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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stratigraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stratigraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Stratigraphy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stratigraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mississippian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mississippian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Mississippian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mississippian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pennsylvanian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pennsylvanian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Pennsylvanian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pennsylvanian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyclothems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyclothems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cyclothems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyclothems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coal_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coal_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Coal formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coal_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palaeogeography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaeogeography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Palaeogeography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Palaeogeography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Palaeogeography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Palaeogeography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita_orogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita_orogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita orogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita_orogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uralian_orogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uralian_orogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Uralian orogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uralian_orogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laurussia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laurussia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Laurussia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laurussia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gondwana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gondwana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Gondwana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gondwana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siberia_and_Amuria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siberia_and_Amuria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Siberia and Amuria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siberia_and_Amuria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_and_East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_and_East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Central and East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_and_East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Climate</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Climate subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temperatures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperatures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Temperatures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperatures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atmospheric_oxygen_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atmospheric_oxygen_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Atmospheric oxygen levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atmospheric_oxygen_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_climate_on_sedimentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_climate_on_sedimentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Effects of climate on sedimentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_climate_on_sedimentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_climate_on_biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_climate_on_biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Effects of climate on biodiversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_climate_on_biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Geochemistry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geochemistry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geochemistry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Magnesium/calcium_isotope_ratios_in_seawater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnesium/calcium_isotope_ratios_in_seawater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Magnesium/calcium isotope ratios in seawater</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnesium/calcium_isotope_ratios_in_seawater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strontium_isotopic_composition_of_seawater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strontium_isotopic_composition_of_seawater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Strontium isotopic composition of seawater</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strontium_isotopic_composition_of_seawater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxygen_and_carbon_isotope_ratios_in_seawater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen_and_carbon_isotope_ratios_in_seawater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in seawater</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen_and_carbon_isotope_ratios_in_seawater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Marine invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freshwater_and_lagoonal_invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freshwater_and_lagoonal_invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Freshwater and lagoonal invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freshwater_and_lagoonal_invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrestrial_invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrestrial_invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Terrestrial invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrestrial_invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tetrapods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tetrapods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Tetrapods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tetrapods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fungi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Fungi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinction_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinction_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Extinction events</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Extinction_events-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Extinction events subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Extinction_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Romer's_gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romer's_gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Romer's gap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romer's_gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Carboniferous rainforest collapse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">84 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karboon" title="Karboon – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Karboon" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%8A" title="العصر الفحمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصر الفحمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%C3%ADferu" title="Carboníferu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Carboníferu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da%C5%9F_k%C3%B6m%C3%BCr_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Daş kömür dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Daş kömür dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_(pariuda)" title="Karbon (pariuda) – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Karbon (pariuda)" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chio%CC%8Dh-tho%C3%A0%E2%81%BF-k%C3%AD" title="Chio̍h-thoàⁿ-kí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chio̍h-thoàⁿ-kí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%B4" title="Каменнавугальны перыяд – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каменнавугальны перыяд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Карбон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Карбон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Карбон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Карбон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonifer" title="Karbonifer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Karbonifer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%C3%ADfer" title="Carbonífer – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Carbonífer" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonifferaidd" title="Carbonifferaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Carbonifferaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_(geologi)" title="Karbon (geologi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Karbon (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Λιθανθρακοφόρος περίοδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λιθανθρακοφόρος περίοδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%C3%ADfero" title="Carbonífero – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Carbonífero" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonio" title="Karbonio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Karbonio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonifero" title="Karbonifero – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Karbonifero" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1" title="کربنیفر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کربنیفر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonif%C3%A8re" title="Carbonifère – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Carbonifère" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Tr%C3%A9imhse_Charb%C3%B3nmhar" title="An Tréimhse Charbónmhar – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Tréimhse Charbónmhar" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%C3%ADfero" title="Carbonífero – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Carbonífero" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9D%ED%83%84%EA%B8%B0" title="석탄기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="석탄기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Քարածխային ժամանակաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քարածխային ժամանակաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="कार्बनी कल्प – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्बनी कल्प" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_(geolo%C5%A1ko_razdoblje)" title="Karbon (geološko razdoblje) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Karbon (geološko razdoblje)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_(zaman)" title="Karbon (zaman) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Karbon (zaman)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolat%C3%ADmabili%C3%B0" title="Kolatímabilið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kolatímabilið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonifero" title="Carbonifero – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carbonifero" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9F" title="קרבון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרבון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="კარბონული სისტემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კარბონული სისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B5%D2%A3%D1%96" title="Карбон кезеңі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Карбон кезеңі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%88_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D0%BC%D2%AF%D1%80_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Таш көмүр мезгили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Таш көмүр мезгили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferum" title="Carboniferum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Carboniferum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbons" title="Karbons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Karbons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonas" title="Karbonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Karbonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboon" title="Carboon – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Carboon" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferosa" title="Carboniferosa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Carboniferosa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Карбон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Карбон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%82" title="കാർബോണിഫെറസ് ഘട്ടം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാർബോണിഫെറസ് ഘട്ടം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1" title="کربونیفر – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کربونیفر" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_(geologi)" title="Karbon (geologi) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Karbon (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C5%8Fh-t%C3%A1ng-g%C4%AB" title="Siŏh-táng-gī – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Siŏh-táng-gī" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboon" title="Carboon – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Carboon" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="प्राङ्गारयुग – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राङ्गारयुग" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E7%82%AD%E7%B4%80" title="石炭紀 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="石炭紀" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karboon_(Geologii)" title="Karboon (Geologii) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Karboon (Geologii)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_(geologi)" title="Karbon (geologi) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Karbon (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbontida" title="Karbontida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Karbontida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonif%C3%A8r" title="Carbonifèr – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Carbonifèr" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshko%CA%BBmir_sistemasi" title="Toshkoʻmir sistemasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Toshkoʻmir sistemasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="کاربونیفرس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کاربونیفرس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%C3%ACfer" title="Carbonìfer – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Carbonìfer" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%C3%ADfero" title="Carbonífero – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Carbonífero" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonifer" title="Carbonifer – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Carbonifer" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Каменноугольный период – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Каменноугольный период" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Carboniferous" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carboniferous" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karb%C3%B3n_(geochronologick%C3%A1_jednotka)" title="Karbón (geochronologická jednotka) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Karbón (geochronologická jednotka)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaarboon_(da%27da)" title="Kaarboon (da'da) – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Kaarboon (da'da)" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0)" title="Карбон (периода) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Карбон (периода)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_(period)" title="Karbon (period) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Karbon (period)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kivihiilikausi" title="Kivihiilikausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kivihiilikausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon" title="Karbon – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Karbon" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonipero" title="Karbonipero – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Karbonipero" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கார்பனிபெரசுக் காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கார்பனிபெரசுக் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA" title="ยุคคาร์บอนิเฟอรัส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคคาร์บอนิเฟอรัส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%82_(%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3)" title="Ангишт (давраи заминшиносӣ) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ангишт (давраи заминшиносӣ)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonifer" title="Karbonifer – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karbonifer" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Кам'яновугільний період – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кам'яновугільний період" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="کاربونیفیرس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کاربونیفیرس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%BB%B7_Than_%C4%90%C3%A1" title="Kỷ Than Đá – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kỷ Than Đá" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Carboniferous" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Fifth period of the Paleozoic Era</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the album, see <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_(album)" title="Carboniferous (album)"><i>Carboniferous</i> (album)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:23em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em 0.33em 0.33em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:1.25em;background:rgb(103,165,153);">Carboniferous</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">358.9 ± 0.4 – 298.9 ± 0.15 <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:99.526153846154px; width:18.307692307692px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth,_330_Ma_(Serpukhovian_Age).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_330_Ma_%28Serpukhovian_Age%29.png/250px-Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_330_Ma_%28Serpukhovian_Age%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_330_Ma_%28Serpukhovian_Age%29.png/375px-Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_330_Ma_%28Serpukhovian_Age%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_330_Ma_%28Serpukhovian_Age%29.png/500px-Mollweide_Paleographic_Map_of_Earth%2C_330_Ma_%28Serpukhovian_Age%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3610" data-file-height="1810" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A map of Earth as it appeared 330 million years ago during the Carboniferous Period, Mississippian Subperiod</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Chronology</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="font-size:14px"><table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:none;margin:auto;overflow:hidden;min-width:26.710em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:32em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.74em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−360 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.37em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−355 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.19em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−350 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.63em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−345 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.45em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−340 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.08em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:18.89em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−335 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.71em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−330 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.34em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.15em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−325 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.97em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−320 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.60em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.41em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−315 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.23em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−310 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.85em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.67em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−305 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.48em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−300 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.11em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:10.5em;height:32em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#000000"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(153,192,141);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:0.000em;width:1.155em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="line-height:16px;display:block;"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-text{letter-spacing:-0.12em;line-height:1em;text-orientation:upright;writing-mode:vertical-lr;width:1em}}</style><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a></span></b></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(203,140,55);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.222em;height:1.778em;left:1.260em;width:9.135em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.889em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(103,165,153);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:28.344em;left:1.260em;width:1.155em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-14.172em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="line-height:16px;display:block;"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carboniferous</a></span></b></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(240,64,40);border-width:0em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.778em;left:1.260em;width:9.135em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.889em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(103,143,102);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:13.298em;height:16.864em;left:2.520em;width:1.155em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.432em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><div style="line-height:12px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)"><span style="color:white;">Mississippian</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(126,188,198);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:11.460em;left:2.520em;width:1.155em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.730em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%;line-height:12px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a></span></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:0.000em;width:10.395em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(128,171,108);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:24.439em;height:5.724em;left:3.780em;width:0.840em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.862em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%;line-height:12px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Early_Mississippian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Mississippian">Early</a></span></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(153,180,108);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.948em;height:7.490em;left:3.780em;width:0.840em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.745em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%;line-height:12px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Middle_Mississippian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Mississippian">Middle</a></span></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(179,190,108);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:13.298em;height:3.590em;left:3.780em;width:0.840em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.795em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%;line-height:12px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Late_Mississippian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Mississippian">Late</a></span></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(140,190,180);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:9.505em;height:3.793em;left:3.780em;width:0.840em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.896em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:80%;line-height:10px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Early_Pennsylvanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Pennsylvanian">Early</a></span></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(166,199,183);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.618em;height:3.827em;left:3.780em;width:0.840em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.914em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%;line-height:12px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Middle_Pennsylvanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Pennsylvanian">Mid</a></span></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(191,208,186);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:3.840em;left:3.780em;width:0.840em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.920em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%;line-height:12px;display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Late_Pennsylvanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Pennsylvanian">Late</a></span></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:0.000em;width:10.395em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(140,176,108);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:24.439em;height:5.724em;left:4.725em;width:5.670em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.862em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Tournaisian" title="Tournaisian">Tournaisian</a></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(166,185,108);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.948em;height:7.430em;left:4.725em;width:5.670em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Vis%C3%A9an" title="Viséan">Viséan</a></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(191,194,107);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:13.298em;height:3.590em;left:4.725em;width:5.670em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.795em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:80%"><a href="/wiki/Serpukhovian" title="Serpukhovian">Serpukhovian</a></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(153,194,181);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:9.505em;height:3.733em;left:4.725em;width:5.670em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.866em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Bashkirian" title="Bashkirian">Bashkirian</a></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(179,203,185);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.618em;height:3.827em;left:4.725em;width:5.670em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.914em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Moscovian_(Carboniferous)" title="Moscovian (Carboniferous)">Moscovian</a></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(191,208,197);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.053em;height:1.504em;left:4.725em;width:5.670em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.752em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Kasimovian" title="Kasimovian">Kasimovian</a></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(204,212,199);border-width:0.03em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:2.216em;left:4.725em;width:5.670em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.108em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:90%"><a href="/wiki/Gzhelian" title="Gzhelian">Gzhelian</a></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.778em;height:0.024em;left:3.570em;width:1.050em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.012em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.199em;height:0.024em;left:1.260em;width:9.135em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.012em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.310em;height:32em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.670em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Rainforest_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse">Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.566em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Mazon_Creek_fossil_beds" title="Mazon Creek fossil beds">Mazon Creek Fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:23.633em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">End of <a href="/wiki/Romer%27s_Gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Romer's Gap">Romer's Gap</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:30.744em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">Start of <a href="/wiki/Romer%27s_Gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Romer's Gap">Romer's Gap</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 auto;float:left;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:23.500em"><b>Subdivision of the Carboniferous according to the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">ICS</a>, as of 2023.