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cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ecology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Feeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intracellular_symbionts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intracellular_symbionts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Intracellular symbionts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intracellular_symbionts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Reproduction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reproduction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Sexual </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Broadcasters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadcasters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Broadcasters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadcasters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brooders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brooders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Brooders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brooders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planulae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planulae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Planulae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planulae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asexual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asexual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Asexual </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asexual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colony_division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colony_division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Colony division </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colony_division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coral_microbiomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_microbiomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Coral microbiomes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Coral_microbiomes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Coral microbiomes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Coral_microbiomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Holobionts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holobionts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Holobionts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holobionts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Reefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Evolution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_corals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_corals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Early corals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_corals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_corals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_corals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Modern corals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_corals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Status </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Status-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Status subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Threats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Threats </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Threats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coral_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Coral health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coral_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Climate change impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Geochemistry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strontium/calcium_ratio_anomaly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strontium/calcium_ratio_anomaly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1.1 Strontium/calcium ratio anomaly </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strontium/calcium_ratio_anomaly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxygen_isotope_anomaly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen_isotope_anomaly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1.2 Oxygen isotope anomaly </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen_isotope_anomaly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sea_surface_temperature_and_sea_surface_salinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_surface_temperature_and_sea_surface_salinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1.3 Sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_surface_temperature_and_sea_surface_salinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limited_climate_research_on_current_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limited_climate_research_on_current_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1.4 Limited climate research on current species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limited_climate_research_on_current_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Protection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Relation to humans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relation_to_humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Relation to humans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewelry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewelry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Jewelry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewelry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Construction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shoreline_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shoreline_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Shoreline protection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shoreline_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_economies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_economies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Local economies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_economies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aquaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Aquaria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aquaculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquaculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.7 Aquaculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquaculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Coral</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 91 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-91" aria-hidden="true" > 91 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraal" title="Koraal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Koraal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مرجان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مرجان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9F%DC%A3%DC%A2%DC%90" title="ܟܣܢܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܟܣܢܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Coral" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کاقاانقان – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کاقاانقان" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2" title="প্রবাল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রবাল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/San-%C3%B4%CD%98" title="San-ô͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="San-ô͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B9%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Мәрйен – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәрйен" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Карал – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Карал" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Карал – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Карал" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE" title="मूँगा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मूँगा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koural" title="Koural – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Koural" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Шүрэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Шүрэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralls" title="Coralls – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Coralls" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Мерчен – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Мерчен" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagaangan" title="Kagaangan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kagaangan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kor%C3%A1l" title="Korál – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Korál" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwrel" title="Cwrel – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cwrel" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralle" title="Koralle – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Koralle" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallid" title="Korallid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Korallid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9" title="Κοράλλι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοράλλι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Coral" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralo" title="Koralo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Koralo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koral" title="Koral – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Koral" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مرجان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مرجان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corail" title="Corail – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Corail" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraal" title="Koraal – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Koraal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir%C3%A9al" title="Coiréal – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Coiréal" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_(animal)" title="Coral (animal) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Coral (animal)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A2n-f%C3%B9" title="Sân-fù – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sân-fù" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B0%ED%98%B8" title="산호 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="산호" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AC" title="Կորալ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կորալ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5)" title="मूँगा (जीव) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मूँगा (जीव)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralio" title="Koralio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Koralio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koral" title="Koral – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Koral" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corallo" title="Corallo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Corallo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3rall" title="Kórall – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kórall" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B3" title="ಹವಳ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹವಳ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="მარჯანი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მარჯანი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwylar" title="Gwylar – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gwylar" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matumbawe" title="Matumbawe – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Matumbawe" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кораллдар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кораллдар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corallium" title="Corallium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Corallium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kora%C4%BC%C4%BCi" title="Koraļļi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Koraļļi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallen" title="Korallen – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Korallen" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralas" title="Koralas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Koralas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraol_(zo%C3%B6logie)" title="Koraol (zoölogie) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Koraol (zoölogie)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Корал – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Корал" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karang" title="Karang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Karang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%83ng-h%C3%B9" title="Dăng-hù – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dăng-hù" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D2%AF%D1%80" title="Шүр – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шүр" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC" title="သန္တာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သန္တာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraal_(zo%C3%B6logie)" title="Koraal (zoölogie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koraal (zoölogie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4" title="サンゴ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サンゴ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralen" title="Koralen – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Koralen" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korall" title="Korall – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Korall" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralie" title="Koralie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Koralie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralh" title="Coralh – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Coralh" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulukkee" title="Fulukkee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Fulukkee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjon" title="Marjon – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Marjon" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مرجان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مرجان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%85" title="سمندري ایرم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سمندري ایرم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralowina" title="Koralowina – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Koralowina" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Coral" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Coral" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullu" title="Mullu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mullu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Коралл – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коралл" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Коралл – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Коралл" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Coral" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korali" title="Korali – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Korali" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A" title="කොරල් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කොරල්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral" title="Coral – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Coral" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korala" title="Korala – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Korala" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Корал – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Корал" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koral" title="Koral – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Koral" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraller" title="Koraller – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Koraller" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagay" title="Sagay – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sagay" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பவளம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பவளம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B3%E0%B0%82" title="ప్రవాళం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్రవాళం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87" title="ปะการัง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปะการัง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%B7%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Марҷон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Марҷон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koral_(canl%C4%B1)" title="Koral (canlı) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Koral (canlı)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Корал – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Корал" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مرجان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مرجان" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Marine invertebrates of the subphylum Anthozoa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Coral_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Coral (disambiguation)">Coral (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Corral" class="mw-redirect" title="Corral">Corral</a>.