Taylor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Research" title="Journal of Business Research">Journal of Business Research</a>. 107: 222–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jbusres.2018.12.005">10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0148-2963">0148-2963</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Business+Research&rft.atitle=The+passing+of+the+postmodern+in+pop%3F+Epochal+consumption+and+marketing+from+Madonna%2C+through+Gaga%2C+to+Taylor&rft.volume=107&rft.pages=222-230&rft.date=2020-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jbusres.2018.12.005&rft.issn=0148-2963&rft.aulast=Canavan&rft.aufirst=Brendan&rft.au=McCamley%2C+Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0148296318306167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> S. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60049-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60049-1"><bdi>978-0-521-60049-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Archaeological+Thought&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-60049-1&rft.aulast=Trigger&rft.aufirst=Bruce+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofarchaeo0000trig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanhoozer2003" class="citation book cs1">Vanhoozer, Kevin J. (2003). 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Vol. XI. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fchlel.xi.07wel">10.1075/chlel.xi.07wel</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3443-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3443-8"><bdi>978-90-272-3443-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Postmodernity+as+a+Philosophical+Concept&rft.btitle=International+Postmodernism&rft.series=Comparative+History+of+Literatures+in+European+Languages&rft.pages=76&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fchlel.xi.07wel&rft.isbn=978-90-272-3443-8&rft.aulast=Welsch&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft.au=Sandbothe%2C+Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn_Eqx2Gr1vUC%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostmodernism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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title="Ancient aesthetics">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_aesthetic" title="African aesthetic">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_aesthetic" title="Internet aesthetic">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">Fun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a> (c. 390 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (c. 335 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a> (c. 100)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a> (c. 500)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a> (1757)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a> (1835)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a> (1934)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" (1935)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_geography" title="Template:Human geography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_geography" title="Template talk:Human geography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human geography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Sub-fields of and approaches to <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a 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