</b><sup id="cite_ref-ICS_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Vertical axis scale: <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Millions of years ago</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Etymology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Name formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Nickname(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Age of Amphibians</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Usage information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Celestial body</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Earth</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Regional usage</th><td class="infobox-data">Global (<a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">ICS</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time scale(s) used</th><td class="infobox-data">ICS Time Scale</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Definition</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Chronological unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">Period</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Stratigraphic unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)" title="System (stratigraphy)">System</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">First proposed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Conybeare" class="mw-redirect" title="William Daniel Conybeare">William Daniel Conybeare</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Phillips_(geologist)" title="William Phillips (geologist)">William Phillips</a>, 1822</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time span formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/First_appearance_datum" title="First appearance datum">FAD</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">Conodont</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Siphonodella" title="Siphonodella">Siphonodella sulcata</a></i> (discovered to have biostratigraphic issues as of 2006)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaiser2009_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary GSSP</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/La_Serre" title="La Serre">La Serre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montagne_Noire" title="Montagne Noire">Montagne Noire</a>, France<br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Carboniferous&params=43.5555_N_3.3573_E_"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">43°33′20″N</span> <span class="longitude">3°21′26″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">43.5555°N 3.3573°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">43.5555; 3.3573</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower GSSP ratified</th><td class="infobox-data">1990<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaprothFeistFlajs1991_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaprothFeistFlajs1991-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data">FAD of the <a href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">Conodont</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Streptognathodus" title="Streptognathodus">Streptognathodus isolatus</a></i> within the <a href="/wiki/Morphotype" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphotype">morphotype</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Streptognathodus" title="Streptognathodus">Streptognathodus wabaunsensis</a></i> chronocline</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary GSSP</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aidaralash" title="Aidaralash">Aidaralash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a><br /><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818" /><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Carboniferous&params=50.2458_N_57.8914_E_"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">50°14′45″N</span> <span class="longitude">57°53′29″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">50.2458°N 57.8914°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">50.2458; 57.8914</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper GSSP ratified</th><td class="infobox-data">1996<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavydovGlenisterSpinosaRitter1998_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavydovGlenisterSpinosaRitter1998-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Atmospheric and climatic data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Sea level above present day</th><td class="infobox-data">Falling from 120 m to present-day level throughout the Mississippian, then rising steadily to about 80 m at end of period<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaqSchutter2008_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaqSchutter2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table><p>The <b>Carboniferous</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">KAR</span>-bə-<span style="font-size:90%">NIF</span>-ər-əs</i></a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geologic period</a> and <a href="/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)" title="System (stratigraphy)">system</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">era</a> that spans 60 million years, from the end of the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> Period 358.86 Ma (million years ago) to the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> Period, 298.9 Ma. It is the fifth and penultimate period of the Paleozoic era and the fifth period of the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eon</a>. In <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, the Carboniferous is often treated as two separate geological periods, the earlier <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian</a> and the later <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_California,_Berkeley2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_California,_Berkeley2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name <i>Carboniferous</i> means "<a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>-bearing", from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/carbo#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:carbo">carbō</a></i> ("<a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>") and <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fero#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:fero">ferō</a></i> ("bear, carry"), and refers to the many coal beds formed globally during that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosseyAdamsPurnellWhiteley20043_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosseyAdamsPurnellWhiteley20043-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of the modern "system" names, it was coined by geologists <a href="/wiki/William_Conybeare_(geologist)" title="William Conybeare (geologist)">William Conybeare</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Phillips_(geologist)" title="William Phillips (geologist)">William Phillips</a> in 1822,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConybearePhillips1822[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZcMQAAAAIAAJpgPA323_p._323:_"Book_III._Medial_or_Carboniferous_Order."]_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConybearePhillips1822[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZcMQAAAAIAAJpgPA323_p._323:_"Book_III._Medial_or_Carboniferous_Order."]-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on a study of the British rock succession. </p><p>Carboniferous is the period during which both <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial animal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">land plant</a> life was well established.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarwoodEdgecombe2011_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarwoodEdgecombe2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stegocephalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stegocephalia">Stegocephalia</a> (four-limbed <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> including true <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>), whose forerunners (<a href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapodomorph">tetrapodomorphs</a>) had evolved from <a href="/wiki/Lobe-finned_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobe-finned fish">lobe-finned fish</a> during the preceding Devonian period, became <a href="/wiki/Pentadactylous" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentadactylous">pentadactylous</a> during the Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period is sometimes called the <b>Age of Amphibians</b><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_divergence" title="Genetic divergence">diversification</a> of early <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Temnospondyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Temnospondyl">temnospondyls</a>, which became dominant land vertebrates,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the first appearance of <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a> including <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsids</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> to which modern <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> belong) and <a href="/wiki/Sauropsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropsid">sauropsids</a> (which include modern reptiles and birds) during the late Carboniferous. Land <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Trigonotarbid" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigonotarbid">trigonotarbids</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pulmonoscorpius" title="Pulmonoscorpius">Pulmonoscorpius</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Myriapod" class="mw-redirect" title="Myriapod">myriapods</a> (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Arthropleura" title="Arthropleura">Arthropleura</a></i>) and especially insects (particularly <a href="/wiki/Pterygota" title="Pterygota">flying insects</a>) also underwent a major <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">evolutionary radiation</a> during the late Carboniferous. <a href="/wiki/Coal_forest" title="Coal forest">Vast swaths of forests and swamps</a> covered the land, which eventually became the coal beds characteristic of the Carboniferous <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> evident today. </p><p>The later half of the period experienced <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">glaciations</a>, low sea level, and <a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">mountain building</a> as the continents collided to form <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>. A minor marine and terrestrial extinction event, the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse" title="Carboniferous rainforest collapse">Carboniferous rainforest collapse</a>, occurred at the end of the period, caused by climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atmospheric oxygen levels, originally thought to be consistently higher than today throughout the Carboniferous, have been shown to be more variable, increasing from low levels at the beginning of the Period to highs of 25–30%.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_history">Etymology and history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of a Carboniferous <a href="/wiki/Chronostratigraphy" title="Chronostratigraphy">chronostratigraphic</a> timescale began in the late 18th century. The term "Carboniferous" was first used as an adjective by Irish geologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kirwan" title="Richard Kirwan">Richard Kirwan</a> in 1799 and later used in a heading entitled "Coal-measures or Carboniferous Strata" by <a href="/wiki/John_Farey_Sr." title="John Farey Sr.">John Farey Sr.</a> in 1811. Four units were originally ascribed to the Carboniferous, in ascending order, the <a href="/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone" title="Old Red Sandstone">Old Red Sandstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Limestone" title="Carboniferous Limestone">Carboniferous Limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millstone_Grit" title="Millstone Grit">Millstone Grit</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coal_measures" title="Coal measures">Coal Measures</a>. These four units were placed into a formalised Carboniferous unit by <a href="/wiki/William_Conybeare_(geologist)" title="William Conybeare (geologist)">William Conybeare</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Phillips_(geologist)" title="William Phillips (geologist)">William Phillips</a> in 1822 and then into the Carboniferous System by Phillips in 1835. The Old Red Sandstone was later considered <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> in age.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The similarity in successions between the British Isles and Western Europe led to the development of a common European timescale with the Carboniferous System divided into the lower <a href="/wiki/Dinantian" title="Dinantian">Dinantian</a>, dominated by <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rock" title="Carbonate rock">carbonate</a> deposition and the upper <a href="/wiki/Silesian_(series)" title="Silesian (series)">Silesian</a> with mainly <a href="/wiki/Siliciclastic" title="Siliciclastic">siliciclastic</a> deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodcock-2012_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dinantian was divided into the <a href="/wiki/Tournaisian" title="Tournaisian">Tournaisian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vis%C3%A9an" title="Viséan">Viséan</a> stages. The Silesian was divided into the <a href="/wiki/Namurian" title="Namurian">Namurian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Westphalian_(stage)" title="Westphalian (stage)">Westphalian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephanian_(stage)" title="Stephanian (stage)">Stephanian</a> stages. The Tournaisian is the same length as the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">International Commission on Stratigraphy</a> (ICS) stage, but the Viséan is longer, extending into the lower <a href="/wiki/Serpukhovian" title="Serpukhovian">Serpukhovian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North American geologists recognised a similar stratigraphy but divided it into two systems rather than one. These are the lower carbonate-rich sequence of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian</a> System and the upper siliciclastic and coal-rich sequence of the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a> officially recognised these two systems in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Russia, in the 1840s British and Russian geologists divided the Carboniferous into the Lower, Middle and Upper series based on Russian sequences. In the 1890s these became the Dinantian, <a href="/wiki/Moscovian_(Carboniferous)" title="Moscovian (Carboniferous)">Moscovian</a> and Uralian stages. The Serpukivian was proposed as part of the Lower Carboniferous, and the Upper Carboniferous was divided into the Moscovian and <a href="/wiki/Gzhelian" title="Gzhelian">Gzhelian</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bashkirian" title="Bashkirian">Bashkirian</a> was added in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1975, the ICS formally ratified the Carboniferous System, with the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian subsystems from the North American timescale, the Tournaisian and Visean stages from the Western European and the Serpukhovian, Bashkirian, Moscovian, <a href="/wiki/Kasimovian" title="Kasimovian">Kasimovian</a> and Gzhelian from the Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the formal ratification of the Carboniferous System, the Dinantian, Silesian, Namurian, Westphalian and Stephanian became redundant terms, although the latter three are still in common use in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodcock-2012_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Stratigraphy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the ICS ratify global stages based on a <a href="/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point" title="Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point">Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point</a> (GSSP) from a single <a href="/wiki/Geological_formation" title="Geological formation">formation</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Stratotype" title="Stratotype">stratotype</a>) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. Only the boundaries of the Carboniferous System and three of the stage bases are defined by global stratotype sections and points because of the complexity of the geology.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-2022_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-2022-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ICS subdivisions from youngest to oldest are as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen-2013_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-2013-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td>Series/epoch </td> <td> </td> <td>Stage/age </td> <td>Lower boundary </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: rgb(240,64,40);"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(227,99,80);"><a href="/wiki/Asselian" title="Asselian">Asselian</a> </td> <td>298.9 ±0.15 Ma </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4" style="background-color: rgb(126,188,198);"><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: rgb(191,208,186);">Upper </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(204,212,199);"><a href="/wiki/Gzhelian" title="Gzhelian">Gzhelian</a> </td> <td>303.7 ±0.1 Ma </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(191,208,197);"><a href="/wiki/Kasimovian" title="Kasimovian">Kasimovian</a> </td> <td>307.0 ±0.1 Ma </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(166,199,183);">Middle </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(179,203,185);"><a href="/wiki/Moscovian_(Carboniferous)" title="Moscovian (Carboniferous)">Moscovian</a> </td> <td>315.2 ±0.2 Ma </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(140,190,180);">Lower </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(153,194,181);"><a href="/wiki/Bashkirian" title="Bashkirian">Bashkirian</a> </td> <td>323.2 ±0.4 Ma </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="background-color: rgb(103,143,102);"><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian</a> </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(179,190,108);">Upper </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(191,194,107);"><a href="/wiki/Serpukhovian" title="Serpukhovian">Serpukhovian</a> </td> <td>330.9 ±0.2 Ma </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(153,180,108);">Middle </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(166,185,108);"><a href="/wiki/Visean" class="mw-redirect" title="Visean">Visean</a> </td> <td>346.7 ±0.4 Ma </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color: rgb(128,171,108);">Lower </td> <td style="background-color: rgb(140,176,108);"><a href="/wiki/Tournaisian" title="Tournaisian">Tournaisian</a> </td> <td>358.9 ±0.4 Ma </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mississippian">Mississippian</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mississippian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mississippian was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Winchell" title="Alexander Winchell">Alexander Winchell</a> in 1870 named after the extensive exposure of lower Carboniferous <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> in the upper <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> valley.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Mississippian, there was a marine connection between the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Tethys_Ocean" title="Paleo-Tethys Ocean">Paleo-Tethys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panthalassa" title="Panthalassa">Panthalassa</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Rheic_Ocean" title="Rheic Ocean">Rheic Ocean</a> resulting in the near worldwide distribution of marine faunas and so allowing widespread correlations using marine <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-2022_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-2022-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are few Mississippian <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">volcanic rocks</a>, and so obtaining <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dates</a> is difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-2022_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-2022-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The Tournaisian Stage is named after the Belgian city of <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a>. It was introduced in scientific literature by Belgian geologist <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Dumont_(geologist)" title="André Dumont (geologist)">André Dumont</a> in 1832. The GSSP for the base of the Carboniferous System, Mississippian Subsystem and Tournaisian Stage is located at the <a href="/wiki/La_Serre" title="La Serre">La Serre</a> section in <a href="/wiki/Montagne_Noire" title="Montagne Noire">Montagne Noire</a>, southern France. It is defined by the first appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Conodont" title="Conodont">conodont</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Siphonodella" title="Siphonodella">Siphonodella sulcata</a></i> within the evolutionary lineage from <i><a href="/wiki/Siphonodella" title="Siphonodella">Siphonodella praesulcata</a></i> to <i>Siphonodella sulcata</i>. This was ratified by the ICS in 1990. However, in 2006 further study revealed the presence of <i>Siphonodella sulcata</i> below the boundary, and the presence of <i>Siphonodella</i> <i>praesulcata</i> and <i>Siphonodella sulcata</i> together above a local <a href="/wiki/Unconformity" title="Unconformity">unconformity</a>. This means the evolution of one species to the other, the definition of the boundary, is not seen at the La Serre site making precise correlation difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stratigraphy.org_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratigraphy.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carboniferous_regional_subdivisions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Carboniferous_regional_subdivisions.png/440px-Carboniferous_regional_subdivisions.