</div> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Corals <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: 535–0 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a> <div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:38.923076923077px; width:181.07692307692px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:38.923076923077px; width:181.07692307692px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:39.923076923077px; width:179.07692307692px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg/220px-Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg/330px-Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg/440px-Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">A coral outcrop on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, Australia </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Anthozoa" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subphylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg" title="Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg">Ehrenberg</a>, 1834 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Subdivisions </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helioporacea" title="Helioporacea">Helioporacea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">Alcyonacea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipatharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipatharia">Antipatharia</a></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Rugosa" title="Rugosa">Rugosa</a></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Tabulata" title="Tabulata">Tabulata</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> Corals are colonial <a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">marine invertebrates</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Subphylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subphylum (biology)">subphylum</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>. They typically form compact <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> of many identical individual <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a>. Coral species include the important <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">reef</a> builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> to form a hard skeleton. A coral "group" is a colony of very many <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">genetically identical</a> polyps. Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in height. A set of <a href="/wiki/Tentacle" title="Tentacle">tentacles</a> surround a central mouth opening. Each polyp excretes an <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> near the base. Over many generations, the colony thus creates a skeleton characteristic of the species which can measure up to several meters in size. Individual colonies grow by <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> of polyps. Corals also breed sexually by <a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">spawning</a>: polyps of the same species release <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> simultaneously overnight, often around a <a href="/wiki/Full_moon" title="Full moon">full moon</a>. Fertilized eggs form planulae, a mobile early form of the coral polyp which, when mature, settles to form a new colony. Although some corals are able to catch <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> and small <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> using <a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">stinging cells</a> on their tentacles, most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">unicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a> of the genus <a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a> that live within their tissues. These are commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> and give the coral color. Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 feet; 33 fathoms), but corals in the genus <a href="/wiki/Leptoseris" title="Leptoseris">Leptoseris</a> have been found as deep as 172 metres (564 feet; 94 fathoms).<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> that develop in tropical and subtropical waters, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. These corals are increasingly at risk of <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleaching</a> events where polyps expel the zooxanthellae in response to stress such as high water temperature or toxins. Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live globally in much deeper water, such as the cold-water <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <a href="/wiki/Lophelia" title="Lophelia">Lophelia</a> which can survive as deep as 3,300 metres (10,800 feet; 1,800 fathoms).<a href="#cite_note-Squires-2">[2]</a> Some have been found as far north as the <a href="/wiki/Darwin_Mounds" title="Darwin Mounds">Darwin Mounds</a>, northwest of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Wrath" title="Cape Wrath">Cape Wrath</a>, Scotland, and others off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington state</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Taxonomy">edit</a>]</div> The classification of corals has been discussed for millennia, owing to having similarities to both plants and animals. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s pupil <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> described the <a href="/wiki/Corallium_rubrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Corallium rubrum">red coral</a>, korallion, in his book on stones, implying it was a mineral, but he described it as a deep-sea plant in his Enquiries on Plants, where he also mentions large stony plants that reveal bright flowers when under water in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Gulf of Heroes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> stated boldly that several sea creatures including sea nettles and sponges "are neither animals nor plants, but are possessed of a third nature (tertia natura)".<a href="#cite_note-Bowen2015-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Gyllius" title="Petrus Gyllius">Petrus Gyllius</a> copied Pliny, introducing the term zoophyta for this third group in his 1535 book On the French and Latin Names of the Fishes of the Marseilles Region; it is popularly but wrongly supposed that Aristotle created the term.<a href="#cite_note-Bowen2015-4">[4]</a> Gyllius further noted, following Aristotle, how hard it was to define what was a plant and what was an animal.<a href="#cite_note-Bowen2015-4">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a> refers to coral among a list of types of trees, and the 11th-century French commentator <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> describes it as "a type of tree (מין עץ) that grows underwater that goes by the (French) name 'coral'."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The Persian polymath <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> (d.1048) classified sponges and corals as animals, arguing that they respond to touch.<a href="#cite_note-Egerton-6">[6]</a> Nevertheless, people believed corals to be plants until the eighteenth century when <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> used a microscope to establish that coral had the characteristic thin cell membranes of an <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Presently, corals are classified as species of animals within the sub-classes <a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Hexacorallia includes the stony corals and these groups have <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a> that generally have a 6-fold symmetry. Octocorallia includes <a href="/wiki/Blue_coral" title="Blue coral">blue coral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soft_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft coral">soft corals</a> and species of Octocorallia have polyps with an eightfold symmetry, each polyp having eight tentacles and eight <a href="/wiki/Mesentery_(zoology)" title="Mesentery (zoology)">mesenteries</a>. The group of corals is <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> because the <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> are also in the sub-class Hexacorallia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systematics">Systematics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Systematics">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-External_links plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-external_links" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section's use of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a> may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_mirror_or_a_repository_of_links,_images,_or_media_files" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">inappropriate</a> external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">footnote references</a>. (August 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The delineation of coral species is challenging as hypotheses based on morphological traits contradict hypotheses formed via molecular tree-based processes.<a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[9]</a> As of 2020, there are 2175 identified separate coral species, 237 of which are currently endangered,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> making distinguishing corals to be the utmost of importance in efforts to curb extinction.<a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a> and delineation continues to occur in species of coral<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> in order to combat the dangers posed by the climate crisis. Corals are <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial modular organisms</a> formed by <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexually</a> produced and genetically identical modules called polyps. Polyps are connected by living tissue to produce the full organism.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> The living tissue allows for inter module communication (interaction between each polyp),<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> which appears in colony <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphologies</a> produced by corals, and is one of the main identifying characteristics for a species of coral.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> There are two main classifications for corals: hard coral (scleractinian and stony coral)<a href="#cite_note-:3-13">[13]</a> which form reefs by a calcium carbonate base, with polyps that bear six stiff tentacles,<a href="#cite_note-:4-14">[14]</a> and soft coral (Alcyonacea and ahermatypic coral)<a href="#cite_note-:3-13">[13]</a> which are pliable and formed by a colony of polyps with eight feather-like tentacles.<a href="#cite_note-:4-14">[14]</a> These two classifications arose from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10061/">differentiation in gene expressions</a> in their branch tips<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> and bases that arose through developmental signaling pathways such as <a href="/wiki/Hox_gene" title="Hox gene">Hox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hedgehog_signaling_pathway" title="Hedgehog signaling pathway">Hedgehog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wnt_signaling_pathway" title="Wnt signaling pathway">Wnt</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25401122/">BMP</a> etc. Scientists typically select Acropora as research models since they are the most diverse genus of hard coral, having over 120 species.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> Most species within this genus have polyps which are dimorphic:<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> axial polyps grow rapidly and have lighter coloration, while radial polyps are small and are darker in coloration.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In the Acropora genus, <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete synthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> occur at the basal<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> polyps, growth occurs mainly at the radial polyps. Growth at the site of the radial polyps encompasses two processes: <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> via <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK12640/">mitotic cell proliferation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> and skeleton deposition of the calcium carbonate via <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extra cellular matrix</a> (EMC) proteins acting as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bmcbioinformatics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12859-018-2354-4">differentially expressed (DE) signaling genes</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> between both branch tips and bases. These processes lead to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/cellular-differentiation">colony differentiation</a>, which is the most accurate distinguisher between coral species.<a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[9]</a> In the Acropora genus, colony differentiation through <a href="/wiki/Downregulation_and_upregulation" title="Downregulation and upregulation">up-regulation and down-regulation</a> of DEs.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> Systematic studies of soft coral species have faced challenges due to a lack of <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">taxonomic</a> knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[9]</a> Researchers have not found enough variability within the genus to confidently delineate similar species, due to a low rate in mutation of <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Environmental factors, such as the rise of temperatures and acid levels in our oceans account for some <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a> of corals in the form of <a href="/wiki/Species_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Species loss">species lost</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> Various coral species have <a href="/wiki/Heat_shock_protein" title="Heat shock protein">heat shock proteins</a> (HSP) that are also in the category of DE across species.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> These HSPs help corals combat the increased temperatures they are facing which lead to protein denaturing, growth loss, and eventually coral death.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> Approximately 33% of coral species are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's endangered species list and at risk of species loss.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a> (falling pH levels in the oceans) is threatening the continued species growth and differentiation of corals.<a href="#cite_note-:2-12">[12]</a> Mutation rates of <a href="/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">Vibrio</a> shilonii, the reef <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> responsible for <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a>, heavily outweigh the typical reproduction rates of coral colonies when pH levels fall.<a href="#cite_note-:6-20">[20]</a> Thus, corals are unable to mutate their HSPs and other climate change preventative genes to combat the increase in temperature and decrease in pH at a competitive rate to these pathogens responsible for coral bleaching,<a href="#cite_note-:6-20">[20]</a> resulting in species loss. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anatomy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_polyp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Coral_polyp.jpg/250px-Coral_polyp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Coral_polyp.jpg/330px-Coral_polyp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Coral_polyp.jpg/440px-Coral_polyp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>Anatomy of a stony coral polyp</figcaption></figure> For most of their life corals are <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(motility)" title="Sessility (motility)">sessile</a> animals of <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> of genetically identical <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a>. Each polyp varies from millimeters to centimeters in diameter, and colonies can be formed from many millions of individual polyps. Stony coral, also known as hard coral, polyps produce a skeleton composed of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> to strengthen and protect the organism. This is deposited by the polyps and by the <a href="/wiki/Coenosarc" title="Coenosarc">coenosarc</a>, the living tissue that connects them. The polyps sit in cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as <a href="/wiki/Corallite" title="Corallite">corallites</a>. Colonies of stony coral are markedly variable in appearance; a single species may adopt an encrusting, plate-like, bushy, columnar or massive solid structure, the various forms often being linked to different types of habitat, with variations in light level and water movement being significant.<a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-21">[21]</a> The body of the polyp may be roughly compared in a structure to a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sac" class="extiw" title="wikt:sac">sac</a>, the wall of which is composed of two layers of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>. The outer layer is known technically as the <a href="/wiki/Germ_layer" title="Germ layer">ectoderm</a>, the inner layer as the <a href="/wiki/Germ_layer" title="Germ layer">endoderm</a>. Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of gelatinous substance termed <a href="/wiki/Mesogloea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesogloea">mesoglea</a>, secreted by the cell layers of the body wall.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-22">[22]</a> The mesoglea can contain <a href="/wiki/Endoskeleton" title="Endoskeleton">skeletal</a> elements derived from cells <a href="/wiki/Cell_migration" title="Cell migration">migrated</a> from the ectoderm. The sac-like body built up in this way is attached to a hard surface, which in hard corals are cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as <a href="/wiki/Corallite" title="Corallite">corallites</a>. At the center of the upper end of the sac lies the only opening called the mouth, surrounded by a circle of <a href="/wiki/Tentacle" title="Tentacle">tentacles</a> which resemble glove fingers. The tentacles are <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> which serve both for tactile sense and for the capture of food.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-22">[22]</a> Polyps extend their tentacles, particularly at night, often containing coiled stinging cells (<a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">cnidocytes</a>) which pierce, poison and firmly hold living prey paralyzing or killing them. Polyp prey includes plankton such as <a href="/wiki/Copepods" class="mw-redirect" title="Copepods">copepods</a> and fish larvae. Longitudinal muscular fibers formed from the cells of the ectoderm allow tentacles to contract to convey the food to the mouth. Similarly, circularly disposed muscular fibres formed from the endoderm permit tentacles to be protracted or thrust out once they are contracted.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-22">[22]</a> In both stony and soft corals, the polyps can be retracted by contracting muscle fibres, with stony corals relying on their hard skeleton and cnidocytes for defense. Soft corals generally secrete <a href="/wiki/Terpenoid" title="Terpenoid">terpenoid</a> toxins to ward off predators.<a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-21">[21]</a> In most corals, the tentacles are retracted by day and spread out at night to catch plankton and other small organisms. Shallow-water species of both stony and soft corals can be <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthella" class="mw-redirect" title="Zooxanthella">zooxanthellate</a>, the corals supplementing their plankton diet with the products of photosynthesis produced by these <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbionts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ruppert-21">[21]</a> The polyps interconnect by a complex and well-developed system of <a href="/wiki/Gastrovascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrovascular">gastrovascular</a> canals, allowing significant sharing of nutrients and symbionts.<a href="#cite_note-Gateno-23">[23]</a> The external form of the polyp varies greatly. The column may be long and slender, or may be so short in the axial direction that the body becomes disk-like. The tentacles may number many hundreds or may be very few, in rare cases only one or two. They may be simple and unbranched, or feathery in pattern. The mouth may be level with the surface of the peristome, or may be projecting and trumpet-shaped.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soft_corals">Soft corals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Soft corals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a></div> Soft corals have no solid exoskeleton as such. However, their tissues are often reinforced by small supportive elements known as <a href="/wiki/Sclerites" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerites">sclerites</a> made of calcium carbonate. The polyps of soft corals have eight-fold symmetry, which is reflected in the Octo in Octocorallia.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Soft corals vary considerably in form, and most are colonial. A few soft corals are <a href="/wiki/Stolon" title="Stolon">stolonate</a>, but the polyps of most are connected by sheets of tissue called coenosarc, and in some species these sheets are thick and the polyps deeply embedded in them. Some soft corals encrust other sea objects or form lobes. Others are tree-like or whip-like and have a central axial skeleton embedded at their base in the matrix of the supporting branch.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> These branches are composed of a fibrous protein called <a href="/wiki/Gorgonin" title="Gorgonin">gorgonin</a> or of a calcified material. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stony_corals">Stony corals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Stony corals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Montastrea_cavernosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Montastrea_cavernosa.jpg/250px-Montastrea_cavernosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Montastrea_cavernosa.jpg/330px-Montastrea_cavernosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Montastrea_cavernosa.jpg/500px-Montastrea_cavernosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1780" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Montastraea_cavernosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Montastraea cavernosa">Montastraea cavernosa</a> polyps with tentacles extended</figcaption></figure> The polyps of stony corals have six-fold symmetry. In stony corals, the tentacles are cylindrical and taper to a point, but in soft corals they are pinnate with side branches known as pinnules. In some tropical species, these are reduced to mere stubs and in some, they are fused to give a paddle-like appearance.<a href="#cite_note-Sprung-26">[26]</a> Coral skeletons are biocomposites (mineral + organics) of calcium carbonate, in the form of calcite or aragonite. In scleractinian corals, "centers of calcification" and fibers are clearly distinct structures differing with respect to both morphology and chemical compositions of the crystalline units.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The organic matrices extracted from diverse species are acidic, and comprise proteins, sulphated sugars and lipids; they are species specific.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The soluble organic matrices of the skeletons allow to differentiate <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> and non-zooxanthellae specimens.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ecology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nematocyst_discharge.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nematocyst_discharge.png/250px-Nematocyst_discharge.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nematocyst_discharge.png/330px-Nematocyst_discharge.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nematocyst_discharge.png/440px-Nematocyst_discharge.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="371" /></a><figcaption>Discharge mechanism of a stinging cell (nematocyst)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feeding">Feeding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Feeding">edit</a>]</div> Polyps feed on a variety of small organisms, from microscopic zooplankton to small fish. The polyp's tentacles immobilize or kill prey using stinging cells called <a href="/wiki/Nematocysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematocysts">nematocysts</a>. These cells carry <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a> which they rapidly release in response to contact with another organism. A dormant nematocyst discharges in response to nearby prey touching the trigger (<a href="/wiki/Cnidocil" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidocil">Cnidocil</a>). A flap (<a href="/wiki/Operculum_(animal)" title="Operculum (animal)">operculum</a>) opens and its stinging apparatus fires the barb into the prey. The venom is injected through the hollow filament to immobilise the prey; the tentacles then manoeuvre the prey into the stomach. Once the prey is digested the stomach reopens allowing the elimination of waste products and the beginning of the next hunting cycle.<a href="#cite_note-murph-31">[31]</a>: 24  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intracellular_symbionts">Intracellular symbionts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Intracellular symbionts">edit</a>]</div> Many corals, as well as other <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarian</a> groups such as <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> form a <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> relationship with a class of <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellate</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> of the genus <a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a>, which can form as much as 30% of the tissue of a polyp.<a href="#cite_note-murph-31">[31]</a>: 23–24  Typically, each polyp harbors one species of alga, and coral species show a preference for <a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Young corals are not born with zooxanthellae, but acquire the algae from the surrounding environment, including the water column and local sediment.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The main benefit of the zooxanthellae is their ability to photosynthesize which supplies corals with the products of photosynthesis, including glucose, glycerol, also amino acids, which the corals can use for energy.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Zooxanthellae also benefit corals by aiding in <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a>, for the coral skeleton, and waste removal.<a href="#cite_note-MilneBay-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> In addition to the soft tissue, <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiomes</a> are also found in the coral's mucus and (in stony corals) the skeleton, with the latter showing the greatest microbial richness.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The zooxanthellae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, phosphate and nitrogenous waste. Stressed corals will eject their zooxanthellae, a process that is becoming increasingly common due to strain placed on coral by rising ocean temperatures. Mass ejections are known as <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a> because the algae contribute to coral coloration; some colors, however, are due to host coral pigments, such as <a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">green fluorescent proteins</a> (GFPs). Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress and if the stress subsides they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies.<a href="#cite_note-Toller-38">[38]</a> Zooxanthellae are located within the coral cytoplasm and due to the algae's photosynthetic activity the internal pH of the coral can be raised; this behavior indicates that the zooxanthellae are responsible to some extent for the metabolism of their host corals.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease has been associated with the breakdown of host-zooxanthellae physiology.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Moreover, Vibrio bacterium are known to have virulence traits used for host coral tissue damage and photoinhibition of algal symbionts.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Therefore, both coral and their symbiotic microorganisms could have evolved to harbour traits resistant to disease and transmission. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reproduction">edit</a>]</div> Corals can be both <a href="/wiki/Gonochorism" title="Gonochorism">gonochoristic</a> (unisexual) and <a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditism">hermaphroditic</a>, each of which can reproduce sexually and asexually. Reproduction also allows coral to settle in new areas. Reproduction is coordinated by chemical communication.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarify</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual">Sexual</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sexual">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_Life_Cycles_ZP.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coral_Life_Cycles_ZP.svg/390px-Coral_Life_Cycles_ZP.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coral_Life_Cycles_ZP.svg/585px-Coral_Life_Cycles_ZP.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coral_Life_Cycles_ZP.svg/780px-Coral_Life_Cycles_ZP.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>Life cycles of broadcasters and brooders</figcaption></figure> Corals predominantly reproduce <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexually</a>. About 25% of <a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">hermatypic corals</a> (reef-building stony corals) form single-sex (<a href="/wiki/Gonochoristic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonochoristic">gonochoristic</a>) colonies, while the rest are <a href="/wiki/Hermaphroditic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphroditic">hermaphroditic</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It is estimated more than 67% of coral are <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">simultaneous hermaphrodites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Broadcasters">Broadcasters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Broadcasters">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_coral_spawning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Brain_coral_spawning.jpg/250px-Brain_coral_spawning.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Brain_coral_spawning.jpg/330px-Brain_coral_spawning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Brain_coral_spawning.jpg/500px-Brain_coral_spawning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1808" data-file-height="1192" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PR4bpVKVeQ4&t=297s&ab_channel=TomShlesinger">" Out of Tune – Breakdown of Coral Spawning Synchrony"</a>, Tom Shlesinger, Sep 5, 2019.</td></tr></tbody></table> About 75% of all hermatypic corals "broadcast spawn"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] by releasing <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>—<a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">eggs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>—into the water where they meet and fertilize to spread offspring. Corals often synchronize their time of spawning. This <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_synchrony" title="Reproductive synchrony">reproductive synchrony</a> is essential so that male and female gametes can meet. Spawning frequently takes place in the evening or at night, and can occur as infrequently as once a year, and within a window of 10–30 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-Markandeya-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Häfker-44">[44]</a> Synchronous spawning is very typical on the coral reef, and often, all corals spawn on the same night even when multiple <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> are present.<a href="#cite_note-Veron-45">[45]</a> Synchronous spawning may form hybrids and is perhaps involved in coral <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hatta-46">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stony_coral_spawning_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Stony_coral_spawning_2.jpg/250px-Stony_coral_spawning_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Stony_coral_spawning_2.jpg/330px-Stony_coral_spawning_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Stony_coral_spawning_2.jpg/440px-Stony_coral_spawning_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>A male <a href="/wiki/Great_star_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Great star coral">great star coral</a>, Montastraea cavernosa, releasing sperm into the water.</figcaption></figure> Environmental cues that influence the release of gametes into the water vary from species to species. The cues involve temperature change, <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">lunar cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Day_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Day length">day length</a>, and possibly chemical signalling.<a href="#cite_note-Veron-45">[45]</a> Other factors that affect the rhythmicity of organisms in marine habitats include salinity, mechanical forces, and pressure or magnetic field changes.<a href="#cite_note-Häfker-44">[44]</a> Mass coral spawning often occurs at night on days following a full moon.