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Carboniferous_regional_subdivisions.png/660px-Carboniferous_regional_subdivisions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Carboniferous_regional_subdivisions.png/880px-Carboniferous_regional_subdivisions.png 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1157" /></a><figcaption>Chart of regional subdivisions of the Carboniferous Period</figcaption></figure><p>The Viséan Stage was introduced by André Dumont in 1832 and is named after the city of <a href="/wiki/Vis%C3%A9" title="Visé">Visé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_Province" title="Liège Province">Liège Province</a>, Belgium. In 1967, the base of the Visean was officially defined as the first black limestone in the Leffe <a href="/wiki/Facies" title="Facies">facies</a> at the Bastion Section in the <a href="/wiki/Dinant" title="Dinant">Dinant Basin</a>. These changes are now thought to be ecologically driven rather than caused by evolutionary change, and so this has not been used as the location for the GSSP. Instead, the GSSP for the base of the Visean is located in Bed 83 of the sequence of dark grey <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shales</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Peng_Chong" title="Peng Chong">Pengchong</a> section, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, southern China. It is defined by the first appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Fusulinida" title="Fusulinida">fusulinid</a> <i>Eoparastaffella simplex</i> in the evolutionary lineage <i>Eoparastaffella ovalis – Eoparastaffella simplex</i> and was ratified in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Serpukhovian Stage was proposed in 1890 by Russian stratigrapher <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikitin_(geologist)" title="Sergei Nikitin (geologist)">Sergei Nikitin</a>. It is named after the city of <a href="/wiki/Serpukhov" title="Serpukhov">Serpukhov</a>, near Moscow and currently lacks a defined GSSP. The Visean-Serpukhovian boundary coincides with a major period of glaciation. The resulting sea level fall and climatic changes led to the loss of connections between marine basins and <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemism</a> of marine fauna across the Russian margin. This means changes in <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biota</a> are environmental rather than evolutionary making wider correlation difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work is underway in the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Urals</a> and Nashui, <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a> Province, southwestern China for a suitable site for the GSSP with the proposed definition for the base of the Serpukhovian as the first appearance of conodont <i><a href="/wiki/Lochriea" title="Lochriea">Lochriea ziegleri</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Stratigraphy.org_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratigraphy.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pennsylvanian">Pennsylvanian</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pennsylvanian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Pennsylvanian was proposed by <a href="/wiki/J._J._Stevenson_(geologist)" title="J. J. Stevenson (geologist)">J.J.Stevenson</a> in 1888, named after the widespread coal-rich strata found across the state of Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The closure of the Rheic Ocean and formation of Pangea during the Pennsylvanian, together with widespread glaciation across <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> led to major climate and sea level changes, which restricted marine fauna to particular geographic areas thereby reducing widespread biostratigraphic correlations.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-2022_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-2022-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extensive volcanic events associated with the assembling of Pangea means more radiometric dating is possible relative to the Mississippian.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-2022_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-2022-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Bashkirian Stage was proposed by Russian stratigrapher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sofia_Semikhatova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sofia Semikhatova (page does not exist)">Sofia Semikhatova</a> in 1934. It was named after <a href="/wiki/Bashkiria_(1917%E2%80%931919)" title="Bashkiria (1917–1919)">Bashkiria</a>, the then Russian name of the republic of <a href="/wiki/Bashkortostan" title="Bashkortostan">Bashkortostan</a> in the southern Ural Mountains of Russia. The GSSP for the base of the Pennsylvanian Subsystem and Bashkirian Stage is located at <a href="/wiki/Arrow_Canyon_Range" title="Arrow Canyon Range">Arrow Canyon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, US and was ratified in 1996. It is defined by the first appearance of the conodont <i><a href="/wiki/Declinognathodus" title="Declinognathodus">Declinognathodus noduliferus</a></i>. Arrow Canyon lay in a shallow, tropical seaway which stretched from Southern California to Alaska. The boundary is within a <a href="/wiki/Cyclothems" title="Cyclothems">cyclothem</a> sequence of <a href="/wiki/Sequence_stratigraphy" title="Sequence stratigraphy">transgressive</a> limestones and fine <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sequence_stratigraphy" title="Sequence stratigraphy">regressive</a> <a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">mudstones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">brecciated</a> limestones.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Moscovian Stage is named after shallow marine limestones and colourful <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a> found around Moscow, Russia. It was first introduced by Sergei Nikitin in 1890. The Moscovian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The fusulinid <i>Aljutovella aljutovica</i> can be used to define the base of the Moscovian across the northern and eastern margins of Pangea, however, it is restricted in geographic area, which means it cannot be used for global correlations.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first appearance of the conodonts <i>Declinognathodus donetzianus</i> or <i>Idiognathoides postsulcatus</i> have been proposed as a boundary marking species and potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are being considered.<sup id="cite_ref-Stratigraphy.org_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratigraphy.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kasimovian is the first stage in the Upper Pennsylvanian. It is named after the Russian city of <a href="/wiki/Kasimov" title="Kasimov">Kasimov</a>, and was originally included as part of Nikitin's 1890 definition of the Moscovian. It was first recognised as a distinct unit by A.P. Ivanov in 1926, who named it the "<i>Tiguliferina</i>" Horizon after a type of <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopod</a>. The boundary of the Kasimovian covers a period of globally low sea level, which has resulted in <a href="/wiki/Unconformity" title="Unconformity">disconformities</a> within many sequences of this age. This has created difficulties in finding suitable marine fauna that can used to correlate boundaries worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kasimovian currently lacks a defined GSSP; potential sites in the southern Urals, southwest USA and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are being considered.<sup id="cite_ref-Stratigraphy.org_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratigraphy.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Gzhelian is named after the Russian village of <a href="/wiki/Gzhel_(selo),_Moscow_Oblast" title="Gzhel (selo), Moscow Oblast">Gzhel (selo), Moscow Oblast</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Ramenskoye,_Moscow_Oblast" title="Ramenskoye, Moscow Oblast">Ramenskoye</a>, not far from Moscow. The name and type locality were defined by Sergei Nikitin in 1890. The Gzhelian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The first appearance of the fusulinid <i>Rauserites rossicus</i> and <i>Rauserites</i> <i>stuckenbergi</i> can be used in the <a href="/wiki/Boreal_Sea" title="Boreal Sea">Boreal Sea</a> and Paleo-Tethyan regions but not eastern Pangea or Panthalassa margins.<sup id="cite_ref-Davydov-2012_16-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davydov-2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China for the GSSP are being considered.<sup id="cite_ref-Stratigraphy.org_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratigraphy.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The GSSP for the base of the Permian is located in the Aidaralash River valley near <a href="/wiki/Aqt%C3%B6be" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqtöbe">Aqtöbe</a>, Kazakhstan and was ratified in 1996. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of the conodont <i><a href="/wiki/Streptognathodus" title="Streptognathodus">Streptognathodus postfusus</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyclothems">Cyclothems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cyclothems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A cyclothem is a succession of non-marine and marine <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a>, deposited during a single sedimentary cycle, with an <a href="/wiki/Erosion_surface" title="Erosion surface">erosional surface</a> at its base. Whilst individual cyclothems are often only metres to a few tens of metres thick, cyclothem sequences can be many hundreds to thousands of metres thick and contain tens to hundreds of individual cyclothems.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyclothems were deposited along <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> where the very gentle gradient of the shelves meant even small changes in sea level led to large advances or retreats of the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyclothem lithologies vary from <a href="/wiki/Mudrock" title="Mudrock">mudrock</a> and carbonate-dominated to coarse siliciclastic sediment-dominated sequences depending on the paleo-topography, climate and supply of sediments to the shelf.<sup id="cite_ref-Fielding-2021_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fielding-2021-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Wharf_Limestone_Formation,_Red_Wharf_Bay,_Anglesey,_North_Wales,_UK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A cliff with pale grey beds of limestone overlain by orange sandstone, above which are more pale grey mudstones and limestones. A large fracture in the limestone is filled by a bulbous extension of the sandstone down into the limestone." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Red_Wharf_Limestone_Formation%2C_Red_Wharf_Bay%2C_Anglesey%2C_North_Wales%2C_UK.jpg/220px-Red_Wharf_Limestone_Formation%2C_Red_Wharf_Bay%2C_Anglesey%2C_North_Wales%2C_UK.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Red_Wharf_Limestone_Formation%2C_Red_Wharf_Bay%2C_Anglesey%2C_North_Wales%2C_UK.jpg/330px-Red_Wharf_Limestone_Formation%2C_Red_Wharf_Bay%2C_Anglesey%2C_North_Wales%2C_UK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Red_Wharf_Limestone_Formation%2C_Red_Wharf_Bay%2C_Anglesey%2C_North_Wales%2C_UK.jpg/440px-Red_Wharf_Limestone_Formation%2C_Red_Wharf_Bay%2C_Anglesey%2C_North_Wales%2C_UK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Cliff section through the Serpukhovian Red Wharf Limestone Formation, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>. A marine limestone at the base of the cliff is overlain by an orange-coloured fluvial sandstone. Subaerial exposure of the limestone during a period of falling sea level resulted in the formation of a karstic surface, which has then been infilled by the river sands. A thin, estuarine silty mudstone overlays the sandstone, which in turn is overlain by a second marine limestone.</figcaption></figure> <p>The main period of cyclothem deposition occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Late Paleozoic Ice Age</a> from the Late Mississippian to early Permian, when the waxing and waning of <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> led to rapid changes in <a href="/wiki/Eustatic_sea_level" title="Eustatic sea level">eustatic sea level</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fielding-2021_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fielding-2021-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth of ice sheets led global sea levels to fall as water was locked away in glaciers. Falling sea levels exposed large tracts of the continental shelves across which river systems eroded channels and valleys and vegetation broke down the surface to form <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a>. The non-marine sediments deposited on this erosional surface form the base of the cyclothem.<sup id="cite_ref-Fielding-2021_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fielding-2021-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As sea levels began to rise, the rivers flowed through increasingly water-logged landscapes of swamps and lakes. <a href="/wiki/Peatland" title="Peatland">Peat mires</a> developed in these wet and oxygen-poor conditions, leading to coal formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodcock-2012_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With continuing sea level rise, coastlines migrated landward and <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">deltas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">esturaries</a> developed; their sediments deposited over the peat mires. As fully marine conditions were established, limestones succeeded these marginal marine deposits. The limestones were in turn overlain by deep water black shales as maximum sea levels were reached.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ideally, this sequence would be reversed as sea levels began to fall again; however, sea level falls tend to be protracted, whilst sea level rises are rapid, ice sheets grow slowly but melt quickly. Therefore, the majority of a cyclothem sequence occurred during falling sea levels, when rates of <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> were high, meaning they were often periods of non-deposition. Erosion during sea level falls could also result in the full or partial removal of previous cyclothem sequences. Individual cyclothems are generally less than 10 m thick because the speed at which sea level rose gave only limited time for sediments to accumulate.<sup id="cite_ref-Fielding-2021_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fielding-2021-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Pennsylvanian, cyclothems were deposited in shallow, <a href="/wiki/Inland_sea" title="Inland sea">epicontinental</a> seas across the tropical regions of <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurussia</a> (present day western and central US, Europe, Russia and central Asia) and the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Craton" title="North China Craton">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_China_Craton" title="South China Craton">South China cratons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapid sea levels fluctuations they represent correlate with the glacial cycles of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age. The advance and retreat of ice sheets across Gondwana followed a 100 kyr <a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycle</a>, and so each cyclothem represents a cycle of sea level fall and rise over a 100 kyr period.<sup id="cite_ref-Fielding-2021_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fielding-2021-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coal_formation">Coal formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Coal formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hyden_Formation_over_Pikeville_Formation_(Middle_Pennsylvanian;_Jackson_North_roadcut,_Breathitt_County,_Kentucky,_USA)_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of a road cutting through a thick and repeating sequence of pale grey to black rock strata." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Hyden_Formation_over_Pikeville_Formation_%28Middle_Pennsylvanian%3B_Jackson_North_roadcut%2C_Breathitt_County%2C_Kentucky%2C_USA%29_1.jpg/220px-Hyden_Formation_over_Pikeville_Formation_%28Middle_Pennsylvanian%3B_Jackson_North_roadcut%2C_Breathitt_County%2C_Kentucky%2C_USA%29_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Hyden_Formation_over_Pikeville_Formation_%28Middle_Pennsylvanian%3B_Jackson_North_roadcut%2C_Breathitt_County%2C_Kentucky%2C_USA%29_1.jpg/330px-Hyden_Formation_over_Pikeville_Formation_%28Middle_Pennsylvanian%3B_Jackson_North_roadcut%2C_Breathitt_County%2C_Kentucky%2C_USA%29_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Hyden_Formation_over_Pikeville_Formation_%28Middle_Pennsylvanian%3B_Jackson_North_roadcut%2C_Breathitt_County%2C_Kentucky%2C_USA%29_1.jpg/440px-Hyden_Formation_over_Pikeville_Formation_%28Middle_Pennsylvanian%3B_Jackson_North_roadcut%2C_Breathitt_County%2C_Kentucky%2C_USA%29_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2427" /></a><figcaption>Hyden Formation over Pikeville Formation in the Pennsylvanian of Kentucky, US. The exposure has Pennsylvanian-aged cyclothemic sedimentary rocks of the Breathitt Group. The upper part of the roadcut is Hyden Formation, consisting of mixed siliciclastics and coal. The lower part is Pikeville Formation, also having mixed siliciclastics and coal.</figcaption></figure> <p>Coal forms when organic matter builds up in waterlogged, <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">anoxic</a> swamps, known as peat mires, and is then buried, compressing the peat into coal. The majority of Earth's coal deposits were formed during the late Carboniferous and early Permian. The plants from which they formed contributed to changes in the Carboniferous Earth's atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Pennsylvanian, vast amounts of organic debris accumulated in the peat mires that formed across the low-lying, humid equatorial wetlands of the <a href="/wiki/Foreland_basin" title="Foreland basin">foreland basins</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Pangean_Mountains" title="Central Pangean Mountains">Central Pangean Mountains</a> in Laurussia, and around the margins of the North and South China cratons.<sup id="cite_ref-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During glacial periods, low sea levels exposed large areas of the continental shelves. Major river channels, up to several kilometres wide, stretched across these shelves feeding a network of smaller channels, lakes and peat mires.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodcock-2012_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These wetlands were then buried by sediment as sea levels rose during <a href="/wiki/Interglacial" title="Interglacial">interglacials</a>. Continued crustal <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> of the foreland basins and continental margins allowed this accumulation and burial of peat deposits to continue over millions of years resulting in the formation of thick and widespread coal formations.<sup id="cite_ref-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the warm interglacials, smaller coal swamps with plants adapted to the temperate conditions formed on the <a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberian craton</a> and the western Australian region of Gondwana.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is ongoing debate as to why this peak in the formation of Earth's coal deposits occurred during the Carboniferous. The first theory, known as the delayed fungal evolution hypothesis, is that a delay between the development of trees with the wood fibre <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> and the subsequent evolution of lignin-degrading fungi gave a period of time where vast amounts of lignin-based organic material could accumulate. Genetic analysis of <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">basidiomycete</a> fungi, which have <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> capable of breaking down lignin, supports this theory by suggesting this fungi evolved in the Permian.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, significant Mesozoic and Cenozoic coal deposits formed after lignin-digesting fungi had become well established, and fungal degradation of lignin may have already evolved by the end of the Devonian, even if the specific enzymes used by basidiomycetes had not.<sup id="cite_ref-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second theory is that the geographical setting and climate of the Carboniferous were unique in Earth's history: the co-occurrence of the position of the continents across the humid equatorial zone, high biological productivity, and the low-lying, water-logged and slowly subsiding sedimentary basins that allowed the thick accumulation of peat were sufficient to account for the peak in coal formation.<sup id="cite_ref-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NelsenDiMichelePetersBoyce2016PNAS-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Palaeogeography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Carboniferous, there was an increased rate in <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plate</a> movements as the <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> Pangea assembled. The continents themselves formed a near circle around the opening Paleo-Tethys Ocean, with the massive <a href="/wiki/Panthalassa" title="Panthalassa">Panthalassic Ocean</a> beyond. Gondwana covered the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">south polar</a> region. To its northwest was Laurussia. These two continents slowly collided to form the core of Pangea. To the north of Laurussia lay <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amurian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Amurian Plate">Amuria</a>. To the east of Siberia, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstania" title="Kazakhstania">Kazakhstania</a>, North China and South China formed the northern margin of the Paleo-Tethys, with Annamia laying to the south.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Carboniferous.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Palaeogeographic map showing Gondwana in the southern hemisphere with ice sheets across its polar regions. Laurussia is across the equator. Siberia, Kazakhstania, North China and South China lay to the northeast separated from Gondwana and Laurussia by the Palaeotethys Ocean. Much of the northern hemisphere is covered by the Panthalassic Ocean." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Early_Carboniferous.png/220px-Early_Carboniferous.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Early_Carboniferous.png/330px-Early_Carboniferous.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Early_Carboniferous.png/440px-Early_Carboniferous.png 2x" data-file-width="2449" data-file-height="1520" /></a><figcaption>Approximate positions of the continents in the early Carboniferous (c. 348 Ma). AM. Amuria; AN. Annamia; AT. Alexander terrane; ATA. Armorican terrane Assemblage; K. Kazakhstania; MO. Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean; NC. North China; OuO. Ouachita orogen; SC. South China; SP. South Patagonia; T. Tarim; UrO. Uralian orogen; VaO. Variscan orogen; YTQ. Yukon-Tanana and Quesnellia terranes. Plate boundaries: red – subduction; white – ridges; yellow – transform.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Late_Carboniferous.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Palaeogeographic map showing Gondwana, Laurussia and Siberia now joined to form the supercontinent of Pangea. North China and South China lay to the northeast separated from Pangea by the Palaeotethys Ocean. Much of the northern hemisphere is covered by the Panthalassic Ocean." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Late_Carboniferous.png/220px-Late_Carboniferous.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Late_Carboniferous.png/330px-Late_Carboniferous.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Late_Carboniferous.png/440px-Late_Carboniferous.png 2x" data-file-width="2449" data-file-height="1520" /></a><figcaption>Approximate positions of the continents in the late Carboniferous (c. 302 Ma). AM. Amuria; AN. Annamia; AT. Alexander terrane; K. Kazakhstania; MO. Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean; NC. North China; PA. Paleoasian Ocean; SC. South China; SA. Slide Mountain-Angayucham Ocean; T. Tarim; YTQ. Yukon-Tanana and Quesnellia terranes. Plate boundaries: red – subduction; white – ridges; yellow – transform.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita_orogeny">Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita orogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita orogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Central Pangean Mountains were formed during the <a href="/wiki/Variscan_orogeny" title="Variscan orogeny">Variscan</a>-<a href="/wiki/Alleghanian_orogeny" title="Alleghanian orogeny">Alleghanian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ouachita_orogeny" title="Ouachita orogeny">Ouachita</a> orogeny. Today their remains stretch over 10,000 km from the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> in the west to <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-Nance-2010_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nance-2010-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The orogeny was caused by a series of continental collisions between Laurussia, Gondwana and the <a href="/wiki/Armorican_terrane" title="Armorican terrane">Armorican terrane assemblage</a> (much of modern-day Central and Western Europe including <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a>) as the <a href="/wiki/Rheic_Ocean" title="Rheic Ocean">Rheic Ocean</a> closed and Pangea formed. This mountain building process began in the Middle Devonian and continued into the early Permian.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Armorican <a href="/wiki/Terrane" title="Terrane">terranes</a> <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rifted</a> away from Gondwana during the Late <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>. As they drifted northwards the Rheic Ocean closed in front of them, and they began to collide with southeastern Laurussia in the Middle Devonian.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resulting Variscan orogeny involved a complex series of oblique collisions with associated <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous</a> activity, and large-scale <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deformation (geology)">deformation</a> between these terranes and Laurussia, which continued into the Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the mid Carboniferous, the South American sector of Gondwana collided obliquely with Laurussia's southern margin resulting in the Ouachita orogeny.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">strike-slip faulting</a> that occurred between Laurussia and Gondwana extended eastwards into the <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> where early deformation in the Alleghanian orogeny was predominantly strike-slip. As the West African sector of Gondwana collided with Laurussia during the Late Pennsylvanian, deformation along the Alleghanian orogen became northwesterly-directed <a href="/wiki/Compression_(geology)" title="Compression (geology)">compression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nance-2010_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nance-2010-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uralian_orogeny">Uralian orogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Uralian orogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Uralian_orogeny" title="Uralian orogeny">Uralian orogeny</a> is a north–south trending <a href="/wiki/Fold_and_thrust_belt" title="Fold and thrust belt">fold and thrust belt</a> that forms the western edge of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Orogenic_Belt" title="Central Asian Orogenic Belt">Central Asian Orogenic Belt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Puchkov-2009_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puchkov-2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Uralian orogeny began in the Late Devonian and continued, with some hiatuses, into the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>. From the Late Devonian to early Carboniferous, the <a href="/wiki/Magnitogorsk" title="Magnitogorsk">Magnitogorsk</a> <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a>, which lay between Kazakhstania and Laurussia in the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Ocean" title="Ural Ocean">Ural Ocean</a>, collided with the <a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">passive margin</a> of northeastern Laurussia (<a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica craton</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Suture_(geology)" title="Suture (geology)">suture zone</a> between the former island arc complex and the continental margin formed the <a href="/wiki/Main_Uralian_Fault" title="Main Uralian Fault">Main Uralian Fault</a>, a major structure that runs for more than 2,000 km along the orogen. <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">Accretion</a> of the island arc was complete by the Tournaisian, but subduction of the Ural Ocean between Kazakhstania and Laurussia continued until the Bashkirian when the ocean finally closed and continental collision began.<sup id="cite_ref-Puchkov-2009_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puchkov-2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant strike-slip movement along this zone indicates the collision was oblique. Deformation continued into the Permian and during the late Carboniferous and Permian the region was extensively intruded by <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Puchkov-2009_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puchkov-2009-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laurussia">Laurussia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Laurussia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Laurussian continent was formed by the collision between <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a> during the Devonian. At the beginning of the Carboniferous, some models show it at the equator, while others place it further south. In either case, the continent drifted northwards, reaching low latitudes in the northern hemisphere by the end of the Period.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Central Pangean Mountain drew in moist air from the Paleo-Tethys Ocean resulting in heavy precipitation and a tropical wetland environment. Extensive coal deposits developed within the cyclothem sequences that dominated the Pennsylvanian <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">sedimentary basins</a> associated with the growing orogenic belt.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PangaeaB_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PangaeaB-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subduction of the <a href="/wiki/Panthalassa" title="Panthalassa">Panthalassic</a> oceanic plate along its western margin resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Antler_orogeny" title="Antler orogeny">Antler orogeny</a> in the Late Devonian to Early Mississippian. Further north along the margin, <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">slab roll-back</a>, beginning in the Early Mississippian, led to the rifting of the <a href="/wiki/Yukon%E2%80%93Tanana_terrane" title="Yukon–Tanana terrane">Yukon–Tanana terrane</a> and the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Slide_Mountain_Ocean" title="Slide Mountain Ocean">Slide Mountain Ocean</a>. Along the northern margin of Laurussia, <a href="/wiki/Orogenic_collapse" title="Orogenic collapse">orogenic collapse</a> of the Late Devonian to Early Mississippian <a href="/wiki/Innuitian_orogeny" title="Innuitian orogeny">Innuitian orogeny</a> led to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_Basin_Magmatic_Province" title="Sverdrup Basin Magmatic Province">Sverdrup Basin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gondwana">Gondwana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Gondwana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much of Gondwana lay in the southern polar region during the Carboniferous. As the plate moved, the South Pole drifted from southern Africa in the early Carboniferous to eastern Antarctica by the end of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Till" title="Till">Glacial deposits</a> are widespread across Gondwana and indicate multiple ice centres and long-distance movement of ice.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The northern to northeastern margin of Gondwana (northeast Africa, Arabia, India and northeastern West Australia) was a passive margin along the southern edge of the Paleo-Tethys with cyclothem deposition including, during more temperate intervals, coal swamps in Western Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mexican terranes along the northwestern Gondwana margin, were affected by the subduction of the Rheic Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, they lay to west of the Ouachita orogeny and were not impacted by continental collision but became part of the active margin of the Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-Nance-2010_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nance-2010-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Moroccan margin was affected by periods of widespread dextral strike-slip deformation, magmatism and metamorphism associated with the Variscan orogeny.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Towards the end of the Carboniferous, extension and rifting across the northern margin of Gondwana led to the breaking away of the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerian_terrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimmerian terrane">Cimmerian terrane</a> during the early Permian and the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Neo-Tethys Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along the southeastern and southern margin of Gondwana (eastern Australia and Antarctica), northward subduction of Panthalassa continued. Changes in the relative motion of the plates resulted in the early Carboniferous <a href="/wiki/Kanimblan_Orogeny" title="Kanimblan Orogeny">Kanimblan Orogeny</a>. <a href="/wiki/Continental_arc" title="Continental arc">Continental arc</a> magmatism continued into the late Carboniferous and extended round to connect with the developing <a href="/wiki/Andean_orogeny" title="Andean orogeny">proto-Andean</a> subduction zone along the western South American margin of Gondwana.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siberia_and_Amuria">Siberia and Amuria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Siberia and Amuria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shallow seas covered much of the Siberian craton in the early Carboniferous. These retreated as sea levels fell in the Pennsylvanian and as the continent drifted north into more temperate zones extensive coal deposits formed in the <a href="/wiki/Kuznetsk_Basin" title="Kuznetsk Basin">Kuznetsk Basin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PangaeaB_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PangaeaB-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The northwest to eastern margins of Siberia were passive margins along the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean on the far side of which lay Amuria. From the mid Carboniferous, subduction zones with associated magmatic arcs developed along both margins of the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southwestern margin of Siberia was the site of a long lasting and complex accretionary orogen. The Devonian to early Carboniferous Siberian and South Chinese <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai</a> <a href="/wiki/Accretionary_wedge" title="Accretionary wedge">accretionary complexes</a> developed above an east-dipping subduction zone, whilst further south, the Zharma-Saur arc formed along the northeastern margin of Kazakhstania.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late Carboniferous, all these complexes had accreted to the Siberian craton as shown by the intrusion of post-orogenic granites across the region. As Kazakhstania had already accreted to Laurussia, Siberia was effectively part of Pangea by 310 Ma, although major strike-slip movements continued between it and Laurussia into the Permian.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_and_East_Asia">Central and East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Central and East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Kazakhstanian microcontinent is composed of a series of Devonian and older accretionary complexes. It was strongly deformed during the Carboniferous as its western margin collided with Laurussia during the Uralian orogen and its northeastern margin collided with Siberia. Continuing strike-slip motion between Laurussia and Siberia led the formerly elongate microcontinent to bend into an <a href="/wiki/Orocline" title="Orocline">orocline</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Carboniferous, the Tarim craton lay along the northwestern edge of North China. Subduction along the Kazakhstanian margin of the Turkestan Ocean resulted in collision between northern Tarim and Kazakhstania during the mid Carboniferous as the ocean closed. The <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">South Tian Shan fold and thrust belt</a>, which extends over 2,000 km from <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> to northwest China, is the remains of this accretionary complex and forms the suture between Kazakhstania and Tarim.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A continental magmatic arc above a south-dipping subduction zone lay along the northern North China margin, consuming the Paleoasian Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys beneath the southern margins of North China and Tarim continued during the Carboniferous, with the <a href="/wiki/Qinling_orogenic_belt" title="Qinling orogenic belt">South Qinling block</a> accreted to North China during the mid to late Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No sediments are preserved from the early Carboniferous in North China. However, <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a> deposits immediately above the regional mid Carboniferous unconformity indicate warm tropical conditions and are overlain by cyclothems including extensive coals.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>South China and Annamia (Southeast Asia) rifted from Gondwana during the Devonian.<sup id="cite_ref-Domeier-2014_29-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Domeier-2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Carboniferous, they were separated from each other and North China by the Paleoasian Ocean with the Paleo-Tethys to the southwest and Panthalassa to the northeast. Cyclothem sediments with coal and <a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">evaporites</a> were deposited across the passive margins that surrounded both continents.<sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik-2017_28-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik-2017-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diorama_of_a_Pennsylanian_forest_floor_-_Edaphosaurus_(30660307277).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Picture of a large reptile with a sail along its back in a swampy forest setting." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Diorama_of_a_Pennsylanian_forest_floor_-_Edaphosaurus_%2830660307277%29.jpg/220px-Diorama_of_a_Pennsylanian_forest_floor_-_Edaphosaurus_%2830660307277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Diorama_of_a_Pennsylanian_forest_floor_-_Edaphosaurus_%2830660307277%29.jpg/330px-Diorama_of_a_Pennsylanian_forest_floor_-_Edaphosaurus_%2830660307277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Diorama_of_a_Pennsylanian_forest_floor_-_Edaphosaurus_%2830660307277%29.jpg/440px-Diorama_of_a_Pennsylanian_forest_floor_-_Edaphosaurus_%2830660307277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A reconstruction of life on a forest floor during the Pennsylvanian Period. The animal is <i>Edaphosaurus</i>, a synapsid. Plants are the seed ferns <i>Neuropteris</i> and <i>Pectopteris</i>, the club mosses <i>Lepidodendron</i> and <i>Sigillaria</i>, other plants include <i>Cordaites</i>, <i>Calamites</i>, climbing ferns, pond algae, and <i>Sphenophyllum</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Carboniferous climate was dominated by the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA), the most extensive and longest icehouse period of the Phanerozoic, which lasted from the Late Devonian to the Permian (365 Ma-253 Ma).<sup id="cite_ref-Scotese-2021_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotese-2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temperatures began to drop during the late Devonian with a short-lived glaciation in the late Famennian through Devonian–Carboniferous boundary,<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before the Early Tournaisian Warm Interval.<sup id="cite_ref-Scotese-2021_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotese-2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this, a reduction in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels, caused by the increased burial of organic matter and widespread ocean anoxia led to climate cooling and glaciation across the south polar region.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Visean Warm Interval glaciers nearly vanished retreating to the proto-Andes in Bolivia and western Argentina and the Pan-African mountain ranges in southeastern Brazil and southwest Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Scotese-2021_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotese-2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main phase of the LPIA (c. 335–290 Ma) began in the late Visean, as the climate cooled and atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels dropped. Its onset was accompanied by a global fall in sea level and widespread multimillion-year unconformities.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This main phase consisted of a series of discrete several million-year-long glacial periods during which ice expanded out from up to 30 ice centres that stretched across mid- to high latitudes of Gondwana in eastern Australia, northwestern Argentina, southern Brazil, and central and Southern Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Isotope records indicate this drop in CO<sub>2</sub> levels was triggered by tectonic factors with increased weathering of the growing Central Pangean Mountains and the influence of the mountains on precipitation and surface water flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Closure of the oceanic gateway between the Rheic and Tethys oceans in the early Bashkirian also contributed to climate cooling by changing ocean circulation and heat flow patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-Qie-2019_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qie-2019-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Warmer periods with reduced ice volume within the Bashkirian, the late Moscovian and the latest Kasimovian to mid-Gzhelian are inferred from the disappearance of glacial sediments, the appearance of deglaciation deposits and rises in sea levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early Kasimovian there was short-lived (<1 million years) intense period of glaciation, with atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration levels dropping as low as 180 ppm.<sup id="cite_ref-Richey-2020_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richey-2020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ended suddenly as a rapid increase in CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations to c. 600 ppm resulted in a warmer climate. This rapid rise in CO<sub>2</sub> may have been due to a peak in pyroclastic volcanism and/or a reduction in burial of terrestrial organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Richey-2020_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richey-2020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The LPIA peaked across the Carboniferous-Permian boundary. Widespread glacial deposits are found across South America, western and central Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Tasmania, the Arabian Peninsula, India, and the Cimmerian blocks, indicating trans-continental ice sheets across southern Gondwana that reached to sea-level.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the uplift and erosion of the more mafic basement rocks of the Central Pangea Mountains at this time, CO<sub>2</sub> levels dropped as low as 175 ppm and remained under 400 ppm for 10 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-Richey-2020_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richey-2020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperatures">Temperatures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Temperatures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Temperatures across the Carboniferous reflect the phases of the LPIA. At the extremes, during the Permo-Carboniferous Glacial Maximum (299–293 Ma) the global average temperature (GAT) was c. 13 °C (55 °F), the average temperature in the tropics c. 24 °C (75 °F) and in polar regions c. -23 °C (-10 °F), whilst during the Early Tournaisian Warm Interval (358–353 Ma) the GAT was c. 22 °C (72 °F), the tropics c. 30 °C (86 °F) and polar regions c. 1.5 °C (35 °F). Overall, for the Ice Age the GAT was c. 17 °C (62 °F), with tropical temperatures c. 26 °C and polar temperatures c. -9.0 °C (16 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Scotese-2021_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotese-2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atmospheric_oxygen_levels">Atmospheric oxygen levels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Atmospheric oxygen levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a variety of methods for reconstructing past atmospheric oxygen levels, including the <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> record, <a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">halite</a> gas inclusions, burial rates of organic carbon and <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a>, carbon isotopes of organic material, isotope mass balance and forward modelling.<sup id="cite_ref-Mills-2023_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills-2023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the preservation of source material, some techniques represent moments in time (e.g. halite gas inclusions),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whilst others have a wider time range (e.g. the charcoal record and pyrite).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Results from these different methods for the Carboniferous vary.<sup id="cite_ref-Mills-2023_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills-2023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example: the increasing occurrence of charcoal produced by wildfires from the Late Devonian into the Carboniferous indicates increasing oxygen levels, with calculations showing oxygen levels above 21% for most of the Carboniferous;<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> halite gas inclusions from sediments dated 337–335 Ma give estimates for the Visean of c. 15.3%, although with large uncertainties;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mills-2023_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills-2023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, pyrite records suggest levels of c. 15% early in the Carboniferous, to over 25% during the Pennsylvanian, before dropping back below 20% towards the end.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, whilst exact numbers vary, all models show an overall increase in atmospheric oxygen levels from a low of between 15–20% at the beginning of the Carboniferous to highs of 25–30% during the Period. This was not a steady rise, but included peaks and troughs reflecting the dynamic climate conditions of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Mills-2023_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills-2023-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How the atmospheric oxygen concentrations influenced the large body size of arthropods and other fauna and flora during the Carboniferous is also a subject of ongoing debate.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_climate_on_sedimentation">Effects of climate on sedimentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Effects of climate on sedimentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The changing climate was reflected in regional-scale changes in sedimentation patterns. In the relatively warm waters of the Early to Middle Mississippian, carbonate production occurred to depth across the gently dipping continental slopes of Laurussia and North and South China (<a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">carbonate ramp</a> architecture)<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and evaporites formed around the coastal regions of Laurussia, Kazakhstania, and northern Gondwana.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the late Visean, the cooling climate restricted carbonate production to depths of less than c. 10 m forming <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">carbonate shelves</a> with flat-tops and steep sides. By the Moscovian, the waxing and waning of the ice sheets led to cyclothem deposition with mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sequences deposited on continental platforms and shelves.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scotese-2021_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotese-2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seasonal melting of glaciers resulted in near freezing waters around the margins of Gondwana. This is evidenced by the occurrence of glendonite (a pseudomorph of <a href="/wiki/Ikaite" title="Ikaite">ikaite</a>; a form of calcite deposited in glacial waters) in fine-grained, shallow marine sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-Scotese-2021_36-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scotese-2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The glacial grinding and erosion of siliciclastic rocks across Gondwana and the Central Pangaean Mountains produced vast amounts of silt-sized sediment. Redistributed by the wind, this formed widespread deposits of loess across equatorial Pangea.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_climate_on_biodiversity">Effects of climate on biodiversity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Effects of climate on biodiversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main phase of the LPIA was considered a crisis for marine biodiversity with the loss of many genera, followed by low biodiversity. However, recent studies of marine life suggest the rapid climate and environmental changes that accompanied the onset of the main glacial phase resulted in an adaptive radiation with a rapid increase in the number of species.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oscillating climate conditions also led to repeated restructuring of Laurasian tropical forests between wetlands and seasonally dry ecosystems,<sup id="cite_ref-Qie-2019_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qie-2019-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the appearance and diversification of tetrapods species.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-2023_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-2023-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a major restructuring of wetland forests during the Kasimovian glacial interval, with the loss of arborescent (tree-like) lycopisids and other wetland groups, and a general decline in biodiversity. These events are attributed to the drop in CO<sub>2</sub> levels below 400 ppm.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Qie-2019_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qie-2019-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richey-2020_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richey-2020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although referred to as the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, this was a complex replacement of one type of rainforest by another, not a complete disappearance of rainforest vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas-2023_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas-2023-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Across the Carboniferous–Permian boundary interval, a rapid drop in CO<sub>2</sub> levels and increasingly arid conditions at low-latitudes led to a permanent shift to seasonally dry woodland vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-Qie-2019_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qie-2019-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richey-2020_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richey-2020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tetrapods acquired new terrestrial adaptations and there was a radiation of dryland-adapted <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Geochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the continents assembled to form Pangea, the growth of the Central Pangean Mountains led to increased <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> and carbonate sedimentation on the ocean floor,<sup id="cite_ref-Turchyn-2019_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turchyn-2019-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whilst the distribution of continents across the paleo-tropics meant vast areas of land were available for the spread of tropical rainforests.