<a href="#cite_note-Markandeya-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lin-47">[47]</a> A full moon is equivalent to four to six hours of continuous dim light exposure, which can cause <a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reactions" title="Light-dependent reactions">light-dependent reactions</a> in protein.<a href="#cite_note-Markandeya-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Häfker-44">[44]</a> Corals contain light-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Cryptochromes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptochromes">cryptochromes</a>, proteins whose light-absorbing flavin structures are sensitive to different types of light. This allows corals such as <a href="/wiki/Dipsastraea_speciosa" title="Dipsastraea speciosa">Dipsastraea speciosa</a> to detect and respond to changes in sunlight and moonlight.<a href="#cite_note-Markandeya-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Häfker-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jabr-48">[48]</a> Moonlight itself may actually suppress coral spawning. The most immediate cue to cause spawning appears to be the dark portion of the night between sunset and moonrise. Over the lunar cycle, moonrise shifts progressively later, occurring after sunset on the day of the full moon. The resulting dark period between day-light and night-light removes the suppressive effect of moonlight and enables coral to spawn.<a href="#cite_note-Markandeya-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lin-47">[47]</a> The spawning event can be visually dramatic, clouding the usually clear water with gametes. Once released, gametes fertilize at the water's surface and form a microscopic <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larva</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Planula" title="Planula">planula</a>, typically pink and elliptical in shape. A typical coral colony needs to release several thousand larvae per year to overcome the odds against formation of a new colony.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes99-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cameron-50">[50]</a> Studies suggest that light pollution desynchronizes spawning in some coral species. In areas such as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, as many as 10 out of 50 species may be showing spawning asynchrony, compared to 30 years ago. The establishment of new corals in the area has decreased and in some cases ceased. The area was previously considered a refuge for corals because mass bleaching events due to climate change had not been observed there.<a href="#cite_note-Markandeya-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ayalon-51">[51]</a> Coral restoration techniques for coral reef management are being developed to increase fertilization rates, larval development, and settlement of new corals.<a href="#cite_note-Suzuki-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brooders">Brooders</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Brooders">edit</a>]</div> Brooding species are most often ahermatypic (not reef-building) in areas of high current or wave action. Brooders release only sperm, which is negatively buoyant, sinking onto the waiting egg carriers that harbor unfertilized eggs for weeks. Synchronous spawning events sometimes occur even with these species.<a href="#cite_note-Veron-45">[45]</a> After fertilization, the corals release planula that are ready to settle.<a href="#cite_note-MilneBay-35">[35]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_Cycle_of_Corals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Life_Cycle_of_Corals.svg/260px-Life_Cycle_of_Corals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Life_Cycle_of_Corals.svg/390px-Life_Cycle_of_Corals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Life_Cycle_of_Corals.svg/520px-Life_Cycle_of_Corals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Generalized life cycle of corals via sexual reproduction: Colonies release gametes in clusters (1) which float to the surface (2) then disperse and fertilize eggs (3). Embryos become planulae (4) and can settle onto a surface (5). They then metamorphose into a juvenile polyp (6) which then matures and reproduces asexually to form a colony (7, 8).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Planulae">Planulae</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Planulae">edit</a>]</div> The time from spawning to larval settlement is usually two to three days but can occur immediately or up to two months.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-53">[53]</a> Broadcast-spawned <a href="/wiki/Planula" title="Planula">planula</a> larvae develop at the water's surface before descending to seek a hard surface on the benthos to which they can attach and begin a new colony.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The larvae often need a biological cue to induce settlement such as specific crustose <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a> species or microbial biofilms.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> High failure rates afflict many stages of this process, and even though thousands of eggs are released by each colony, few new colonies form. During settlement, larvae are inhibited by physical barriers such as sediment,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> as well as chemical (allelopathic) barriers.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The larvae metamorphose into a single polyp and eventually develops into a juvenile and then adult by asexual budding and growth. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asexual">Asexual</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Asexual">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbicella_annularis_-_calices.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Orbicella_annularis_-_calices.jpg/250px-Orbicella_annularis_-_calices.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Orbicella_annularis_-_calices.jpg/330px-Orbicella_annularis_-_calices.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Orbicella_annularis_-_calices.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Basal plates (calices) of <a href="/wiki/Orbicella_annularis" title="Orbicella annularis">Orbicella annularis</a> showing multiplication by budding (small central plate) and division (large double plate)</figcaption></figure> Within a coral head, the genetically identical polyps reproduce <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexually</a>, either by <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a> (gemmation) or by dividing, whether longitudinally or transversely. Budding involves splitting a smaller polyp from an adult.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes99-49">[49]</a> As the new polyp grows, it forms <a href="/wiki/File:Coral_polyp.jpg" title="File:Coral polyp.jpg">its body parts</a>. The distance between the new and adult polyps grows, and with it, the coenosarc (the common body of the colony). Budding can be intratentacular, from its oral discs, producing same-sized polyps within the ring of tentacles, or extratentacular, from its base, producing a smaller polyp. Division forms two polyps that each become as large as the original. Longitudinal division begins when a polyp broadens and then divides its coelenteron (body), effectively splitting along its length. The mouth divides and new tentacles form. The two polyps thus created then generate their missing body parts and exoskeleton. Transversal division occurs when polyps and the exoskeleton divide transversally into two parts. This means one has the basal disc (bottom) and the other has the oral disc (top); the new polyps must separately generate the missing pieces. Asexual reproduction offers the benefits of high reproductive rate, delaying senescence, and replacement of dead modules, as well as geographical distribution.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colony_division">Colony division</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Colony division">edit</a>]</div> Whole colonies can reproduce asexually, forming two colonies with the same genotype. The possible mechanisms include fission, bailout and fragmentation. Fission occurs in some corals, especially among the family <a href="/wiki/Fungiidae" title="Fungiidae">Fungiidae</a>, where the colony splits into two or more colonies during early developmental stages. Bailout occurs when a single polyp abandons the colony and settles on a different substrate to create a new colony. Fragmentation involves individuals broken from the colony during storms or other disruptions. The separated individuals can start new colonies.<a href="#cite_note-SheppardDavy2009-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coral_microbiomes">Coral microbiomes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Coral microbiomes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacterial_OTUs_from_clone_libraries_and_next-generation_sequencing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bacterial_OTUs_from_clone_libraries_and_next-generation_sequencing.png/500px-Bacterial_OTUs_from_clone_libraries_and_next-generation_sequencing.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bacterial_OTUs_from_clone_libraries_and_next-generation_sequencing.png/960px-Bacterial_OTUs_from_clone_libraries_and_next-generation_sequencing.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption> Phylogenetic tree representing bacterial <a href="/wiki/Operational_taxonomic_unit" title="Operational taxonomic unit">operational taxonomic units</a> (OTUs) from <a href="/wiki/Clone_libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="Clone libraries">clone libraries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Next-generation_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Next-generation sequencing">next-generation sequencing</a>. OTUs from next-generation sequencing are displayed if the OTU contained more than two sequences in the unrarefied OTU table (3626 OTUs).<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_microbiome" title="Marine microbiome">Marine microbiome</a></div> Corals are one of the more common examples of an animal host whose symbiosis with microalgae can turn to <a href="/wiki/Dysbiosis" title="Dysbiosis">dysbiosis</a>, and is visibly detected as bleaching. Coral <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiomes</a> have been examined in a variety of studies, which demonstrate how oceanic environmental variations, most notably temperature, light, and inorganic nutrients, affect the abundance and performance of the microalgal symbionts, as well as <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a> and physiology of the host.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Apprill2017-64">[64]</a> Studies have also suggested that resident bacteria, archaea, and fungi additionally contribute to nutrient and organic matter cycling within the coral, with viruses also possibly playing a role in structuring the composition of these members, thus providing one of the first glimpses at a multi-domain marine animal symbiosis.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gammaproteobacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Gammaproteobacterium">gammaproteobacterium</a> <a href="/wiki/Endozoicomonas" title="Endozoicomonas">Endozoicomonas</a> is emerging as a central member of the coral's microbiome, with flexibility in its lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-Neave2016-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Given the recent mass bleaching occurring on reefs,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> corals will likely continue to be a useful and popular system for symbiosis and dysbiosis research.<a href="#cite_note-Apprill2017-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Astrangia_poculata" title="Astrangia poculata">Astrangia poculata</a>, the northern star coral, is a temperate <a href="/wiki/Stony_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Stony coral">stony coral</a>, widely documented along the eastern coast of the United States. The coral can live with and without <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> (algal symbionts), making it an ideal <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> to study microbial community interactions associated with symbiotic state. However, the ability to develop <a href="/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)" title="Primer (molecular biology)">primers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_probe" title="Molecular probe">probes</a> to more specifically target key microbial groups has been hindered by the lack of full-length <a href="/wiki/16S_rRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="16S rRNA">16S rRNA</a> sequences, since sequences produced by the Illumina platform are of insufficient length (approximately 250 base pairs) for the design of primers and probes.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In 2019, Goldsmith et al. demonstrated <a href="/wiki/Sanger_sequencing" title="Sanger sequencing">Sanger sequencing</a> was capable of reproducing the biologically relevant diversity detected by deeper <a href="/wiki/Next-generation_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Next-generation sequencing">next-generation sequencing</a>, while also producing longer sequences useful to the research community for probe and primer design (see diagram on right).<a href="#cite_note-Goldsmith2019-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holobionts">Holobionts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Holobionts">edit</a>]</div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> Reef-building corals are well-studied <a href="/wiki/Holobiont" title="Holobiont">holobionts</a> that include the coral itself together with its symbiont <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> (photosynthetic dinoflagellates), as well as its associated bacteria and viruses.<a href="#cite_note-Knowlton2003-71">[71]</a> Co-evolutionary patterns exist for coral microbial communities and coral phylogeny.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relationships_between_corals_and_their_microbial_symbionts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Relationships_between_corals_and_their_microbial_symbionts.jpg/530px-Relationships_between_corals_and_their_microbial_symbionts.jpg" decoding="async" width="530" height="383" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Relationships_between_corals_and_their_microbial_symbionts.jpg/795px-Relationships_between_corals_and_their_microbial_symbionts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Relationships_between_corals_and_their_microbial_symbionts.jpg/1060px-Relationships_between_corals_and_their_microbial_symbionts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1282" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center">Relationships between corals and their microbial <a href="/wiki/Symbiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiont">symbionts</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></div></figcaption></figure> It is known that the coral's <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiome</a> and symbiont influence host health, however, the historic influence of each member on others is not well understood. Scleractinian corals have been diversifying for longer than many other symbiotic systems, and their microbiomes are known to be partially species-specific.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Endozoicomonas" title="Endozoicomonas">Endozoicomonas</a>, a commonly highly abundant bacterium in corals, has exhibited <a href="/w/index.php?title=Codiversification&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Codiversification (page does not exist)">codiversification</a> with its host.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> This hints at an intricate set of relationships between the members of the coral holobiont that have been developing as <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of these members occurs. A study published in 2018<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> revealed evidence of <a href="/wiki/Phylosymbiosis" title="Phylosymbiosis">phylosymbiosis</a> between corals and their tissue and skeleton microbiomes. The coral skeleton, which represents the most diverse of the three coral microbiomes, showed the strongest evidence of phylosymbiosis. Coral microbiome composition and <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">richness</a> were found to reflect coral <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>. For example, interactions between bacterial and eukaryotic coral phylogeny influence the abundance of Endozoicomonas, a highly abundant bacterium in the coral holobiont. However, host-microbial <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cophylogeny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cophylogeny (page does not exist)">cophylogeny</a> appears to influence only a subset of coral-associated bacteria. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Control_of_the_microbiota_structure_in_the_coral_holobiont.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Control_of_the_microbiota_structure_in_the_coral_holobiont.jpg/960px-Control_of_the_microbiota_structure_in_the_coral_holobiont.jpg" decoding="async" width="510" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Control_of_the_microbiota_structure_in_the_coral_holobiont.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center">Top-down and bottom-up control of microbiota structure in the coral holobiont</div> Stable microbes may be introduced to the holobiont through horizontal or vertical transmission and persist in ecological niches within the coral polyp where growth (or immigration) rates balance removal pressures from biophysical processes and immune or ecological interactions. Transient microbes enter the holobiont from environmental sources (e.g., seawater, prey items, or suspension feeding) and removal rates exceed growth/immigration rates such that a dynamic and high-diversity microbiota results. Transient and stable populations compete for resources including nutrients, light and space and the outcome of resource-based competition (bottom-up control) ultimately determines population growth rate and thus ability to persist when subject to removal. Whether a population is categorized as stable or transient may depend on the timeframe considered.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>                          AMP = antimicrobial peptides, ROS = reactive oxygen species</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trophic_connections_of_the_coral_holobiont_in_the_planktonic_food_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Trophic_connections_of_the_coral_holobiont_in_the_planktonic_food_web.jpg/290px-Trophic_connections_of_the_coral_holobiont_in_the_planktonic_food_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Trophic_connections_of_the_coral_holobiont_in_the_planktonic_food_web.jpg/435px-Trophic_connections_of_the_coral_holobiont_in_the_planktonic_food_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Trophic_connections_of_the_coral_holobiont_in_the_planktonic_food_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center">Trophic connections of the coral <a href="/wiki/Holobiont" title="Holobiont">holobiont</a> in the planktonic food web<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></div></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reefs">Reefs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Reefs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_reefs" title="List of reefs">List of reefs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_reef_locations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coral_reef_locations.jpg/330px-Coral_reef_locations.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coral_reef_locations.jpg/500px-Coral_reef_locations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Coral_reef_locations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption>Locations of coral reefs around the world</figcaption></figure> Many corals in the order <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a> are <a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">hermatypic</a>, meaning that they are involved in building reefs. Most such corals obtain some of their energy from <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> in the genus Symbiodinium. These are <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a> which require sunlight; reef-forming corals are therefore found mainly in shallow water. They secrete calcium carbonate to form hard skeletons that become the framework of the reef. However, not all reef-building corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae, and some deep water species, living at depths to which light cannot penetrate, form reefs but do not harbour the symbionts.<a href="#cite_note-Schuhmacher-80">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hertshoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hertshoon.jpg/250px-Hertshoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hertshoon.jpg/330px-Hertshoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hertshoon.jpg/500px-Hertshoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Staghorn_coral" title="Staghorn coral">Staghorn coral</a> (Acropora cervicornis) is an important hermatypic coral from the Caribbean</figcaption></figure> There are various types of shallow-water coral reef, including fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls; most occur in tropical and subtropical seas. They are very slow-growing, adding perhaps one centimetre (0.4 in) in height each year. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> is thought to have been laid down about two million years ago. Over time, corals fragment and die, sand and rubble accumulates between the corals, and the shells of clams and other molluscs decay to form a gradually evolving calcium carbonate structure.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Coral reefs are extremely diverse marine <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> hosting over 4,000 species of fish, massive numbers of cnidarians, <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">molluscs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, and many other animals.<a href="#cite_note-Spalding-82">[82]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Evolution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_in_the_Ediacaran_sea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Life_in_the_Ediacaran_sea.jpg/220px-Life_in_the_Ediacaran_sea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Life_in_the_Ediacaran_sea.jpg/330px-Life_in_the_Ediacaran_sea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Life_in_the_Ediacaran_sea.jpg/440px-Life_in_the_Ediacaran_sea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center">Artist's depiction of life on the ocean floor as it may have appeared prior to the evolution of corals</div><div style="float:right;">– <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></div></figcaption></figure> At certain times in the geological past, corals were very abundant. Like modern corals, their ancestors built reefs, some of which ended as great structures in <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary rocks">sedimentary rocks</a>. Fossils of fellow reef-dwellers algae, sponges, and the remains of many <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobites</a> appear along with coral fossils. This makes some corals useful <a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">index fossils</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Coral fossils are not restricted to reef remnants, and many solitary fossils are found elsewhere, such as Cyclocyathus, which occurs in England's <a href="/wiki/Gault_clay" class="mw-redirect" title="Gault clay">Gault clay</a> formation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_corals">Early corals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Early corals">edit</a>]</div> Corals first appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> about <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=535">535</a> million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Pratt-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossils</a> are extremely rare until the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period, 100 million years later, when Heliolitida, <a href="/wiki/Rugosa" title="Rugosa">rugose</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tabulata" title="Tabulata">tabulate</a> corals became widespread. <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> corals often contained numerous endobiotic symbionts.<a href="#cite_note-VinnMotus2008-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-VinnMotus2012-87">[87]</a> Tabulate corals occur in <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestones</a> and calcareous <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shales</a> of the Ordovician period, with a gap in the fossil record due to <a href="/wiki/Ordovician%E2%80%93Silurian_extinction_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordovician–Silurian extinction events">extinction events</a> at the end of the Ordovician. Corals reappeared some millions of years later during the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> period, and tabulate corals often form low cushions or branching masses of <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> alongside rugose corals. Tabulate coral numbers began to decline during the middle of the Silurian period.<a href="#cite_note-Tabulata-88">[88]</a> Rugose or horn corals became dominant by the middle of the Silurian period, and during the Devonian, corals flourished with more than 200 genera. The rugose corals existed in solitary and colonial forms, and were also composed of calcite.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Both rugose and tabulate corals became extinct in the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a><a href="#cite_note-Tabulata-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=250">250</a> million years ago (along with 85% of marine species), and there is a gap of tens of millions of years until new forms of coral evolved in the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="float:left;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 256.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 254.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Syringoporid.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone limestone (Lower Carboniferous) near Hiwasse, Arkansas, scale bar is 2.0 cm"><img alt="Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone limestone (Lower Carboniferous) near Hiwasse, Arkansas, scale bar is 2.0 cm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Syringoporid.jpg/500px-Syringoporid.jpg" decoding="async" width="255" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Syringoporid.jpg/960px-Syringoporid.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1144" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone limestone (Lower <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a>) near Hiwasse, Arkansas, scale bar is 2.0 cm</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 156.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 154.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tabulate coral Aulopora from the Devonian period"><img alt="Tabulate coral Aulopora from the Devonian period" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg/250px-AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg/500px-AuloporaDevonianSilicaShale.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2106" data-file-height="2046" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Tabulate coral <a href="/wiki/Aulopora" title="Aulopora">Aulopora</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> period</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 153.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 151.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:RugosaOrdovician.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solitary rugose coral (Grewingkia) in three views; Ordovician, southeastern Indiana"><img alt="Solitary rugose coral (Grewingkia) in three views; Ordovician, southeastern Indiana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RugosaOrdovician.jpg/250px-RugosaOrdovician.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RugosaOrdovician.jpg/342px-RugosaOrdovician.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RugosaOrdovician.jpg/455px-RugosaOrdovician.jpg 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="469" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Solitary rugose coral (<a href="/wiki/Grewingkia" title="Grewingkia">Grewingkia</a>) in three views; Ordovician, southeastern Indiana</div> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_corals">Modern corals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Modern corals">edit</a>]</div> The currently ubiquitous stony corals, <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a>, appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle Triassic</a> to fill the niche vacated by the extinct rugose and tabulate orders and is not closely related to the earlier forms. Unlike the corals prevalent before the Permian extinction, which formed skeletons of a form of calcium carbonate known as <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>, modern stony corals form skeletons composed of the <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ries-91">[91]</a> Their fossils are found in small numbers in rocks from the Triassic period, and become common in the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> and later periods.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Although they are geologically younger than the tabulate and rugose corals, the aragonite of their skeletons is less readily preserved, and their fossil record is accordingly less complete. <table class="toccolours" style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" align="center"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_qsabtvi12iojc8pmncxuf7gqusk9omh"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Rugosa" coords="249,88,319,109" title="Rugosa" alt="Rugosa" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Scleractinia" coords="438,88,541,109" title="Scleractinia" alt="Scleractinia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tabulata" coords="240,76,320,96" title="Tabulata" alt="Tabulata" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ediacaran" coords="39,50,125,71" title="Ediacaran" alt="Ediacaran" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cambrian" coords="121,56,179,77" title="Cambrian" alt="Cambrian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cambrian" coords="118,45,182,66" title="Cambrian" alt="Cambrian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ordovician" coords="157,56,227,77" title="Ordovician" alt="Ordovician" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ordovician" coords="160,45,224,66" title="Ordovician" alt="Ordovician" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Silurian" coords="195,56,258,77" title="Silurian" alt="Silurian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Silurian" coords="197,45,256,66" title="Silurian" alt="Silurian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Devonian" coords="233,56,291,77" title="Devonian" alt="Devonian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Devonian" coords="230,45,294,66" title="Devonian" alt="Devonian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Carboniferous" coords="276,56,351,77" title="Carboniferous" alt="Carboniferous" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Carboniferous" coords="276,45,351,66" title="Carboniferous" alt="Carboniferous" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Permian" coords="331,56,389,77" title="Permian" alt="Permian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Permian" coords="331,45,389,66" title="Permian" alt="Permian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Triassic" coords="361,56,425,77" title="Triassic" alt="Triassic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Triassic" coords="364,45,422,66" title="Triassic" alt="Triassic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jurassic" coords="397,50,478,71" title="Jurassic" alt="Jurassic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cretaceous" coords="452,50,544,71" title="Cretaceous" alt="Cretaceous" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tertiary" coords="519,50,599,71" title="Tertiary" alt="Tertiary" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Precambrian" coords="26,10,138,34" title="Precambrian" alt="Precambrian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleozoic" coords="202,10,300,34" title="Paleozoic" alt="Paleozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mesozoic" coords="408,10,499,34" title="Mesozoic" alt="Mesozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cenozoic" coords="514,10,606,34" title="Cenozoic" alt="Cenozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Permian%2DTriassic_extinction" coords="305,168,491,187" title="Permian-Triassic extinction" alt="Permian-Triassic extinction" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" coords="225,153,394,173" title="Late Devonian extinction" alt="Late Devonian extinction" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cothoniida" coords="115,153,206,173" title="Cothoniida" alt="Cothoniida" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/mya_(unit)" coords="-10,132,59,152" title="mya (unit)" alt="mya (unit)" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_qsabtvi12iojc8pmncxuf7gqusk9omh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/qsabtvi12iojc8pmncxuf7gqusk9omh.png" /></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td> Timeline of the major coral fossil record and developments from 650 <a href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">m.y.a.</a> to present.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> </td> <td><div style="float:right;margin-left:5px;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Coral_fossil_record_timeline&action=edit">edit</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status">Status</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Status">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Environmental issues with coral reefs</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Threats">Threats</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Threats">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reef0484.