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together these two factors significantly increased <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> <a href="/wiki/Drawdown_(climate)" title="Drawdown (climate)">drawdown</a> from the atmosphere, lowering global temperatures, <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">increasing ocean pH</a> and triggering the Late Paleozoic Ice Age.<sup id="cite_ref-Turchyn-2019_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turchyn-2019-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth of the supercontinent also changed <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> rates and led to a decrease in the length and volume of <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnesium/calcium_isotope_ratios_in_seawater"><span id="Magnesium.2Fcalcium_isotope_ratios_in_seawater"></span>Magnesium/calcium isotope ratios in seawater</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Magnesium/calcium isotope ratios in seawater"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the early Carboniferous, the Mg<sup>2+</sup>/Ca<sup>2+</sup> ratio in seawater began to rise and by the Middle Mississippian <a href="/wiki/Aragonite_sea" title="Aragonite sea">aragonite seas</a> had replaced <a href="/wiki/Calcite_sea" title="Calcite sea">calcite seas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentration of calcium in seawater is largely controlled by ocean pH, and as this increased the calcium concentration was reduced. At the same time, the increase in weathering, increased the amount of magnesium entering the marine environment. As magnesium is removed from seawater and calcium added along mid-ocean ridges where seawater reacts with the newly formed lithosphere, the reduction in length of mid-ocean ridge systems increased the Mg<sup>2+</sup>/Ca<sup>2+</sup> ratio further.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mg<sup>2+</sup>/Ca<sup>2+</sup> ratio of the seas also affects the ability of organisms to <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">biomineralize</a>. The Carboniferous aragonite seas favoured those that secreted <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> and the dominant reef builders of the time were aragonitic sponges and corals.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley-2015_18-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-2015-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strontium_isotopic_composition_of_seawater">Strontium isotopic composition of seawater</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Strontium isotopic composition of seawater"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a> isotopic composition (<sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr) of seawater represents a mix of strontium derived from continental weathering which is rich in <sup>87</sup>Sr and from mantle sources e.g. mid-ocean ridges, which are relatively depleted in <sup>87</sup>Sr. <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios above 0.7075 indicate continental weathering is the main source of <sup>87</sup>Sr, whilst ratios below indicate mantle-derived sources are the principal contributor.<sup id="cite_ref-Woodcock-2012_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodcock-2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr values varied through the Carboniferous, although they remained above 0.775, indicating continental weathering dominated as the source of <sup>87</sup>Sr throughout. The <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr during the Tournaisian was c. 0.70840, it decreased through the Visean to 0.70771 before increasing during the Serpukhovian to the lowermost Gzhelian where it plateaued at 0.70827, before decreasing again to 0.70814 at the Carboniferous-Permian boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These variations reflect the changing influence of weathering and sediment supply to the oceans of the growing Central Pangean Mountains. By the Serpukhovian <a href="/wiki/Basement_(geology)" title="Basement (geology)">basement</a> rocks, such as <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>, had been uplifted and exposed to weathering. The decline towards the end of the Carboniferous is interpreted as a decrease in continental weathering due to the more arid conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2018_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2018-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxygen_and_carbon_isotope_ratios_in_seawater">Oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in seawater</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in seawater"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike Mg<sup>2+</sup>/Ca<sup>2+</sup> and <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr isotope ratios, which are consistent across the world's oceans at any one time, <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ<sup>18</sup>O</a> and <a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C">δ<sup>13</sup>C</a> preserved in the fossil record can be affected by regional factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carboniferous δ<sup>18</sup>O and δ<sup>13</sup>C records show regional differences between the South China open-water setting and the epicontinental seas of Laurussia. These differences are due to variations in seawater salinity and evaporation between epicontinental seas relative to the more open waters.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, large scale trends can still be determined. δ<sup>13</sup>C rose rapidly from c. 0 to 1‰ (parts per thousand) to c. 5 to 7‰ in the Early Mississippian and remained high for the duration of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (c. 3–6‰) into the early Permian.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly from the Early Mississippian there was a long-term increase in δ<sup>18</sup>O values as the climate cooled.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both δ<sup>13</sup>C and δ<sup>18</sup>O records show significant global isotope changes (known as excursions) during the Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mid-Tournaisian positive δ<sup>13</sup>C and δ<sup>18</sup>O excursions lasted between 6 and 10 million years and were also accompanied by c. 6‰ positive excursion in organic matter <a href="/wiki/%CE%9415N" title="Δ15N">δ<sup>15</sup>N</a> values,<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a negative excursion in carbonate δ<a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238"><sup>238</sup>U</a> and a positive excursion in carbonate-associated sulphate <a href="/wiki/%CE%9434S" title="Δ34S">δ<sup>34</sup>S</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These changes in seawater geochemistry are interpreted as a decrease in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> due to increased <a href="/wiki/Total_organic_carbon" title="Total organic carbon">organic matter</a> burial and widespread ocean anoxia triggering climate cooling and onset of glaciation.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary positive δ<sup>18</sup>O excursion occurred at the same time as global sea level falls and widespread glacial deposits across southern Gondwana, indicating climate cooling and ice build-up. The rise in <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr just before the δ<sup>18</sup>O excursion suggests climate cooling in this case was caused by increased continental weathering of the growing Central Pangean Mountains and the influence of the orogeny on precipitation and surface water flow rather than increased burial of organic matter. δ<sup>13</sup>C values show more regional variation, and it is unclear whether there is a positive δ<sup>13</sup>C excursion or a readjustment from previous lower values.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2022_37-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the early Kasimovian there was a short (<1myr), intense glacial period, which came to a sudden end as atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations rapidly rose.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a steady increase in arid conditions across tropical regions and a major reduction in the extent of tropical rainforests, as shown by the widespread loss of coal deposits from this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2018_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2018-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resulting reduction in productivity and burial of organic matter led to increasing atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> levels, which were recorded by a negative δ<sup>13</sup>C excursion and an accompanying, but smaller decrease in δ<sup>18</sup>O values.<sup id="cite_ref-Montañez-2022_23-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montañez-2022-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg/170px-Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg/255px-Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg/340px-Meyers_b15_s0272b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1290" /></a><figcaption>Etching depicting some of the most significant plants of the Carboniferous</figcaption></figure> <p>Early Carboniferous land plants, some of which were <a href="/wiki/Permineralisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Permineralisation">preserved</a> in <a href="/wiki/Coal_ball" title="Coal ball">coal balls</a>, were very similar to those of the preceding Late Devonian, but new groups also appeared at this time. The main early Carboniferous plants were the <a href="/wiki/Equisetales" title="Equisetales">Equisetales</a> (horse-tails), <a href="/wiki/Sphenophyllales" title="Sphenophyllales">Sphenophyllales</a> (scrambling plants), <a href="/wiki/Lycopodiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiales">Lycopodiales</a> (club mosses), <a href="/wiki/Lepidodendrales" title="Lepidodendrales">Lepidodendrales</a> (scale trees), <a href="/wiki/Filicales" class="mw-redirect" title="Filicales">Filicales</a> (ferns), <a href="/wiki/Medullosales" title="Medullosales">Medullosales</a> (informally included in the "<a href="/wiki/Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">seed ferns</a>", an assemblage of a number of early <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a> groups) and the <a href="/wiki/Cordaitales" title="Cordaitales">Cordaitales</a>. These continued to dominate throughout the period, but during the late Carboniferous, several other groups, <a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a> (cycads), the <a href="/wiki/Callistophytales" title="Callistophytales">Callistophytales</a> (another group of "seed ferns"), and the <a href="/wiki/Voltziales" title="Voltziales">Voltziales</a>, appeared. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lycopsid_joggins_mcr1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsid_joggins_mcr1.JPG/220px-Lycopsid_joggins_mcr1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsid_joggins_mcr1.JPG/330px-Lycopsid_joggins_mcr1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsid_joggins_mcr1.JPG/440px-Lycopsid_joggins_mcr1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Ancient <i>in situ</i> <a href="/wiki/Lycopsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopsid">lycopsid</a>, probably <i><a href="/wiki/Sigillaria" title="Sigillaria">Sigillaria</a></i>, with attached <a href="/wiki/Stigmaria" title="Stigmaria">stigmarian roots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joggins_Formation" title="Joggins Formation">Joggins Formation</a>, Canada</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lycopsid_mcr2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lycopsid_mcr2.jpg/220px-Lycopsid_mcr2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lycopsid_mcr2.jpg/330px-Lycopsid_mcr2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lycopsid_mcr2.jpg/440px-Lycopsid_mcr2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Base of a <a href="/wiki/Lycopsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopsid">lycopsid</a> showing connection with bifurcating <a href="/wiki/Stigmaria" title="Stigmaria">stigmarian</a> roots</figcaption></figure> <p>The Carboniferous lycophytes of the order Lepidodendrales, which are cousins (but not ancestors) of the tiny club-moss of today, were huge trees with trunks 30 meters high and up to 1.5 meters in diameter. These included <i><a href="/wiki/Lepidodendron" title="Lepidodendron">Lepidodendron</a></i> (with its cone called <a href="/wiki/Lepidostrobus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepidostrobus">Lepidostrobus</a>), <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anabathra_(plant)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anabathra (plant) (page does not exist)">Anabathra</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidophloios&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lepidophloios (page does not exist)">Lepidophloios</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sigillaria" title="Sigillaria">Sigillaria</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The roots of several of these forms are known as <a href="/wiki/Stigmaria" title="Stigmaria">Stigmaria</a>. Unlike present-day trees, their <a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">secondary growth</a> took place in the <a href="/wiki/Cortex_(botany)" title="Cortex (botany)">cortex</a>, which also provided stability, instead of the <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestfälische_Wilhelms-Universität_Münster2012_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestfälische_Wilhelms-Universität_Münster2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Cladoxylopsida" title="Cladoxylopsida">Cladoxylopsids</a> were large trees, that were ancestors of ferns, first arising in the Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogan2010_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogan2010-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1879 <i><a href="/wiki/American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia" class="mw-redirect" title="American Cyclopædia">American Cyclopædia</a></i> article <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_(1879)/Coal_Plants" class="extiw" title="s:The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Coal Plants">Coal Plants</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <p>The fronds of some Carboniferous ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably many species were <a href="/wiki/Epiphyte" title="Epiphyte">epiphytic</a>. Fossil ferns and "seed ferns" include <i><a href="/wiki/Pecopteris" title="Pecopteris">Pecopteris</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cyclopteris" title="Cyclopteris">Cyclopteris</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Neuropteris" title="Neuropteris">Neuropteris</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Alethopteris" title="Alethopteris">Alethopteris</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Sphenopteris" title="Sphenopteris">Sphenopteris</a></i>; <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megaphyton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Megaphyton (page does not exist)">Megaphyton</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caulopteris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caulopteris (page does not exist)">Caulopteris</a></i> were tree ferns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Equisetales included the common giant form <i><a href="/wiki/Calamites" title="Calamites">Calamites</a></i>, with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm (24 in) and a height of up to 20 m (66 ft). <i><a href="/wiki/Sphenophyllum" title="Sphenophyllum">Sphenophyllum</a></i> was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the lycopods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Cordaites" title="Cordaites">Cordaites</a></i>, a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap-like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the <a href="/wiki/Catkin" title="Catkin">catkin</a>-like reproductive organs, which bore ovules/seeds, is called <i><a href="/wiki/Cardiocarpus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiocarpus">Cardiocarpus</a></i>. These plants were thought to live in swamps. True coniferous trees (<i><a href="/wiki/Walchia" title="Walchia">Walchia</a></i>, of the order Voltziales) appear later in the Carboniferous,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and preferred higher drier ground. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Marine invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the oceans the <a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine invertebrate">marine invertebrate</a> groups are the <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ostracoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracoda">Ostracoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonoidea" title="Ammonoidea">ammonoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hederellid" title="Hederellid">hederelloids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microconchids" class="mw-redirect" title="Microconchids">microconchids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">crinoids</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The diversity of brachiopods and fusilinid foraminiferans, surged beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Visean" class="mw-redirect" title="Visean">Visean</a>, continuing through the end of the Carboniferous, although cephalopod and nektonic conodont diversity declined. This evolutionary radiation was known as the Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time foraminifera took a prominent part in the marine faunas. The large spindle-shaped genus <a href="/wiki/Fusulinida" title="Fusulinida">Fusulina</a> and its relatives were abundant in what is now Russia, China, Japan, North America; other important genera include <i>Valvulina</i>, <i>Endothyra</i>, <i>Archaediscus</i>, and <i>Saccammina</i> (the latter common in Britain and Belgium). Some Carboniferous genera are still <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a>. The first true <a href="/wiki/Priapulid" class="mw-redirect" title="Priapulid">priapulids</a> appeared during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The microscopic shells of <a href="/wiki/Radiolaria" title="Radiolaria">radiolarians</a> are found in <a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">cherts</a> of this age in the <a href="/wiki/Culm_Measures" title="Culm Measures">Culm</a> of <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, and in Russia, Germany and elsewhere. <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Sponges</a> are known from <a href="/wiki/Spicule_(sponge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spicule (sponge)">spicules</a> and anchor ropes,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and include various forms such as the Calcispongea <i>Cotyliscus</i> and <i>Girtycoelia</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">demosponge</a> <i>Chaetetes</i>, and the genus of unusual colonial <a href="/wiki/Hexactinellid" title="Hexactinellid">glass sponges</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Titusvillia" title="Titusvillia">Titusvillia</a></i>. Both <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">reef</a>-building and solitary corals diversify and flourish; these include both <a href="/wiki/Rugosa" title="Rugosa">rugose</a> (for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Caninia_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caninia (genus)">Caninia</a></i>, <i>Corwenia</i>, <i>Neozaphrentis</i>), heterocorals, and <a href="/wiki/Tabulata" title="Tabulata">tabulate</a> (for example, <i>Chladochonus</i>, <i>Michelinia</i>) forms. <a href="/wiki/Conularids" class="mw-redirect" title="Conularids">Conularids</a> were well represented by <i>Conularia</i> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a> are abundant in some regions; the fenestellids including <i>Fenestella</i>, <i>Polypora</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Archimedes_(bryozoan)" title="Archimedes (bryozoan)">Archimedes</a></i>, so named because it is in the shape of an <a href="/wiki/Archimedean_screw" class="mw-redirect" title="Archimedean screw">Archimedean screw</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">Brachiopods</a> are also abundant;<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they include <a href="/wiki/Productida" title="Productida">productids</a>, some of which reached very large for brachiopods size and had very thick shells (for example, the 30 cm (12 in)-wide <i><a href="/wiki/Gigantoproductus" title="Gigantoproductus">Gigantoproductus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Hall2004_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall2004-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), while others like <i><a href="/wiki/Chonetes" title="Chonetes">Chonetes</a></i> were more conservative in form. <a href="/wiki/Athyridida" title="Athyridida">Athyridids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spiriferida" title="Spiriferida">spiriferids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhynchonellida" title="Rhynchonellida">rhynchonellids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Terebratulida" title="Terebratulida">terebratulids</a> are also very common. Inarticulate forms include <i><a href="/wiki/Discina_(brachiopod)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discina (brachiopod)">Discina</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Crania_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crania (genus)">Crania</a></i>. Some species and genera had a very wide distribution with only minor variations. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelids</a> such as <i>Serpulites</i> are common fossils in some horizons. Among the mollusca, the <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a> continue to increase in numbers and importance. Typical genera include <i><a href="/wiki/Aviculopecten" title="Aviculopecten">Aviculopecten</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Posidonomya" class="mw-redirect" title="Posidonomya">Posidonomya</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Nucula" title="Nucula">Nucula</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Carbonicola_(bivalve)" title="Carbonicola (bivalve)">Carbonicola</a></i>, <i>Edmondia</i>, and <i>Modiola</i>. <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">Gastropods</a> are also numerous, including the genera <i>Murchisonia</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Euomphalus" title="Euomphalus">Euomphalus</a></i>, <i>Naticopsis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nautiloid" title="Nautiloid">Nautiloid</a> <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a> are represented by tightly coiled <a href="/wiki/Nautilida" title="Nautilida">nautilids</a>, with straight-shelled and curved-shelled forms becoming increasingly rare. <a href="/wiki/Goniatite" title="Goniatite">Goniatite</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammonoidea" title="Ammonoidea">ammonoids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Aenigmatoceras" title="Aenigmatoceras">Aenigmatoceras</a> are common. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">Trilobites</a> are rarer than in previous periods, on a steady trend towards extinction, represented only by the <a href="/wiki/Proetida" title="Proetida">proetid</a> group. <a href="/wiki/Ostracod" title="Ostracod">Ostracoda</a>, a class of <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, were abundant as representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">meiobenthos</a>; genera included <i>Amphissites</i>, <i>Bairdia</i>, <i>Beyrichiopsis</i>, <i>Cavellina</i>, <i>Coryellina</i>, <i>Cribroconcha</i>, <i>Hollinella</i>, <i>Kirkbya</i>, <i>Knoxiella</i>, and <i>Libumella</i>. <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">Crinoids</a> were highly numerous during the Carboniferous, though they suffered a gradual decline in diversity during the Middle Mississippian.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dense submarine thickets of long-stemmed crinoids appear to have flourished in shallow seas, and their remains were consolidated into thick beds of rock. Prominent genera include <i>Cyathocrinus</i>, <i>Woodocrinus</i>, and <i>Actinocrinus</i>. Echinoids such as <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeocidaris" title="Archaeocidaris">Archaeocidaris</a></i> and <i>Palaeechinus</i> were also present. The <a href="/wiki/Blastoid" title="Blastoid">blastoids</a>, which included the Pentreinitidae and Codasteridae and superficially resembled crinoids in the possession of long stalks attached to the seabed, attain their maximum development at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Aviculopecten subcardiformis; a bivalve from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio (external mold)"><img alt="Aviculopecten subcardiformis; a bivalve from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio (external mold)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG/180px-Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG/271px-Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG/361px-Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1230" data-file-height="1227" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Aviculopecten subcardiformis</i>; a <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Logan_Formation" title="Logan Formation">Logan Formation</a> (lower Carboniferous) of <a href="/wiki/Wooster,_Ohio" title="Wooster, Ohio">Wooster, Ohio</a> (external mold)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LoganFauna011312.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bivalves (Aviculopecten) and brachiopods (Syringothyris) in the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) in Wooster, Ohio"><img alt="Bivalves (Aviculopecten) and brachiopods (Syringothyris) in the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) in Wooster, Ohio" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/LoganFauna011312.jpg/240px-LoganFauna011312.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/LoganFauna011312.jpg/360px-LoganFauna011312.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/LoganFauna011312.jpg/480px-LoganFauna011312.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bivalves (<i>Aviculopecten</i>) and brachiopods (<i>Syringothyris</i>) in the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) in Wooster, Ohio</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 223.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 221.