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Reef0484.jpg/170px-Reef0484.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Reef0484.jpg/255px-Reef0484.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Reef0484.jpg/340px-Reef0484.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="849" /></a><figcaption>A healthy coral reef has a striking level of biodiversity in many forms of marine life.</figcaption></figure> Coral reefs are under stress around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Coral_reefs_around_the_world-95">[95]</a> In particular, coral mining, <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural runoff">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">urban runoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> (organic and inorganic), <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blast_fishing" title="Blast fishing">blast fishing</a>, disease, and the digging of <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> and access into islands and bays are localized threats to coral ecosystems. Broader threats are sea temperature rise, <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> and <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> changes from <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>, all associated with <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cra10-96">[96]</a> In 1998, 16% of the world's reefs died as a result of increased water temperature.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Approximately 10% of the world's coral reefs are dead.<a href="#cite_note-Kleypas,_J.A._2006-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> About 60% of the world's reefs are at risk due to human-related activities.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The threat to reef health is particularly strong in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, where 80% of reefs are <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Over 50% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> may be destroyed by 2030; as a result, most nations protect them through environmental laws.<a href="#cite_note-Norlander-103">[103]</a> In the Caribbean and tropical Pacific, direct contact between ~40–70% of common seaweeds and coral causes bleaching and death to the coral via transfer of <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a>-soluble <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Seaweed and algae proliferate given adequate <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> and limited grazing by <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Parrotfish" title="Parrotfish">parrotfish</a>. Water temperature changes of more than 1–2 °C (1.8–3.6 °F) or <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> changes can kill some species of coral. Under such environmental stresses, corals expel their <a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a>; without them, coral tissues reveal the white of their skeletons, an event known as <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hoegh-105">[105]</a> Submarine springs found along the coast of Mexico's <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> produce water with a naturally low pH (relatively high acidity) providing conditions similar to those expected to become widespread as the oceans absorb carbon dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-Stephens-106">[106]</a> Surveys discovered multiple species of live coral that appeared to tolerate the acidity. The colonies were small and patchily distributed and had not formed structurally complex reefs such as those that compose the nearby <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stephens-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coral_health">Coral health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Coral health">edit</a>]</div> To assess the threat level of coral, scientists developed a coral imbalance ratio, Log (Average abundance of disease-associated taxa / Average abundance of healthy associated taxa). The lower the ratio the healthier the microbial community is. This ratio was developed after the microbial mucus of coral was collected and studied.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_impacts">Climate change impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Climate change impacts">edit</a>]</div> Increasing <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> in tropical regions (~1 °C (1.8 °F)) the last century have caused major <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a>, death, and therefore shrinking coral populations. Although coral are able to adapt and acclimate, it is uncertain if this evolutionary process will happen quickly enough to prevent major reduction of their numbers.<a href="#cite_note-Hoegh-Guldberg-108">[108]</a> Climate change causes more frequent and more severe storms that can destroy <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Annual growth bands in some corals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_coral" title="Bamboo coral">bamboo corals</a> (Isididae), may be among the first signs of the effects of ocean acidification on marine life.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The growth rings allow <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologists</a> to construct year-by-year chronologies, a form of <a href="/wiki/Incremental_dating" title="Incremental dating">incremental dating</a>, which underlie high-resolution records of past <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">climatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">environmental</a> changes using <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemical</a> techniques.<a href="#cite_note-Schrag-111">[111]</a> Certain species form communities called <a href="/wiki/Microatoll" title="Microatoll">microatolls</a>, which are colonies whose top is dead and mostly above the water line, but whose perimeter is mostly submerged and alive. Average <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tide</a> level limits their height. By analyzing the various growth morphologies, microatolls offer a low-resolution record of sea level change. Fossilized microatolls can also be dated using <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a>. Such methods can help to reconstruct <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea levels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smithers-112">[112]</a> Though coral have large sexually-reproducing populations, their evolution can be slowed by abundant <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hughes_et_al.-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a> is variable among coral species.<a href="#cite_note-Hughes_et_al.-113">[113]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a> of coral species, gene flow cannot be counted on as a dependable source of adaptation as they are very stationary organisms. Also, coral longevity might factor into their adaptivity.<a href="#cite_note-Hughes_et_al.-113">[113]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptation to climate change">adaptation to climate change</a> has been demonstrated in many cases, which is usually due to a shift in coral and zooxanthellae <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotypes</a>. These shifts in <a href="/wiki/Allele_frequency" title="Allele frequency">allele frequency</a> have progressed toward more tolerant types of zooxanthellae.<a href="#cite_note-Parmesan-114">[114]</a> Scientists found that a certain <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">scleractinian</a> zooxanthella is becoming more common where sea temperature is high.<a href="#cite_note-Baker-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Donner_et_al.-116">[116]</a> Symbionts able to tolerate warmer water seem to photosynthesise more slowly, implying an evolutionary trade-off.<a href="#cite_note-Donner_et_al.-116">[116]</a> In the Gulf of Mexico, where sea temperatures are rising, cold-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Staghorn_coral" title="Staghorn coral">staghorn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_coral" title="Elkhorn coral">elkhorn coral</a> have shifted in location.<a href="#cite_note-Parmesan-114">[114]</a> Not only have the symbionts and specific species been shown to shift, but there seems to be a certain growth rate favorable to selection. Slower-growing but more heat-tolerant corals have become more common.<a href="#cite_note-Baskett_et_al.-117">[117]</a> The changes in temperature and acclimation are complex. Some reefs in current shadows represent a <a href="/wiki/Refugium_(population_biology)" title="Refugium (population biology)">refugium</a> location that will help them adjust to the disparity in the environment even if eventually the temperatures may rise more quickly there than in other locations.<a href="#cite_note-McClanahan_et_al.-118">[118]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Vicariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicariance">separation of populations</a> by climatic barriers causes a <a href="/wiki/Realized_niche" class="mw-redirect" title="Realized niche">realized niche</a> to shrink greatly in comparison to the old <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_niche" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental niche">fundamental niche</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Geochemistry">edit</a>]</div> Corals are shallow, colonial organisms that integrate oxygen and trace elements into their skeletal <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>) crystalline structures as they grow. Geochemical anomalies within the crystalline structures of corals represent functions of temperature, salinity and oxygen isotopic composition. Such geochemical analysis can help with climate modeling.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16</a> (δ18O), for example, is a proxy for temperature. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Strontium/calcium_ratio_anomaly">Strontium/calcium ratio anomaly</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Strontium/calcium ratio anomaly">edit</a>]</div> Time can be attributed to coral geochemistry anomalies by correlating <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> minimums with <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature (SST)</a> maximums to data collected from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/gcos_wgsp/Timeseries/Nino34/">NINO 3.4 SSTA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ren,_L._2002-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Oxygen_isotope_anomaly">Oxygen isotope anomaly</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Oxygen isotope anomaly">edit</a>]</div> The comparison of coral strontium/calcium minimums with sea surface temperature maximums, data recorded from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/gcos_wgsp/Timeseries/Nino34/">NINO 3.4 SSTA</a>, time can be correlated to coral strontium/calcium and <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ18O</a> variations. To confirm the accuracy of the annual relationship between Sr/Ca and <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ18O</a> variations, a perceptible association to annual coral growth rings confirms the age conversion. <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a> is established by the blending of Sr/Ca data, growth rings, and <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope_ratio" title="Stable isotope ratio">stable isotope</a> data. <a href="/wiki/El_Nino-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Nino-Southern Oscillation">El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)</a> is directly related to climate fluctuations that influence coral <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ18O</a> ratio from local salinity variations associated with the position of the <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_convergence_zone" title="South Pacific convergence zone">South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ)</a> and can be used for <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño Southern Oscillation">ENSO</a> modeling.<a href="#cite_note-Ren,_L._2002-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Sea_surface_temperature_and_sea_surface_salinity">Sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_GPN-2003-00032.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Global_Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_GPN-2003-00032.jpg/250px-Global_Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_GPN-2003-00032.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Global_Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_GPN-2003-00032.jpg/330px-Global_Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_GPN-2003-00032.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Global_Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_GPN-2003-00032.jpg/500px-Global_Sea_Surface_Temperature_-_GPN-2003-00032.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2876" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption>Global sea surface temperature (SST)</figcaption></figure> The global moisture budget is primarily being influenced by tropical sea surface temperatures from the position of the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a> (ITCZ).<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a> has a unique meteorological feature positioned in the southwestern Pacific Basin called the <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_convergence_zone" title="South Pacific convergence zone">South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ)</a>, which contains a perennial position within the Southern Hemisphere. During <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño Southern Oscillation">ENSO</a> warm periods, the <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_convergence_zone" title="South Pacific convergence zone">SPCZ</a> reverses orientation extending from the equator down south through <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> and towards the French <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Polynesian islands">Polynesian Islands</a>; and due east towards <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> affecting geochemistry of corals in tropical regions.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Geochemical analysis of skeletal coral can be linked to sea surface salinity (SSS) and <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> (SST), from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/gcos_wgsp/Timeseries/Nino34/">El Nino 3.4 SSTA</a> data, of tropical oceans to seawater <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ18O</a> ratio anomalies from corals. <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o_Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño Southern Oscillation">ENSO</a> phenomenon can be related to variations in sea surface salinity (SSS) and <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature (SST)</a> that can help model tropical climate activities.<a href="#cite_note-Lukas,_R._1991-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Limited_climate_research_on_current_species">Limited climate research on current species</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Limited climate research on current species">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Porites_lutea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Porites_lutea.jpg/250px-Porites_lutea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Porites_lutea.jpg/330px-Porites_lutea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Porites_lutea.jpg/500px-Porites_lutea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Porites lutea</figcaption></figure> Climate research on live coral species is limited to a few studied species. Studying <a href="/wiki/Porites" title="Porites">Porites</a> coral provides a stable foundation for geochemical interpretations that is much simpler to physically extract data in comparison to <a href="/wiki/Platygyra" title="Platygyra">Platygyra</a> species where the complexity of <a href="/wiki/Platygyra" title="Platygyra">Platygyra</a> species skeletal structure creates difficulty when physically sampled, which happens to be one of the only multidecadal living coral records used for coral <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimate">paleoclimate</a> modeling.<a href="#cite_note-Lukas,_R._1991-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protection">Protection</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Protection">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_protection" title="Coral reef protection">Coral reef protection</a></div> Marine Protected Areas, <a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosphere reserves">Biosphere reserves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_park" title="Marine park">marine parks</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_monument" title="National monument">national monuments</a> <a href="/wiki/World_heritage" class="mw-redirect" title="World heritage">world heritage</a> status, <a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">fishery management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat protection</a> can protect reefs from anthropogenic damage.