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syringothyris01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Syringothyris sp.; a spiriferid brachiopod from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio (internal mold)"><img alt="Syringothyris sp.; a spiriferid brachiopod from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio (internal mold)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Syringothyris01.JPG/332px-Syringothyris01.JPG" decoding="async" width="222" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Syringothyris01.JPG/497px-Syringothyris01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Syringothyris01.JPG/663px-Syringothyris01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1662" data-file-height="903" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Syringothyris</i> sp.; a spiriferid <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopod</a> from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio (internal mold)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 186.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 184.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Palaeophycus01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Palaeophycus ichnosp.; a trace fossil from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio"><img alt="Palaeophycus ichnosp.; a trace fossil from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Palaeophycus01.JPG/277px-Palaeophycus01.JPG" decoding="async" width="185" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Palaeophycus01.JPG/415px-Palaeophycus01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Palaeophycus01.JPG/553px-Palaeophycus01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2165" data-file-height="1410" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Palaeophycus</i> ichnosp.; a <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossil</a> from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 113.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 111.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PlatyceratidMississippian.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Crinoid calyx from the lower Carboniferous of Ohio with a conical platyceratid gastropod (Palaeocapulus acutirostre) attached"><img alt="Crinoid calyx from the lower Carboniferous of Ohio with a conical platyceratid gastropod (Palaeocapulus acutirostre) attached" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/PlatyceratidMississippian.JPG/167px-PlatyceratidMississippian.JPG" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/PlatyceratidMississippian.JPG/250px-PlatyceratidMississippian.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/PlatyceratidMississippian.JPG/334px-PlatyceratidMississippian.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2364" data-file-height="2550" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">Crinoid</a> calyx from the lower Carboniferous of Ohio with a conical <a href="/wiki/Platyceratidae" title="Platyceratidae">platyceratid</a> gastropod (<i>Palaeocapulus acutirostre</i>) attached</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 249.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 247.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Conulariid03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Conulariid from the lower Carboniferous of Indiana"><img alt="Conulariid from the lower Carboniferous of Indiana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Conulariid03.jpg/371px-Conulariid03.jpg" decoding="async" width="248" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Conulariid03.jpg/556px-Conulariid03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Conulariid03.jpg/741px-Conulariid03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3778" data-file-height="1836" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Conulariid from the lower Carboniferous of Indiana</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 206px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 204px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syringoporid.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone Limestone (lower Carboniferous) near Hiwasse, Arkansas"><img alt="Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone Limestone (lower Carboniferous) near Hiwasse, Arkansas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Syringoporid.jpg/306px-Syringoporid.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Syringoporid.jpg/458px-Syringoporid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Syringoporid.jpg/611px-Syringoporid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1144" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone Limestone (lower Carboniferous) near Hiwasse, Arkansas</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Typhloesus_interpretation_2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Typhloesus was a bizarre invertebrate that lived in Montana. It is possibly a mollusk related to gastropods."><img alt="Typhloesus was a bizarre invertebrate that lived in Montana. It is possibly a mollusk related to gastropods." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Typhloesus_interpretation_2022.jpg/294px-Typhloesus_interpretation_2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Typhloesus_interpretation_2022.jpg/440px-Typhloesus_interpretation_2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Typhloesus_interpretation_2022.jpg/587px-Typhloesus_interpretation_2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1949" data-file-height="1196" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Typhloesus" title="Typhloesus">Typhloesus</a></i> was a bizarre invertebrate that lived in Montana. It is possibly a mollusk related to gastropods.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 116.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 114.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Essexella_asherae.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Essexella was a cnidarian that lived in Northern Illinois. It was long considered a scyphozoan, but is now regarded as a Sea anemone"><img alt="Essexella was a cnidarian that lived in Northern Illinois. It was long considered a scyphozoan, but is now regarded as a Sea anemone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Essexella_asherae.JPG/172px-Essexella_asherae.JPG" decoding="async" width="115" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Essexella_asherae.JPG/258px-Essexella_asherae.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Essexella_asherae.JPG/344px-Essexella_asherae.JPG 2x" data-file-width="723" data-file-height="756" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Essexella" title="Essexella">Essexella</a></i> was a cnidarian that lived in Northern Illinois. It was long considered a <a href="/wiki/Scyphozoa" title="Scyphozoa">scyphozoan</a>, but is now regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">Sea anemone</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 172.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Concavicaris_georgeorum.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Concavicaris was a long lasting genus of thylacocephalan arthropod that lived from the Devonian to the Carboniferous."><img alt="Concavicaris was a long lasting genus of thylacocephalan arthropod that lived from the Devonian to the Carboniferous." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Concavicaris_georgeorum.png/256px-Concavicaris_georgeorum.png" decoding="async" width="171" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Concavicaris_georgeorum.png/383px-Concavicaris_georgeorum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Concavicaris_georgeorum.png/511px-Concavicaris_georgeorum.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1268" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Concavicaris</i> was a long lasting genus of <a href="/wiki/Thylacocephala" title="Thylacocephala">thylacocephalan</a> arthropod that lived from the Devonian to the Carboniferous.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 132.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 130.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Triproetus_bonbon_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Triproetus was a genus of proetid trilobite, which were the only order that survived the end-Devonian extinction"><img alt="Triproetus was a genus of proetid trilobite, which were the only order that survived the end-Devonian extinction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Triproetus_bonbon_cropped.jpg/196px-Triproetus_bonbon_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Triproetus_bonbon_cropped.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="253" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Triproetus" title="Triproetus">Triproetus</a></i> was a genus of <a href="/wiki/Proetida" title="Proetida">proetid</a> trilobite, which were the only order that survived the end-Devonian extinction </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 228px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Daidal.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Daidal was a basal species of Mantis shrimp (stomatopoda)"><img alt="Daidal was a basal species of Mantis shrimp (stomatopoda)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Daidal.png/342px-Daidal.png" decoding="async" width="228" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Daidal.png/513px-Daidal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Daidal.png/684px-Daidal.png 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Daidal" title="Daidal">Daidal</a></i> was a basal species of Mantis shrimp (<a href="/wiki/Stomatopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomatopoda">stomatopoda</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 166.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 164.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeletzkya_douglassae.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jeletzkya was an early genus of coleoid cephalopod from northern Illinois"><img alt="Jeletzkya was an early genus of coleoid cephalopod from northern Illinois" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Jeletzkya_douglassae.jpg/247px-Jeletzkya_douglassae.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Jeletzkya_douglassae.jpg/370px-Jeletzkya_douglassae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Jeletzkya_douglassae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="292" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Jeletzkya" title="Jeletzkya">Jeletzkya</a></i> was an early genus of <a href="/wiki/Coleoidea" title="Coleoidea">coleoid</a> cephalopod from northern <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 144px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 142px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syllipsimopodi_bideni.webp" class="mw-file-description" title="Syllipsimopodi was the earliest known vampyropod cephalopod, originating from Carboniferous rocks of Montana."><img alt="Syllipsimopodi was the earliest known vampyropod cephalopod, originating from Carboniferous rocks of Montana." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Syllipsimopodi_bideni.webp/213px-Syllipsimopodi_bideni.webp.png" decoding="async" width="142" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Syllipsimopodi_bideni.webp/320px-Syllipsimopodi_bideni.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Syllipsimopodi_bideni.webp/427px-Syllipsimopodi_bideni.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="999" data-file-height="843" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Syllipsimopodi" title="Syllipsimopodi">Syllipsimopodi</a></i> was the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Vampyropoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Vampyropoda">vampyropod</a> cephalopod, originating from Carboniferous rocks of Montana.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freshwater_and_lagoonal_invertebrates">Freshwater and lagoonal invertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Freshwater and lagoonal invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Freshwater Carboniferous invertebrates include various <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a> that lived in brackish or fresh water, such as <i>Anthraconaia</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Naiadites" title="Naiadites">Naiadites</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Carbonicola_(bivalve)" title="Carbonicola (bivalve)">Carbonicola</a></i>; diverse <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Candona" title="Candona">Candona</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Carbonita_(crustacean)" title="Carbonita (crustacean)">Carbonita</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Darwinula" title="Darwinula">Darwinula</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Estheria_(crustacean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Estheria (crustacean)">Estheria</a></i>, <i>Acanthocaris</i>, <i>Dithyrocaris</i>, and <i>Anthrapalaemon</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Eurypterid" title="Eurypterid">eurypterids</a> were also diverse, and are represented by such genera as <i><a href="/wiki/Adelophthalmus" title="Adelophthalmus">Adelophthalmus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Megarachne" title="Megarachne">Megarachne</a></i> (originally misinterpreted as a giant spider, hence its name) and the specialised very large <i><a href="/wiki/Hibbertopterus" title="Hibbertopterus">Hibbertopterus</a></i>. Many of these were amphibious. Frequently a temporary return of marine conditions resulted in marine or brackish water genera such as <i><a href="/wiki/Lingula_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingula (genus)">Lingula</a></i>, <i>Orbiculoidea</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Productus" class="mw-redirect" title="Productus">Productus</a></i> being found in the thin beds known as marine bands. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20210116_Megarachne_hypothetical_reconstruction.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Megarachne was a large freshwater eurypterid from South America that was originally misidentified as a spider"><img alt="Megarachne was a large freshwater eurypterid from South America that was originally misidentified as a spider" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/20210116_Megarachne_hypothetical_reconstruction.png/270px-20210116_Megarachne_hypothetical_reconstruction.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/20210116_Megarachne_hypothetical_reconstruction.png/405px-20210116_Megarachne_hypothetical_reconstruction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/20210116_Megarachne_hypothetical_reconstruction.png/540px-20210116_Megarachne_hypothetical_reconstruction.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Megarachne</i> was a large freshwater eurypterid from South America that was originally misidentified as a spider</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 133.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 131.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Adelophthalmus_irinae.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Adelophthalmus was the only genus of eurypterine eurypterid that survived past the Devonian"><img alt="Adelophthalmus was the only genus of eurypterine eurypterid that survived past the Devonian" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Adelophthalmus_irinae.png/197px-Adelophthalmus_irinae.png" decoding="async" width="132" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Adelophthalmus_irinae.png/295px-Adelophthalmus_irinae.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Adelophthalmus_irinae.png/393px-Adelophthalmus_irinae.png 2x" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="2803" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Adelophthalmus</i> was the only genus of <a href="/wiki/Eurypterina" title="Eurypterina">eurypterine</a> eurypterid that survived past the Devonian</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 330px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 328px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hibbertopterus_scouleri.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Due to its large and compact shell, Hibbertopterus was one of if not the heaviest eurypterid in the fossil record"><img alt="Due to its large and compact shell, Hibbertopterus was one of if not the heaviest eurypterid in the fossil record" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hibbertopterus_scouleri.jpg/492px-Hibbertopterus_scouleri.jpg" decoding="async" width="328" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hibbertopterus_scouleri.jpg/739px-Hibbertopterus_scouleri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Hibbertopterus_scouleri.jpg/985px-Hibbertopterus_scouleri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2433" data-file-height="1335" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Due to its large and compact shell, <i>Hibbertopterus</i> was one of if not the heaviest eurypterid in the fossil record</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrestrial_invertebrates">Terrestrial invertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Terrestrial invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fossil remains of air-breathing <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarwoodSutton2010_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarwoodSutton2010-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Myriapoda" title="Myriapoda">myriapods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnids</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarwoodDunlopSutton2009_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarwoodDunlopSutton2009-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are known from the Carboniferous. Their diversity when they do appear, however, shows that these arthropods were both well-developed and numerous.<sup id="cite_ref-GrahamAguilarDudleyGans1995_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrahamAguilarDudleyGans1995-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CannellEtAl2022_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CannellEtAl2022-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerberkBilton2011_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerberkBilton2011-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some arthropods grew to large sizes with the up to 2.6-meter-long (8.5 ft) millipede-like <i><a href="/wiki/Arthropleura" title="Arthropleura">Arthropleura</a></i> being the largest-known land invertebrate of all time. Among the insect groups are the huge predatory <a href="/wiki/Protodonata" class="mw-redirect" title="Protodonata">Protodonata</a> (griffinflies), among which was <i><a href="/wiki/Meganeura" title="Meganeura">Meganeura</a></i>, a giant <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">dragonfly</a>-like insect and with a wingspan of ca. 75 cm (30 in)—the largest flying insect ever to roam the planet. Further groups are the Syntonopterodea (relatives of present-day <a href="/wiki/Ephemeroptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephemeroptera">mayflies</a>), the abundant and often large sap-sucking <a href="/wiki/Palaeodictyopteroidea" title="Palaeodictyopteroidea">Palaeodictyopteroidea</a>, the diverse herbivorous <a href="/wiki/Protorthoptera" title="Protorthoptera">Protorthoptera</a>, and numerous <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> <a href="/wiki/Dictyoptera" title="Dictyoptera">Dictyoptera</a> (ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Cockroach" title="Cockroach">cockroaches</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarwoodSutton2010_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarwoodSutton2010-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many insects have been obtained from the coalfields of <a href="/wiki/Saarbr%C3%BCcken" title="Saarbrücken">Saarbrücken</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commentry" title="Commentry">Commentry</a>, and from the hollow trunks of fossil trees in Nova Scotia. Some British coalfields have yielded good specimens: <i>Archaeoptilus</i>, from the Derbyshire coalfield, had a large wing with 4.3 cm (2 in) preserved part, and some specimens (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brodia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brodia (page does not exist)">Brodia</a></i>) still exhibit traces of brilliant wing colors. In the Nova Scotian tree trunks land snails (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeozonites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeozonites (page does not exist)">Archaeozonites</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dendropupa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dendropupa (page does not exist)">Dendropupa</a></i>) have been found.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911312_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911312-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 216.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 214.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meganeura.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The late Carboniferous giant dragonfly-like insect Meganeura grew to wingspans over 60 cm (2 ft 0 in)."><img alt="The late Carboniferous giant dragonfly-like insect Meganeura grew to wingspans over 60 cm (2 ft 0 in)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Meganeura.png/322px-Meganeura.png" decoding="async" width="215" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Meganeura.png/483px-Meganeura.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Meganeura.png/643px-Meganeura.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The late Carboniferous giant dragonfly-like insect <i><a href="/wiki/Meganeura" title="Meganeura">Meganeura</a></i> grew to wingspans over 60 cm (2 ft 0 in).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20210116_Pulmonoscorpius_kirktonensis.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The gigantic Pulmonoscorpius from the early Carboniferous reached a length of up to 70 cm (2 ft 4 in)."><img alt="The gigantic Pulmonoscorpius from the early Carboniferous reached a length of up to 70 cm (2 ft 4 in)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/20210116_Pulmonoscorpius_kirktonensis.png/360px-20210116_Pulmonoscorpius_kirktonensis.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/20210116_Pulmonoscorpius_kirktonensis.png/540px-20210116_Pulmonoscorpius_kirktonensis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/20210116_Pulmonoscorpius_kirktonensis.png/720px-20210116_Pulmonoscorpius_kirktonensis.png 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="950" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The gigantic <i><a href="/wiki/Pulmonoscorpius" title="Pulmonoscorpius">Pulmonoscorpius</a></i> from the early Carboniferous reached a length of up to 70 cm (2 ft 4 in).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 161.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 159.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arthropleura_Reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arthropleura was a giant millipede that fed on the Carboniferous plants. At 8 ft (240 cm) long, it was the largest terrestrial arthropod that ever lived."><img alt="Arthropleura was a giant millipede that fed on the Carboniferous plants. At 8 ft (240 cm) long, it was the largest terrestrial arthropod that ever lived." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Arthropleura_Reconstruction.jpg/239px-Arthropleura_Reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Arthropleura_Reconstruction.jpg/358px-Arthropleura_Reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Arthropleura_Reconstruction.jpg/477px-Arthropleura_Reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="3170" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Arthropleura" title="Arthropleura">Arthropleura</a></i> was a giant millipede that fed on the Carboniferous plants. At 8 ft (240 cm) long, it was the largest terrestrial arthropod that ever lived.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 139.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 137.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Homaloneura_ligeia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Homaloneura, a palaeodictyopteran insect which have two winglets on thorax in addition to four wings."><img alt="Homaloneura, a palaeodictyopteran insect which have two winglets on thorax in addition to four wings." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Homaloneura_ligeia.jpg/206px-Homaloneura_ligeia.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Homaloneura_ligeia.jpg/309px-Homaloneura_ligeia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Homaloneura_ligeia.jpg/411px-Homaloneura_ligeia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="644" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homaloneura&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Homaloneura (page does not exist)">Homaloneura</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Palaeodictyoptera" title="Palaeodictyoptera">palaeodictyopteran</a> insect which have two winglets on thorax in addition to four wings.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 139.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 137.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helenodora_inopinata.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Helenodora inopinata, a stem-group onychophoran known from Indiana"><img alt="Helenodora inopinata, a stem-group onychophoran known from Indiana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Helenodora_inopinata.jpg/206px-Helenodora_inopinata.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Helenodora_inopinata.jpg/309px-Helenodora_inopinata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Helenodora_inopinata.jpg/412px-Helenodora_inopinata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="621" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Helenodora" title="Helenodora"><i>Helenodora inopinata</i></a>, a <a href="/wiki/Stem-group" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem-group">stem-group</a> <a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">onychophoran</a> known from <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blattoidae_-_Fossil.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A roachoid insect found in Carboniferous rocks of France"><img alt="A roachoid insect found in Carboniferous rocks of France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Blattoidae_-_Fossil.JPG/240px-Blattoidae_-_Fossil.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Blattoidae_-_Fossil.JPG/359px-Blattoidae_-_Fossil.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Blattoidae_-_Fossil.JPG/479px-Blattoidae_-_Fossil.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="1079" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Roachoid" title="Roachoid">roachoid</a> insect found in Carboniferous rocks of France</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20201202_Maiocercus_celticus.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Maiocercus was a trigonotarbid arachnid that lived in the United Kingdom around 310 million years ago."><img alt="Maiocercus was a trigonotarbid arachnid that lived in the United Kingdom around 310 million years ago." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/20201202_Maiocercus_celticus.png/234px-20201202_Maiocercus_celticus.png" decoding="async" width="156" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/20201202_Maiocercus_celticus.png/351px-20201202_Maiocercus_celticus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/20201202_Maiocercus_celticus.png/468px-20201202_Maiocercus_celticus.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Maiocercus" title="Maiocercus">Maiocercus</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Trigonotarbida" title="Trigonotarbida">trigonotarbid</a> arachnid that lived in the United Kingdom around 310 million years ago.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many fish inhabited the Carboniferous seas; predominantly <a href="/wiki/Elasmobranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Elasmobranch">Elasmobranchs</a> (sharks and their relatives). These included some, like <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psammodus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psammodus (page does not exist)">Psammodus</a></i>, with crushing pavement-like teeth adapted for grinding the shells of brachiopods, crustaceans, and other marine organisms. Other groups of elasmobranchs, like the <a href="/wiki/Ctenacanthiformes" title="Ctenacanthiformes">ctenacanthiformes</a> grew to large sizes, with some genera like <i><a href="/wiki/Saivodus" title="Saivodus">Saivodus</a></i> reaching around 6–9 meters (20–30 feet).<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other fish had piercing teeth, such as the <a href="/wiki/Symmoriida" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmoriida">Symmoriida</a>; some, the <a href="/wiki/Petalodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Petalodont">petalodonts</a>, had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. Most of the other cartilaginous fish were marine, but others like the <a href="/wiki/Xenacanthida" title="Xenacanthida">Xenacanthida</a>, and several genera like <i><a href="/wiki/Bandringa" title="Bandringa">Bandringa</a></i> invaded fresh waters of the coal swamps.<sup id="cite_ref-Sallan-2014_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sallan-2014-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the <a href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">bony fish</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Palaeonisciformes" title="Palaeonisciformes">Palaeonisciformes</a> found in coastal waters also appear to have migrated to rivers. <a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Sarcopterygian</a> fish were also prominent, and one group, the <a href="/wiki/Rhizodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizodont">Rhizodonts</a>, reached very large size. </p><p>Most species of Carboniferous marine fish have been described largely from teeth, fin spines and dermal ossicles,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311_48-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911311-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with smaller freshwater fish preserved whole. Freshwater fish were abundant, and include the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Ctenodus" title="Ctenodus">Ctenodus</a></i>, <i>Uronemus</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Acanthodes" title="Acanthodes">Acanthodes</a></i>, <i>Cheirodus</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Gyracanthus" title="Gyracanthus">Gyracanthus</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">Chondrichthyes</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Holocephali" title="Holocephali">holocephalans</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Stethacanthidae" title="Stethacanthidae">Stethacanthids</a>) underwent a major <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_radiation" title="Evolutionary radiation">evolutionary radiation</a> during the Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2008_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2008-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed that this evolutionary radiation occurred because the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Placodermi" class="mw-redirect" title="Placodermi">placoderms</a> at the end of the Devonian caused many <a href="/wiki/Niche_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche (ecology)">environmental niches</a> to become unoccupied and allowed new organisms to evolve and fill these niches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2008_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2008-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the evolutionary radiation Carboniferous holocephalans assumed a wide variety of bizarre shapes including <i><a href="/wiki/Stethacanthus" title="Stethacanthus">Stethacanthus</a></i> which possessed a flat brush-like dorsal fin with a patch of <a href="/wiki/Dermal_denticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermal denticle">denticles</a> on its top.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2008_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2008-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Stethacanthus" title="Stethacanthus">Stethacanthus</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'s</span> unusual fin may have been used in mating rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin2008_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2008-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other groups like the <a href="/wiki/Eugeneodontida" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugeneodontida">eugeneodonts</a> filled in the niches left by large predatory placoderms. These fish were unique as they only possessed one row of teeth in their upper or lower jaws in the form of elaborate tooth whorls.<sup id="cite_ref-Lebedev20092_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lebedev20092-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first members of the <a href="/wiki/Helicoprionidae" title="Helicoprionidae">helicoprionidae</a>, a family eugeneodonts that were characterized by the presence of one circular tooth whorl in the lower jaw, appeared during the early Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps the most bizarre radiation of holocephalans at this time was that of the <a href="/wiki/Iniopterygiformes" title="Iniopterygiformes">iniopterygiformes</a>, an order of holocephalans that greatly resembled modern day flying fish that could have also "flown" in the water with their massive, elongated pectoral fins. They were further characterized by their large eye sockets, club-like structures on their tails, and spines on the tips of their fins. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 196px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 194px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stethacanthus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Akmonistion of the Holocephali order Symmoriida roamed the oceans of the early Carboniferous."><img alt="Akmonistion of the Holocephali order Symmoriida roamed the oceans of the early Carboniferous." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stethacanthus_BW.jpg/291px-Stethacanthus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="194" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stethacanthus_BW.jpg/436px-Stethacanthus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stethacanthus_BW.jpg/581px-Stethacanthus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="496" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Akmonistion" title="Akmonistion">Akmonistion</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Holocephali" title="Holocephali">Holocephali</a> order <a href="/wiki/Symmoriida" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmoriida">Symmoriida</a> roamed the oceans of the early Carboniferous.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 168.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 166.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Falcatus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Falcatus was a Carboniferous holocephalan, with a high degree of sexual dimorphism."><img alt="Falcatus was a Carboniferous holocephalan, with a high degree of sexual dimorphism." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Falcatus.jpg/250px-Falcatus.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Falcatus.jpg/375px-Falcatus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Falcatus.jpg/501px-Falcatus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1957" data-file-height="1408" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Falcatus" title="Falcatus">Falcatus</a></i> was a Carboniferous holocephalan, with a high degree of sexual dimorphism.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 247.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 245.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dracopristis_hoffmanorum.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Dracopristis was a Ctenacanthiform elasmobranch from the late Carboniferous of New Mexico."><img alt="Dracopristis was a Ctenacanthiform elasmobranch from the late Carboniferous of New Mexico." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Dracopristis_hoffmanorum.png/368px-Dracopristis_hoffmanorum.png" decoding="async" width="246" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Dracopristis_hoffmanorum.png/552px-Dracopristis_hoffmanorum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Dracopristis_hoffmanorum.png/736px-Dracopristis_hoffmanorum.png 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="2350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Dracopristis" title="Dracopristis">Dracopristis</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Ctenacanthiformes" title="Ctenacanthiformes">Ctenacanthiform</a> <a href="/wiki/Elasmobranchii" title="Elasmobranchii">elasmobranch</a> from the late Carboniferous of <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 282px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ornithoprion_hertwigi.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Ornithoprion was a small-sized Eugeneodont holocephalan that had an elongated lower jaw."><img alt="Ornithoprion was a small-sized Eugeneodont holocephalan that had an elongated lower jaw." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ornithoprion_hertwigi.png/420px-Ornithoprion_hertwigi.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ornithoprion_hertwigi.png/630px-Ornithoprion_hertwigi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ornithoprion_hertwigi.png/840px-Ornithoprion_hertwigi.png 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Ornithoprion" title="Ornithoprion">Ornithoprion</a></i> was a small-sized <a href="/wiki/Eugeneodontida" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugeneodontida">Eugeneodont</a> holocephalan that had an elongated lower jaw.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 232px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Allenypterus_montanus_(Restoration)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Allenypterus was a Coelacanth fish known from the Bear Gulch Limestone in Montana."><img alt="Allenypterus was a Coelacanth fish known from the Bear Gulch Limestone in Montana." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Allenypterus_montanus_%28Restoration%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/345px-Allenypterus_montanus_%28Restoration%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Allenypterus_montanus_%28Restoration%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/517px-Allenypterus_montanus_%28Restoration%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Allenypterus_montanus_%28Restoration%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/690px-Allenypterus_montanus_%28Restoration%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1869" data-file-height="976" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Allenypterus" title="Allenypterus">Allenypterus</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Coelacanth" title="Coelacanth">Coelacanth</a> fish known from the <a href="/wiki/Bear_Gulch_Limestone" title="Bear Gulch Limestone">Bear Gulch Limestone</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E2%80%A0Phanerosteon_phonax_Carboniferous_Bear_Gulch.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Phanerosteon was a Bony fish belonging to the extinct order Palaeonisciformes."><img alt="Phanerosteon was a Bony fish belonging to the extinct order Palaeonisciformes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/%E2%80%A0Phanerosteon_phonax_Carboniferous_Bear_Gulch.jpg/240px-%E2%80%A0Phanerosteon_phonax_Carboniferous_Bear_Gulch.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/%E2%80%A0Phanerosteon_phonax_Carboniferous_Bear_Gulch.jpg/360px-%E2%80%A0Phanerosteon_phonax_Carboniferous_Bear_Gulch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/%E2%80%A0Phanerosteon_phonax_Carboniferous_Bear_Gulch.jpg/480px-%E2%80%A0Phanerosteon_phonax_Carboniferous_Bear_Gulch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Phanerosteon" title="Phanerosteon">Phanerosteon</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Bony fish</a> belonging to the extinct order <a href="/wiki/Palaeonisciformes" title="Palaeonisciformes">Palaeonisciformes</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 299.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edestus_recon.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Edestus was a large eugeneodontid fish that possessed two tooth whorls in its mouth"><img alt="Edestus was a large eugeneodontid fish that possessed two tooth whorls in its mouth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Edestus_recon.png/446px-Edestus_recon.png" decoding="async" width="298" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Edestus_recon.png/668px-Edestus_recon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Edestus_recon.png/891px-Edestus_recon.png 2x" data-file-width="3226" data-file-height="1304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Edestus" title="Edestus">Edestus</a></i> was a large <a href="/wiki/Eugeneodontida" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugeneodontida">eugeneodontid</a> fish that possessed two tooth whorls in its mouth</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 309.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 307.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhizodus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rhizodus was a large freshwater Rhizodont sarcopterygian from Europe and North America."><img alt="Rhizodus was a large freshwater Rhizodont sarcopterygian from Europe and North America." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Rhizodus.jpg/461px-Rhizodus.jpg" decoding="async" width="308" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Rhizodus.jpg/691px-Rhizodus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Rhizodus.jpg/921px-Rhizodus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3446" data-file-height="1347" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Rhizodus" title="Rhizodus">Rhizodus</a></i> was a large freshwater <a href="/wiki/Rhizodontida" title="Rhizodontida">Rhizodont</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">sarcopterygian</a> from Europe and North America.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Squatinactis_NT_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Squatinactis, a genus of elasmobranch fish from Montana that possessed enlarged pectoral fins similar to modern angel sharks"><img alt="Squatinactis, a genus of elasmobranch fish from Montana that possessed enlarged pectoral fins similar to modern angel sharks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Squatinactis_NT_small.jpg/240px-Squatinactis_NT_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Squatinactis_NT_small.jpg/360px-Squatinactis_NT_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Squatinactis_NT_small.jpg/480px-Squatinactis_NT_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Squatinactis" title="Squatinactis">Squatinactis</a></i>, a genus of elasmobranch fish from Montana that possessed enlarged pectoral fins similar to modern <a href="/wiki/Angelshark" title="Angelshark">angel sharks</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 378px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 376px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandringa_SW.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Bandringa is a bizarre elasmobranch fish that lived in Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania during the Moscovian stage. It superficially resembled a paddlefish, with an elongated upper rostrum."><img alt="Bandringa is a bizarre elasmobranch fish that lived in Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania during the Moscovian stage. It superficially resembled a paddlefish, with an elongated upper rostrum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Bandringa_SW.png/564px-Bandringa_SW.png" decoding="async" width="376" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Bandringa_SW.png 1.5x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="255" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Bandringa" title="Bandringa">Bandringa</a></i> is a bizarre elasmobranch fish that lived in <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Moscovian_(Carboniferous)" title="Moscovian (Carboniferous)">Moscovian</a> stage. It superficially resembled a <a href="/wiki/Paddlefish" title="Paddlefish">paddlefish</a>, with an elongated upper <a href="/wiki/Rostrum_(anatomy)" title="Rostrum (anatomy)">rostrum</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Iniopteryxrushlaui.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Iniopteryx was a holocephalan that lived in North America. This fish belonged to a group called the Iniopterygiformes, that possibly lived like flying fish."><img alt="Iniopteryx was a holocephalan that lived in North America. This fish belonged to a group called the Iniopterygiformes, that possibly lived like flying fish." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Iniopteryxrushlaui.JPG/243px-Iniopteryxrushlaui.JPG" decoding="async" width="162" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Iniopteryxrushlaui.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="222" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Iniopteryx" title="Iniopteryx">Iniopteryx</a></i> was a holocephalan that lived in North America. This fish belonged to a group called the Iniopterygiformes, that possibly lived like <a href="/wiki/Flying_fish" title="Flying fish">flying fish</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 148px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Strigilodus_tollesonae-novataxa_2023-Hodnett_Toomey_Olson.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Restoration of Strigilodus, a petalodont holocephalan from the upper Carboniferous of Kentucky."><img alt="Restoration of Strigilodus, a petalodont holocephalan from the upper Carboniferous of Kentucky." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Strigilodus_tollesonae-novataxa_2023-Hodnett_Toomey_Olson.jpg/222px-Strigilodus_tollesonae-novataxa_2023-Hodnett_Toomey_Olson.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Strigilodus_tollesonae-novataxa_2023-Hodnett_Toomey_Olson.jpg/333px-Strigilodus_tollesonae-novataxa_2023-Hodnett_Toomey_Olson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Strigilodus_tollesonae-novataxa_2023-Hodnett_Toomey_Olson.jpg/444px-Strigilodus_tollesonae-novataxa_2023-Hodnett_Toomey_Olson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1380" data-file-height="1120" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Restoration of <i><a href="/wiki/Strigilodus_tollesonae" class="mw-redirect" title="Strigilodus tollesonae">Strigilodus</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Petalodontiformes" title="Petalodontiformes">petalodont</a> holocephalan from the upper Carboniferous of <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tetrapods">Tetrapods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Tetrapods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carboniferous <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> were diverse and common by the middle of the period, more so than they are today; some were as long as 6 meters, and those fully terrestrial as adults had scaly skin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStanley1999411–412_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley1999411–412-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They included basal tetrapod groups classified in early books under the <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinthodont">Labyrinthodontia</a>. These had a long body, a head covered with bony plates, and generally weak or undeveloped limbs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe1911312_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe1911312-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest were over 2 meters long. They were accompanied by an assemblage of smaller amphibians included under the <a href="/wiki/Lepospondyli" title="Lepospondyli">Lepospondyli</a>, often only about 15 cm (6 in) long. Some Carboniferous amphibians were aquatic and lived in rivers (<i><a href="/wiki/Loxomma" title="Loxomma">Loxomma</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Eogyrinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eogyrinus">Eogyrinus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Proterogyrinus" title="Proterogyrinus">Proterogyrinus</a></i>); others may have been semi-aquatic (<i><a href="/wiki/Ophiderpeton" title="Ophiderpeton">Ophiderpeton</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Amphibamus" title="Amphibamus">Amphibamus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hyloplesion" title="Hyloplesion">Hyloplesion</a></i>) or terrestrial (<i><a href="/wiki/Dendrerpeton" title="Dendrerpeton">Dendrerpeton</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tuditanus" title="Tuditanus">Tuditanus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Anthracosaurus" title="Anthracosaurus">Anthracosaurus</a></i>). </p><p>The Carboniferous rainforest collapse slowed the evolution of amphibians who could not survive as well in the cooler, drier conditions. Amniotes, however, prospered because of specific key adaptations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which allowed the laying of eggs in a dry environment, as well as keratinized scales and claws, allowing for the further exploitation of the land by certain <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>. These included the earliest <a href="/wiki/Sauropsida" title="Sauropsida">sauropsid</a> reptiles (<i><a href="/wiki/Hylonomus" title="Hylonomus">Hylonomus</a></i>), and the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsid</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Archaeothyris" title="Archaeothyris">Archaeothyris</a></i>). Synapsids quickly became huge and diversified in the Permian, only for their dominance to stop during the Mesozoic. Sauropsids (reptiles, and also, later, birds) also diversified but remained small until the Mesozoic, during which they dominated the land, as well as the water and sky, only for their dominance to stop during the Cenozoic. </p><p>Reptiles underwent a major evolutionary radiation in response to the drier climate that preceded the rainforest collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazlev1998_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazlev1998-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the Carboniferous amniotes had already diversified into a number of groups, including several families of synapsid <a href="/wiki/Pelycosaur" title="Pelycosaur">pelycosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protorothyrididae" title="Protorothyrididae">protorothyridids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captorhinidae" title="Captorhinidae">captorhinids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sauria" title="Sauria">saurians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Araeoscelidia" title="Araeoscelidia">araeoscelids</a>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 262.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 260.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pederpes2223DB.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The amphibian-like Pederpes, the most primitive tetrapod found in the Mississippian, and known from Scotland."><img alt="The amphibian-like Pederpes, the most primitive tetrapod found in the Mississippian, and known from Scotland." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pederpes2223DB.jpg/391px-Pederpes2223DB.jpg" decoding="async" width="261" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pederpes2223DB.jpg/586px-Pederpes2223DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Pederpes2223DB.jpg/781px-Pederpes2223DB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3898" data-file-height="1799" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibian</a>-like <i><a href="/wiki/Pederpes" title="Pederpes">Pederpes</a></i>, the most primitive tetrapod found in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippian age">Mississippian</a>, and known from Scotland.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 286.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 284.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hylonomus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hylonomus, the earliest sauropsid reptile, appeared in the Pennsylvanian, and is known from the Joggins Formation in Nova Scotia, and possibly New Brunswick."><img alt="Hylonomus, the earliest sauropsid reptile, appeared in the Pennsylvanian, and is known from the Joggins Formation in Nova Scotia, and possibly New Brunswick." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hylonomus_BW.jpg/427px-Hylonomus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="285" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hylonomus_BW.jpg/640px-Hylonomus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Hylonomus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="338" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Hylonomus" title="Hylonomus">Hylonomus</a></i>, the earliest sauropsid <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptile</a>, appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a>, and is known from the <a href="/wiki/Joggins_Formation" title="Joggins Formation">Joggins Formation</a> in Nova Scotia, and possibly <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 304.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 302.