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Many governments now prohibit removal of coral from reefs, and inform coastal residents about reef protection and ecology. While local action such as habitat restoration and herbivore protection can reduce local damage, the longer-term threats of acidification, temperature change and sea-level rise remain a challenge.<a href="#cite_note-cra10-96">[96]</a> Protecting networks of diverse and healthy reefs, not only climate <a href="/wiki/Refugium_(population_biology)" title="Refugium (population biology)">refugia</a>, helps ensure the greatest chance of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>, which is critical for coral to adapt to new climates.<a href="#cite_note-:0-125">[125]</a> A variety of conservation methods applied across marine and terrestrial threatened ecosystems makes coral adaption more likely and effective.<a href="#cite_note-:0-125">[125]</a> To eliminate destruction of corals in their indigenous regions, projects have been started to grow corals in non-tropical countries.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_humans">Relation to humans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Relation to humans">edit</a>]</div> Local economies near major coral reefs benefit from an abundance of fish and other marine creatures as a food source. Reefs also provide recreational <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">scuba diving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">snorkeling</a> tourism. These activities can damage coral but international projects such as <a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a> that encourage dive and snorkel centres to follow a Code of Conduct have been proven to mitigate these risks.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewelry">Jewelry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Jewelry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Precious_coral" title="Precious coral">Precious coral</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6-Strand_Necklace,_Navajo_(Native_American),_ca._1920s,_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/6-Strand_Necklace%2C_Navajo_%28Native_American%29%2C_ca._1920s%2C_cropped.jpg/250px-6-Strand_Necklace%2C_Navajo_%28Native_American%29%2C_ca._1920s%2C_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="392" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/6-Strand_Necklace%2C_Navajo_%28Native_American%29%2C_ca._1920s%2C_cropped.jpg/330px-6-Strand_Necklace%2C_Navajo_%28Native_American%29%2C_ca._1920s%2C_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/6-Strand_Necklace%2C_Navajo_%28Native_American%29%2C_ca._1920s%2C_cropped.jpg/500px-6-Strand_Necklace%2C_Navajo_%28Native_American%29%2C_ca._1920s%2C_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>6-strand necklace, <a href="/wiki/Navajo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Navajo people">Navajo</a> (Native American), ca. 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> Corals' many colors give it appeal for necklaces and other <a href="/wiki/Jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry">jewelry</a>. Intensely red coral is prized as a gemstone. Sometimes called fire coral, it is not the same as <a href="/wiki/Fire_coral" title="Fire coral">fire coral</a>. Red coral is very rare because of <a href="/wiki/Overharvesting" class="mw-redirect" title="Overharvesting">overharvesting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In general, it is inadvisable to give coral as gifts since they are in decline from stressors like climate change, pollution, and unsustainable fishing. Always considered a precious mineral, "the Chinese have long associated red coral with auspiciousness and longevity because of its color and its resemblance to deer antlers (so by association, virtue, long life, and high rank".<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> It reached its height of popularity during the Manchu or Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) when it was almost exclusively reserved for the emperor's use either in the form of coral beads (often combined with pearls) for court jewelry or as decorative <a href="/wiki/Penjing" title="Penjing">Penjing</a> (decorative miniature mineral trees). Coral was known as shanhu in Chinese. The "early-modern 'coral network' [began in] the Mediterranean Sea [and found its way] to Qing China via the English <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> There were strict rules regarding its use in a code established by the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> in 1759. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Medicine">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ViennaDioscoridesCoral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/ViennaDioscoridesCoral.jpg/170px-ViennaDioscoridesCoral.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/ViennaDioscoridesCoral.jpg/255px-ViennaDioscoridesCoral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/ViennaDioscoridesCoral.jpg/340px-ViennaDioscoridesCoral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1878" data-file-height="2280" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of coral in the <a href="/wiki/Juliana_Anicia_Codex" class="mw-redirect" title="Juliana Anicia Codex">Juliana Anicia Codex</a>, a 6th-century copy of <a href="/wiki/Dioscorides" title="Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>' <a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a>. The facing page states that coral can be used to treat ulcers.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></figcaption></figure> In medicine, chemical compounds from corals can potentially be used to treat cancer, neurological diseases, inflammation including arthritis, pain, bone loss, high blood pressure and for other therapeutic uses.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Coral skeletons, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Isididae" class="mw-redirect" title="Isididae">Isididae</a> are being researched for their potential near-future use for <a href="/wiki/Bone_graft" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone graft">bone grafting</a> in humans.<a href="#cite_note-wiley-135">[135]</a> Coral Calx, known as Praval Bhasma in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, is widely used in traditional system of <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Indian medicine</a> as a supplement in the treatment of a variety of bone metabolic disorders associated with calcium deficiency.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> In classical times ingestion of pulverized coral, which consists mainly of the weak base <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, was recommended for calming stomach ulcers by <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dioscorides" title="Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction">Construction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Construction">edit</a>]</div> Coral reefs in places such as the East African coast are used as a source of <a href="/wiki/Building_material" title="Building material">building material</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pouwels2002-138">[138]</a> Ancient (fossil) coral limestone, notably including the <a href="/wiki/Coral_Rag_Formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral Rag Formation">Coral Rag Formation</a> of the hills around <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> (England), was once used as a building stone, and can be seen in some of the oldest buildings in that city including the Saxon tower of <a href="/wiki/St_Michael_at_the_Northgate" class="mw-redirect" title="St Michael at the Northgate">St Michael at the Northgate</a>, St. George's Tower of <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Castle" title="Oxford Castle">Oxford Castle</a>, and the medieval walls of the city.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shoreline_protection">Shoreline protection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Shoreline protection">edit</a>]</div> Healthy coral reefs absorb 97 percent of a wave's energy, which buffers shorelines from currents, waves, and storms, helping to prevent loss of life and property damage. Coastlines protected by coral reefs are also more stable in terms of erosion than those without.<a href="#cite_note-Ferrario-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_economies">Local economies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Local economies">edit</a>]</div> Coastal communities near coral reefs rely heavily on them. Worldwide, more than 500 million people depend on coral reefs for food, income, coastal protection, and more.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> The total economic value of coral reef services in the United States – including fisheries, tourism, and coastal protection – is more than $3.4 billion a year. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aquaria">Aquaria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Aquaria">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reef_aquarium" title="Reef aquarium">Reef aquarium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg/250px-Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg/330px-Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg/500px-Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="933" /></a><figcaption>This dragon-eye zoanthid is a popular source of color in reef tanks.</figcaption></figure> The saltwater fishkeeping hobby has expanded, over recent years, to include <a href="/wiki/Reef_aquarium" title="Reef aquarium">reef tanks</a>, fish tanks that include large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Live_rock" title="Live rock">live rock</a> on which coral is allowed to grow and spread.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> These tanks are either kept in a natural-like state, with algae (sometimes in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Algae_scrubber" title="Algae scrubber">algae scrubber</a>) and a deep sand bed providing filtration,<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> or as "show tanks", with the rock kept largely bare of the algae and <a href="/wiki/Microfauna" title="Microfauna">microfauna</a> that would normally populate it,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> in order to appear neat and clean. The most popular kind of coral kept is <a href="/wiki/Soft_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft coral">soft coral</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Zoanthid" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoanthid">zoanthids</a> and mushroom corals, which are especially easy to grow and propagate in a wide variety of conditions, because they originate in enclosed parts of reefs where water conditions vary and lighting may be less reliable and direct.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> More serious fishkeepers may keep small polyp <a href="/wiki/Stony_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Stony coral">stony coral</a>, which is from open, brightly lit reef conditions and therefore much more demanding, while large polyp stony coral is a sort of compromise between the two. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Aquaculture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_coral" title="Aquaculture of coral">Aquaculture of coral</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_coral" title="Aquaculture of coral">Coral aquaculture</a>, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is the cultivation of corals for commercial purposes or coral reef restoration. Aquaculture is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, which have been declining around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Horoszowski-Fridman-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pomeroy-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rinkevich-148">[148]</a> The process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral fragments known as "seeds" are grown in nurseries then replanted on the reef.<a href="#cite_note-Ferse-149">[149]</a> Coral is farmed by coral farmers who live locally to the reefs and farm for reef <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation</a> or for income. It is also farmed by scientists for research, by businesses for the supply of the live and ornamental coral trade and by private <a href="/wiki/Aquarium" title="Aquarium">aquarium</a> hobbyists. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> Further images: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coral_reefs" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Coral reefs">commons:Category:Coral reefs</a> and <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Corals" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Corals">commons:Category:Corals</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mushroom_Coral_(Fungia)_Top_Macro_91.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Fungia sp. skeleton"><img alt="Fungia sp. skeleton" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Mushroom_Coral_%28Fungia%29_Top_Macro_91.JPG/240px-Mushroom_Coral_%28Fungia%29_Top_Macro_91.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Mushroom_Coral_%28Fungia%29_Top_Macro_91.JPG/360px-Mushroom_Coral_%28Fungia%29_Top_Macro_91.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Mushroom_Coral_%28Fungia%29_Top_Macro_91.JPG/480px-Mushroom_Coral_%28Fungia%29_Top_Macro_91.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Fungia" title="Fungia">Fungia</a> sp. skeleton</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 186.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 184.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Eusmilia_fastigiata_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Polyps of Eusmilia fastigiata"><img alt="Polyps of Eusmilia fastigiata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Eusmilia_fastigiata_large.jpg/277px-Eusmilia_fastigiata_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Eusmilia_fastigiata_large.jpg/415px-Eusmilia_fastigiata_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Eusmilia_fastigiata_large.jpg/553px-Eusmilia_fastigiata_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1172" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Polyps of <a href="/wiki/Eusmilia_fastigiata" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusmilia fastigiata">Eusmilia fastigiata</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 109.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 107.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dendrogyra_cylindrus_(pillar_coral)_(San_Salvador_Island,_Bahamas)_1_(15513345363).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pillar coral, Dendrogyra cylindricus"><img alt="Pillar coral, Dendrogyra cylindricus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Dendrogyra_cylindrus_%28pillar_coral%29_%28San_Salvador_Island%2C_Bahamas%29_1_%2815513345363%29.jpg/161px-Dendrogyra_cylindrus_%28pillar_coral%29_%28San_Salvador_Island%2C_Bahamas%29_1_%2815513345363%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="108" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Dendrogyra_cylindrus_%28pillar_coral%29_%28San_Salvador_Island%2C_Bahamas%29_1_%2815513345363%29.jpg/241px-Dendrogyra_cylindrus_%28pillar_coral%29_%28San_Salvador_Island%2C_Bahamas%29_1_%2815513345363%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Dendrogyra_cylindrus_%28pillar_coral%29_%28San_Salvador_Island%2C_Bahamas%29_1_%2815513345363%29.jpg/322px-Dendrogyra_cylindrus_%28pillar_coral%29_%28San_Salvador_Island%2C_Bahamas%29_1_%2815513345363%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1993" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pillar_coral" title="Pillar coral">Pillar coral</a>, Dendrogyra cylindricus</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_coral.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brain coral, Diploria labyrinthiformis"><img alt="Brain coral, Diploria labyrinthiformis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/169px-Brain_coral.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/254px-Brain_coral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/338px-Brain_coral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Brain_coral" title="Brain coral">Brain coral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diploria_labyrinthiformis" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploria labyrinthiformis">Diploria labyrinthiformis</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 159.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 157.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stony_coral_spawning_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brain coral releasing eggs"><img alt="Brain coral releasing eggs" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Stony_coral_spawning_3.jpg/250px-Stony_coral_spawning_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Stony_coral_spawning_3.jpg/353px-Stony_coral_spawning_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Stony_coral_spawning_3.jpg/471px-Stony_coral_spawning_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="367" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Brain coral releasing eggs</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:EilatFringingReef.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fringing coral reef off the coast of Eilat, Israel."><img alt="Fringing coral reef off the coast of Eilat, Israel." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EilatFringingReef.jpg/250px-EilatFringingReef.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EilatFringingReef.jpg/500px-EilatFringingReef.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fringing <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Eilat" title="Eilat">Eilat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:000324-Corals-IMG_0418-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Corals, Tis Beach, Chabahar, Iran"><img alt="Corals, Tis Beach, Chabahar, Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/000324-Corals-IMG_0418-2.jpg/270px-000324-Corals-IMG_0418-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/000324-Corals-IMG_0418-2.jpg/405px-000324-Corals-IMG_0418-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/000324-Corals-IMG_0418-2.jpg/540px-000324-Corals-IMG_0418-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Corals, Tis Beach, <a href="/wiki/Chabahar" title="Chabahar">Chabahar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:000407-Corals-IMG_0693-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Corals, Tis Beach, Chabahar, Iran"><img alt="Corals, Tis Beach, Chabahar, Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/000407-Corals-IMG_0693-2.jpg/270px-000407-Corals-IMG_0693-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/000407-Corals-IMG_0693-2.jpg/405px-000407-Corals-IMG_0693-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/000407-Corals-IMG_0693-2.jpg/540px-000407-Corals-IMG_0693-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3900" data-file-height="2601" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Corals, Tis Beach, <a href="/wiki/Chabahar" title="Chabahar">Chabahar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringstead_Coral_Bed" title="Ringstead Coral Bed">Ringstead Coral Bed</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRouzéGalandMedinaBongaerts2021" class="citation journal cs1">Rouzé, Héloïse; Galand, Pierre E.; Medina, Mónica; Bongaerts, Pim; Pichon, Michel; Pérez-Rosales, Gonzalo; Torda, Gergely; Moya, Aurelie; Raina, Jean-Baptiste; Hédouin, Laetitia (May 9, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8115523">"Symbiotic associations of the deepest recorded photosynthetic scleractinian 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(1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/handle/2246/2502/N1965.pdf?sequence=1">"Deep sea corals collected by the Lamont Geological Observatory. 1. Atlantic corals"</a> (PDF). 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Bloomsbury. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4"><bdi>978-1-4088-3622-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowen2015-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bowen2015_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowen2015_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bowen2015_4-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowen2015" class="citation book cs1">Bowen, James (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-kXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">The Coral Reef Era: From Discovery to Decline: A history of scientific investigation from 1600 to the Anthropocene Epoch</a>. Springer. pp. 5–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-07479-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-07479-5"><bdi>978-3-319-07479-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coral+Reef+Era%3A+From+Discovery+to+Decline%3A+A+history+of+scientific+investigation+from+1600+to+the+Anthropocene+Epoch&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-319-07479-5&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-kXBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Babylonian Talmud, Rosh Hashana 23a, and commentary of Rashi (24th narrow line) </li> <li id="cite_note-Egerton-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Egerton_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2012" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Frank N. 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Sea Challengers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930118-21-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-930118-21-1"><bdi>978-0-930118-21-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coral+Reef+Animals+of+the+Indo-Pacific%2C+Animals+Life+from+Africa+to+Hawai%27i+%28invertebrates%29&rft.pub=Sea+Challengers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-930118-21-1&rft.au=Gosliner%2C+T.&rft.au=D.+Behrens&rft.au=G.+Williams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNybakken,_J.W.2004" class="citation book cs1">Nybakken, J.W. (2004). Marine Biology, An Ecological Approach. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4582-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4582-7"><bdi>978-0-8053-4582-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Biology%2C+An+Ecological+Approach&rft.pub=Pearson%2FBenjamin+Cummings&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-4582-7&rft.au=Nybakken%2C+J.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRedhill,_Surrey" class="citation book cs1">Redhill, Surrey. Corals of the World: Biology and Field Guide.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corals+of+the+World%3A+Biology+and+Field+Guide&rft.au=Redhill%2C+Surrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSegaloff,_NatPaul_Erickson1991" class="citation book cs1">Segaloff, Nat; Paul Erickson (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reefcomestolifec00sega">A Reef Comes to Life. Creating an Undersea Exhibit</a>. F. Watts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-531-10994-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-531-10994-6"><bdi>978-0-531-10994-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Reef+Comes+to+Life.+Creating+an+Undersea+Exhibit&rft.pub=F.+Watts&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-531-10994-6&rft.au=Segaloff%2C+Nat&rft.au=Paul+Erickson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freefcomestolifec00sega&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSheppardDavyPilling2009" class="citation book cs1">Sheppard, Charles R.C.; Davy, Simon K.; Pilling, Graham M. (25 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=toIeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT78">The Biology of Coral Reefs</a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-105734-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-105734-2"><bdi>978-0-19-105734-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biology+of+Coral+Reefs&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2009-06-25&rft.isbn=978-0-19-105734-2&rft.aulast=Sheppard&rft.aufirst=Charles+R.C.&rft.au=Davy%2C+Simon+K.&rft.au=Pilling%2C+Graham+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtoIeBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVeron,_J.E.N.1993" class="citation book cs1">Veron, J.E.N. (1993). Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1504-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1504-2"><bdi>978-0-8248-1504-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corals+of+Australia+and+the+Indo-Pacific&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1504-2&rft.au=Veron%2C+J.E.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWells,_Susan1988" class="citation book cs1">Wells, Susan (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coralreefsofworl88well">Coral Reefs of the World</a>. IUCN, UNEP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782880329440" title="Special:BookSources/9782880329440"><bdi>9782880329440</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coral+Reefs+of+the+World&rft.pub=IUCN%2C+UNEP&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9782880329440&rft.au=Wells%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcoralreefsofworl88well&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coral&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Corals" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Corals">Corals</a> and <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Anthozoa" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life-ecosystems/coral-reefs">Coral Reefs</a> The Ocean Portal by the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coralreef.noaa.gov/">Coral Reef Conservation Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> CoRIS – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coris.noaa.gov/">Coral Reef Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> Office for Coastal Management – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/coral-reefs.html">Fast Facts – Coral Reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> Ocean Service Education – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_corals/welcome.html">Corals</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106080751/http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html">"What is a coral?"</a>. Stanford microdocs project. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html">the original</a> on 2014-01-06. Retrieved 2017-02-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+a+coral%3F&rft.pub=Stanford+microdocs+project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Fmicrodocs%2Fwhatisacoral.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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aria-labelledby="Corals_and_coral_reefs164" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Corals_and_coral_reefs164" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Corals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_coral" title="Black coral">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_coral" title="Brain coral">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalaphyllia" title="Catalaphyllia">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">Hermatypic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectiniidae" title="Pectiniidae">Chalice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillar_coral" title="Pillar coral">Pillar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acropora" title="Acropora">Table</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_coral" title="Elkhorn coral">Elkhorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staghorn_coral" title="Staghorn coral">Staghorn</a></li></ul></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Rugosa" title="Rugosa">Rugose</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Tabulata" title="Tabulata">Tabulate</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/250px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/330px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="330" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_coral" title="Bamboo coral">Bamboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_coral" title="Blue coral">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_pipe_coral" title="Organ pipe coral">Organ pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">Sea fans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">Sea pens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">Cay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesophotic_coral_reef" title="Mesophotic coral reef">mesophotic coral reef</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">Fringing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microatoll" title="Microatoll">Microatoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Coral_Reefs" title="Census of Coral Reefs">Census of Coral Reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs" title="The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs">The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catlin_Seaview_Survey" title="Catlin Seaview Survey">Catlin Seaview Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_and_groove_formation" title="Spur and groove formation">Spur and groove formation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef#Distribution" title="Coral reef">Coral regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reefs" title="List of reefs">List of reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_coral_reefs" title="African coral reefs">African coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Reef" title="Amazon Reef">Amazon Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andros,_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Andros, Bahamas">Andros, Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apo_Reef" title="Apo Reef">Apo Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_wildlife_of_Baa_Atoll" title="Marine wildlife of Baa Atoll">Baa Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belize_Barrier_Reef" title="Belize Barrier Reef">Belize Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Sea_Islands" title="Coral Sea Islands">Coral Sea Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Triangle" title="Coral Triangle">Coral Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_coral_coast" title="East African coral coast">East African coral coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys_National_Marine_Sanctuary" title="Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary">Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_in_India" title="Coral reefs in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Jamaica" title="Coral reefs of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Kiribati" title="Coral reefs of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_the_Maldives" title="Wildlife of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonian_barrier_reef" title="New Caledonian barrier reef">New Caledonia barrier reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningaloo_Coast" title="Ningaloo Coast">Ningaloo Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_in_non-tropical_regions" title="Coral in non-tropical regions">Non-tropical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Northwestern Hawaiian Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulley_Ridge" title="Pulley Ridge">Pulley Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raja_Ampat_Islands" title="Raja Ampat Islands">Raja Ampat Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_the_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral reefs of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs" title="Southeast Asian coral reefs">Southeast Asian coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Tuvalu" title="Coral reefs of Tuvalu">Tuvalu Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Coral reefs of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yabiji" title="Yabiji">Yabiji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coral diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_band_disease" title="Black band disease">Black band disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_eroding_band" title="Skeletal eroding band">Skeletal eroding band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stony_coral_tissue_loss_disease" title="Stony coral tissue loss disease">Stony coral tissue loss disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_band_disease" title="White band disease">White band disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_pox_disease" title="White pox disease">White pox disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Environmental issues with coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_protection" title="Coral reef protection">Coral reef protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_restoration" title="Coral reef restoration">Coral reef restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resilience_of_coral_reefs" title="Resilience of coral reefs">Reef resilience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_organizations" title="Coral reef organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Reef_Alliance" title="Coral Reef Alliance">Coral Reef Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Coral_Reef_Society" title="International Coral Reef Society">International Coral Reef Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PADI_AWARE" class="mw-redirect" title="PADI AWARE">Project AWARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Ball_Foundation" title="Reef Ball Foundation">Reef Ball Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbiotic algae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">Zooxanthellae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidinium" title="Amphidinium">Amphidinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_reef" title="Artificial reef">Artificial reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_coral" title="Aquaculture of coral">Aquaculture of coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_dermatitis" title="Coral dermatitis">Coral dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_coral" title="Precious coral">Precious coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_rag" title="Coral rag">Coral rag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_sand" title="Coral sand">Coral sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">Coralline algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_coral" 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