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrolacosaurus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Petrolacosaurus, the earliest known diapsid reptile, lived during the late Carboniferous."><img alt="Petrolacosaurus, the earliest known diapsid reptile, lived during the late Carboniferous." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Petrolacosaurus_BW.jpg/454px-Petrolacosaurus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="303" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Petrolacosaurus_BW.jpg/680px-Petrolacosaurus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Petrolacosaurus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="313" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Petrolacosaurus" title="Petrolacosaurus">Petrolacosaurus</a></i>, the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Diapsid" title="Diapsid">diapsid</a> reptile, lived during the late Carboniferous.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 191.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 189.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Archaeothyris_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Archaeothyris is the oldest known synapsid, and is found in rocks from Nova Scotia."><img alt="Archaeothyris is the oldest known synapsid, and is found in rocks from Nova Scotia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Archaeothyris_BW.jpg/284px-Archaeothyris_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Archaeothyris_BW.jpg/425px-Archaeothyris_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Archaeothyris_BW.jpg/567px-Archaeothyris_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="508" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Archaeothyris" title="Archaeothyris">Archaeothyris</a></i> is the oldest known <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsid</a>, and is found in rocks from <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 226px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 224px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coloraderpeton.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coloraderpeton was a snake-like aïstopod tetrapodomorph from the late Carboniferous of Colorado."><img alt="Coloraderpeton was a snake-like aïstopod tetrapodomorph from the late Carboniferous of Colorado." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coloraderpeton.jpg/336px-Coloraderpeton.jpg" decoding="async" width="224" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coloraderpeton.jpg/504px-Coloraderpeton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coloraderpeton.jpg/671px-Coloraderpeton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1508" data-file-height="809" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Coloraderpeton" title="Coloraderpeton">Coloraderpeton</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snake</a>-like <a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFstopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Aïstopod">aïstopod</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetrapodomorpha" title="Tetrapodomorpha">tetrapodomorph</a> from the late Carboniferous of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 260px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 258px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crassigyrinus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Crassigyrinus was a carnivorous stem-tetrapod from the early Carboniferous of Scotland."><img alt="Crassigyrinus was a carnivorous stem-tetrapod from the early Carboniferous of Scotland." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Crassigyrinus_BW.jpg/387px-Crassigyrinus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="258" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Crassigyrinus_BW.jpg/581px-Crassigyrinus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Crassigyrinus_BW.jpg/774px-Crassigyrinus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="383" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Crassigyrinus" title="Crassigyrinus">Crassigyrinus</a></i> was a carnivorous stem-tetrapod from the <a href="/wiki/Vis%C3%A9an" title="Viséan">early Carboniferous</a> of Scotland.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 320.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 318.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Microbrachis_pelikani.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Microbrachis was a lepospondyl amphibian known from the Czech Republic."><img alt="Microbrachis was a lepospondyl amphibian known from the Czech Republic." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Microbrachis_pelikani.png/478px-Microbrachis_pelikani.png" decoding="async" width="319" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Microbrachis_pelikani.png/717px-Microbrachis_pelikani.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Microbrachis_pelikani.png/956px-Microbrachis_pelikani.png 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="477" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Microbrachis" title="Microbrachis">Microbrachis</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Lepospondyli" title="Lepospondyli">lepospondyl</a> amphibian known from the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 192px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amphibamus_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Amphibamus was a dissorophoid temnospondyl from the late Carboniferous of Illinois."><img alt="Amphibamus was a dissorophoid temnospondyl from the late Carboniferous of Illinois." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Amphibamus_BW.jpg/285px-Amphibamus_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Amphibamus_BW.jpg/428px-Amphibamus_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Amphibamus_BW.jpg/571px-Amphibamus_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="505" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Amphibamus" title="Amphibamus">Amphibamus</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Dissorophoidea" title="Dissorophoidea">dissorophoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Temnospondyli" title="Temnospondyli">temnospondyl</a> from the late Carboniferous of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi">Fungi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As plants and animals were growing in size and abundance in this time, land <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> diversified further. Marine fungi still occupied the oceans. All modern classes of fungi were present in the late Carboniferous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackwellVilgalysJamesTaylor2008_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackwellVilgalysJamesTaylor2008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extinction_events">Extinction events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Extinction events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romer's_gap"><span id="Romer.27s_gap"></span>Romer's gap</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Romer's gap"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romer%27s_gap" title="Romer's gap">Romer's gap</a></div> <p>The first 15 million years of the Carboniferous had very limited terrestrial fossils. While it has long been debated whether the gap is a result of fossilisation or relates to an actual event, recent work indicates there was a drop in atmospheric oxygen levels, indicating some sort of <a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">ecological collapse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardLabandeiraLaurinBerner2006_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardLabandeiraLaurinBerner2006-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gap saw the demise of the Devonian fish-like <a href="/wiki/Ichthyostegalia" title="Ichthyostegalia">ichthyostegalian</a> <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinthodont">labyrinthodonts</a> and the rise of the more advanced <a href="/wiki/Temnospondyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Temnospondyl">temnospondylian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reptiliomorpha" title="Reptiliomorpha">reptiliomorphan</a> <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> that so typify the Carboniferous terrestrial vertebrate fauna. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse">Carboniferous rainforest collapse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Carboniferous rainforest collapse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse" title="Carboniferous rainforest collapse">Carboniferous rainforest collapse</a></div> <p>Before the end of the Carboniferous, an <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction event</a> occurred. On land this event is referred to as the Carboniferous rainforest collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vast tropical rainforests collapsed suddenly as the climate changed from hot and humid to cool and arid. This was likely caused by intense glaciation and a drop in sea levels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeckel2008_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeckel2008-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new climatic conditions were not favorable to the growth of rainforest and the animals within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated islands, surrounded by seasonally dry habitats. Towering <a href="/wiki/Lycopsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopsid">lycopsid</a> forests with a heterogeneous mixture of vegetation were replaced by much less diverse <a href="/wiki/Tree_fern" title="Tree fern">tree fern</a> dominated flora. </p><p>Amphibians, the dominant vertebrates at the time, fared poorly through this event with large losses in biodiversity; reptiles continued to diversify through key adaptations that let them survive in the drier habitat, specifically the hard-shelled egg and scales, both of which retain water better than their amphibian counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESahneyBentonFalcon-Lang2010-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Carboniferous_tetrapods" title="List of Carboniferous tetrapods">List of Carboniferous tetrapods</a></li> <li>Important Carboniferous <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tten" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagerstätten">Lagerstätten</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Granton_Shrimp_Bed" title="Granton Shrimp Bed">Granton Shrimp Bed</a>; 359 mya; <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, Scotland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Kirkton_Quarry" title="East Kirkton Quarry">East Kirkton Quarry</a>; c. 350 mya; <a href="/wiki/Bathgate" title="Bathgate">Bathgate</a>, Scotland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_Gulch_Limestone" title="Bear Gulch Limestone">Bear Gulch Limestone</a>; 324 mya; <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazon_Creek" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazon Creek">Mazon Creek</a>; 309 mya; <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Quarry" title="Hamilton Quarry">Hamilton Quarry</a>; 300 mya; <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>, US</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ICS-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ICS_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2023-09.pdf">"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">International Commission on Stratigraphy</a></i>. September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sdaos.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/2002/81-92.pdf">"Chondrichthyes from the upper part of the Minnelusa Formation (Middle Pennsylvanian: Desmoinesian), Meade County, South Dakota"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science</i>. <b>81</b>: <span class="nowrap">81–</span>92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+South+Dakota+Academy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Chondrichthyes+from+the+upper+part+of+the+Minnelusa+Formation+%28Middle+Pennsylvanian%3A+Desmoinesian%29%2C+Meade+County%2C+South+Dakota&rft.volume=81&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Cicimurri%2C+D.+J.&rft.au=Fahrenbach%2C+M.+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sdaos.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fpdfs%2F2002%2F81-92.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley1999411–412-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStanley1999411–412_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStanley1999">Stanley 1999</a>, pp. 411–412.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazlev1998-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazlev1998_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazlev1998">Kazlev 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackwellVilgalysJamesTaylor2008-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackwellVilgalysJamesTaylor2008_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackwellVilgalysJamesTaylor2008">Blackwell et al. 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardLabandeiraLaurinBerner2006-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardLabandeiraLaurinBerner2006_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWardLabandeiraLaurinBerner2006">Ward et al. 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeckel2008-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeckel2008_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeckel2008">Heckel 2008</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeerling2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Beerling" title="David Beerling">Beerling, David</a> (2007). <i>The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192806024" title="Special:BookSources/9780192806024"><bdi>9780192806024</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emerald+Planet%3A+How+Plants+Changed+Earth%27s+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780192806024&rft.aulast=Beerling&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUniversity_of_California,_Berkeley2012" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/carboniferous/carboniferous.php">"The Carboniferous Period"</a>. <i>www.ucmp.berkeley.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120210070913/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/carboniferous/carboniferous.php">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-02-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ucmp.berkeley.edu&rft.atitle=The+Carboniferous+Period&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fcarboniferous%2Fcarboniferous.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBiello2012" class="citation journal cs1">Biello, David (28 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=mushroom-evolution-breaks-down-lignin-slows-coal-formation">"White Rot Fungi Slowed Coal Formation"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120630235053/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=mushroom-evolution-breaks-down-lignin-slows-coal-formation">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=White+Rot+Fungi+Slowed+Coal+Formation&rft.date=2012-06-28&rft.aulast=Biello&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dmushroom-evolution-breaks-down-lignin-slows-coal-formation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlackwellVilgalysJamesTaylor2008" class="citation web cs1">Blackwell, Meredith; Vilgalys, Rytas; James, Timothy Y.; Taylor, John W. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377">"Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080924191551/http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377/2008.02.21">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-09-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fungi.+Eumycota%3A+mushrooms%2C+sac+fungi%2C+yeast%2C+molds%2C+rusts%2C+smuts%2C+etc&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Blackwell&rft.aufirst=Meredith&rft.au=Vilgalys%2C+Rytas&rft.au=James%2C+Timothy+Y.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+John+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftolweb.org%2FFungi%2F2377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConybearePhillips1822" class="citation book cs1">Conybeare, W. D.; Phillips, William (1822). <i>Outlines of the geology of England and Wales : with an introductory compendium of the general principles of that science, and comparative views of the structure of foreign countries. Part I</i>. London: William Phillips. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1435921">1435921</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outlines+of+the+geology+of+England+and+Wales+%3A+with+an+introductory+compendium+of+the+general+principles+of+that+science%2C+and+comparative+views+of+the+structure+of+foreign+countries.+Part+I.&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Phillips&rft.date=1822&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1435921&rft.aulast=Conybeare&rft.aufirst=W.+D.&rft.au=Phillips%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCosseyAdamsPurnellWhiteley2004" class="citation book cs1">Cossey, P.J.; Adams, A.E.; Purnell, M.A.; Whiteley, M.J.; Whyte, M.A.; Wright, V.P. (2004). <i>British Lower Carboniferous Stratigraphy</i>. Geological Conservation Review. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86107-499-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-86107-499-9"><bdi>1-86107-499-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Lower+Carboniferous+Stratigraphy&rft.place=Peterborough&rft.series=Geological+Conservation+Review&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Joint+Nature+Conservation+Committee&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-86107-499-9&rft.aulast=Cossey&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=Adams%2C+A.E.&rft.au=Purnell%2C+M.A.&rft.au=Whiteley%2C+M.J.&rft.au=Whyte%2C+M.A.&rft.au=Wright%2C+V.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavydovGlenisterSpinosaRitter1998" class="citation journal cs1">Davydov, Vladimir; Glenister, Brian; Spinosa, Claude; Ritter, Scott; Chernykh, V.; Wardlaw, B.; Snyder, W. 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Wells">Wells, John</a> (3 April 2008). <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/GeoPalaeontologie/Palaeo/Palbot/ewald1.htm">the original</a> on 2012-09-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forschungsstelle+f%C3%BCr+Pal%C3%A4obotanik&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Palaeozoic+Forests+-+Part+2+The+Carboniferous+coal+swamp+forests&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-muenster.de%2FGeoPalaeontologie%2FPalaeo%2FPalbot%2Fewald1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboniferous&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has original works on the topic: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Paleozoic#Carboniferous" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Paleozoic">Paleozoic#Carboniferous</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Carboniferous" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130106085716/http://www.stratigraphy.org/bak/geowhen/index.html">"Geologic Time Scale 2004"</a>. International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stratigraphy.org/bak/geowhen/index.html">the original</a> on January 6, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geologic+Time+Scale+2004&rft.pub=International+Commission+on+Stratigraphy+%28ICS%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stratigraphy.org%2Fbak%2Fgeowhen%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarboniferous" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo-lieven.com/erdzeitalter/karbon/karbon.htm">Examples of Carboniferous Fossils</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foraminifera.eu/querydb.php?&period=Carboniferous&aktion=suche">60+ images of Carboniferous Foraminifera</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghkclass.com/ghkC.html?carboniferous">Carboniferous (Chronostratography scale)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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selflink">Carboniferous Period</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;border: none;;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(103,165,153); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(103,165,153); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(103,165,153); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tournaisian" title="Tournaisian">Tournaisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visean" class="mw-redirect" title="Visean">Visean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpukhovian" title="Serpukhovian">Serpukhovian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(103,165,153); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bashkirian" title="Bashkirian">Bashkirian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscovian_(Carboniferous)" title="Moscovian (Carboniferous)">Moscovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasimovian" title="Kasimovian">Kasimovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gzhelian" title="Gzhelian">Gzhelian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geological_history_of_Earth1258" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template talk:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geological_history_of_Earth1258" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(present–66.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary <span class="nobold">(present–2.58 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene (present–11.7 ka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene <span class="nobold">(2.58–23.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene <span class="nobold">(23.0–66.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(66.0–252 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous <span class="nobold">(66.0–145 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late (66.0–100 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early (100–145 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic <span class="nobold">(145–201 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late (145–164 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Jurassic" title="Middle Jurassic">Middle (164–174 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Early (174–201 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic <span class="nobold">(201–252 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Triassic" title="Late Triassic">Late (201–237 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle (237–247 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Triassic" title="Early Triassic">Early (247–252 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(252–539 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian <span class="nobold">(252–299 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lopingian" title="Lopingian">Lopingian (252–260 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalupian" title="Guadalupian">Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carboniferous <span class="nobold">(299–359 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian (323–359 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian <span class="nobold">(359–419 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late (359–383 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" title="Middle Devonian">Middle (383–393 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" title="Early Devonian">Early (393–419 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian <span class="nobold">(419–444 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pridoli_Epoch" title="Pridoli Epoch">Pridoli (419–423 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Epoch" title="Ludlow Epoch">Ludlow (423–427 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenlock_Epoch" title="Wenlock Epoch">Wenlock (427–433 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llandovery_Epoch" title="Llandovery Epoch">Llandovery (433–444 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician <span class="nobold">(444–485 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician" title="Late Ordovician">Late (444–458 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ordovician" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ordovician">Middle (458–470 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">Early (470–485 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian <span class="nobold">(485–539 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furongian" title="Furongian">Furongian (485–497 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaolingian" title="Miaolingian">Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Series_2" title="Cambrian Series 2">Series 2 (509–521 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terreneuvian" title="Terreneuvian">Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic Eon<br /><span class="nobold">(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(539 Ma–1 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonian" title="Tonian">Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Mesoproterozoic" title="Mesoproterozoic">Mesoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(1–1.6 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stenian" title="Stenian">Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectasian" title="Ectasian">Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calymmian" title="Calymmian">Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(1.6–2.5 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statherian" title="Statherian">Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosirian" title="Orosirian">Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyacian" title="Rhyacian">Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siderian" title="Siderian">Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean Eon <span class="nobold">(2.5–4 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoarchean" title="Neoarchean">Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoarchean" title="Mesoarchean">Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoarchean" title="Paleoarchean">Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean Eon <span class="nobold">(4–4.6 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">ka</a> = kiloannum (thousand years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a> = megaannum (million years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ga</a> = gigaannum (billion years ago).<br /> <i>See also:</i> <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a>  •  <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a>  •  <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1938" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133738#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span 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