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</button> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>Institutions</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transaction_Costs,_Institutions,_and_Economic_Performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transaction_Costs,_Institutions,_and_Economic_Performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span><i>Transaction Costs, Institutions, and Economic Performance</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transaction_Costs,_Institutions,_and_Economic_Performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violence_and_the_Rise_of_Open-Access_Orders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence_and_the_Rise_of_Open-Access_Orders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span><i>Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence_and_the_Rise_of_Open-Access_Orders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AB" title="دوغلاس نورث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دوغلاس نورث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duqlas_Nort" title="Duqlas Nort – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Duqlas Nort" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5" title="ডগলাস নর্থ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ডগলাস নর্থ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82" title="Дуглас Норт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дуглас Норт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8A%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82" title="Дъглас Норт – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дъглас Норт" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AB" title="داگلاس نورث – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="داگلاس نورث" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8D%94%EA%B8%80%EB%9F%AC%EC%8A%A4_%EB%85%B8%EC%8A%A4" title="더글러스 노스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="더글러스 노스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%BD_%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A9" title="Դուգլաս Նորթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դուգլաս Նորթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_Cecil_North" title="Douglass Cecil North – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Douglass Cecil North" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%90%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%A1_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA%27" title="דאגלס נורת' – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דאגלס נורת'" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82,_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Норт, Дуглас – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Норт, Дуглас" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AB" title="دوجلاس نورث – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="دوجلاس نورث" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%80%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%8E%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9" title="ダグラス・ノース – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ダグラス・ノース" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%88%D9%88%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DA%BE" title="ڈوگلاس نارتھ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ڈوگلاس نارتھ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%89%D9%88%DA%AB%D9%84%D8%B3_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BC" title="ډوګلس نورټ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ډوګلس نورټ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_Cecil_North" title="Douglass Cecil North – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Douglass Cecil North" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82,_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Норт, Дуглас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Норт, Дуглас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82" title="Дуглас Норт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дуглас Норт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%88%D9%88%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DA%BE" title="ڈوگلس نارتھ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ڈوگلس نارتھ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglass_North" title="Douglass North – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Douglass North" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%AF%BA%E6%96%AF" title="道格拉斯·诺斯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American economist and Nobel laureate (1920–2015)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Douglass North</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Douglass_North.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Douglass_North.jpg/220px-Douglass_North.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Douglass_North.jpg/330px-Douglass_North.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Douglass_North.jpg/440px-Douglass_North.jpg 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="710" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Douglass North in 1997</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1920-11-05</span>)</span>November 5, 1920<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">November 23, 2015<span style="display:none">(2015-11-23)</span> (aged 95)</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Benzonia,_Michigan" title="Benzonia, Michigan">Benzonia, Michigan</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> B.A., Ph.D.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic career</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Field</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic history</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a><br /><a href="/wiki/US_Merchant_Marine_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Merchant Marine Academy">US Merchant Marine Academy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">School or<br />tradition</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/New_Institutional_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="New Institutional Economics">New Institutional Economics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Influences</th><td class="infobox-data">Melvin M. Knight</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a> (1993)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/e/pno11.html">Information</a> at <a href="/wiki/Research_Papers_in_Economics" title="Research Papers in Economics">IDEAS / RePEc</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Douglass Cecil North</b> (November 5, 1920 – November 23, 2015) was an American <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economist</a> known for his work in <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a>. Along with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert Fogel</a>, he received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a> in 1993. In the words of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Committee" title="Nobel Committee">Nobel Committee</a>, North and Fogel "renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North was an influential figure in <a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New Institutional Economics</a>, which emphasizes the impact of institutions on economic behaviors and outcomes. North argued, "Institutions provide the incentive structure of an economy; as that structure evolves, it shapes the direction of economic change towards growth, stagnation, or decline."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rational and wealth-maximizing individuals lack complete information and have difficulties monitoring and enforcing agreements. Institutions can provide information and reduce <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">transaction costs</a>, thus encouraging economic activity. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Douglass North was born in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>, on November 5, 1920. He moved several times as a child due to his father's work at <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Life_Insurance_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan Life Insurance Company">MetLife</a>. The family lived in <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa, Ontario</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne, Switzerland</a>, in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Wallingford,_Connecticut" title="Wallingford, Connecticut">Wallingford, Connecticut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North was educated at <a href="/wiki/Ashbury_College" title="Ashbury College">Ashbury College</a> in Ottawa and the <a href="/wiki/Choate_Rosemary_Hall" title="Choate Rosemary Hall">Choate School</a> in Wallingford. He was accepted at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a> at the same time that his father became the head of MetLife on the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a>, so North chose instead to attend the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. During his time at Berkeley, North was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Chi_Phi_Fraternity" class="mw-redirect" title="Chi Phi Fraternity">Chi Phi Fraternity</a>. In 1942, he graduated with a general <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">B.A.</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although his grades amounted to slightly better than a <a href="/wiki/Academic_grading_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic grading in North America">"C" average</a>, he managed to complete a triple major in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same year, he entered the <a href="/wiki/US_Merchant_Marine_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Merchant Marine Academy">US Merchant Marine Academy</a>, graduated a year later and went to sea for three years as a deck officer.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">conscientious objector</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, North became a <a href="/wiki/Navigator" title="Navigator">navigator</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a>, traveling between <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. During that time, he read economics and picked up his <a href="/wiki/Hobby" title="Hobby">hobby</a> of photography. He taught navigation at the Maritime Service Officers' School in <a href="/wiki/Alameda,_California" title="Alameda, California">Alameda</a> during the last year of the war, and struggled with the decision of whether to become a photographer or an economist.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North returned to UC Berkeley, where he obtained a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Ph.D.</a> degree in economics in 1952. He subsequently began his career as an <a href="/wiki/Assistant_professor" title="Assistant professor">assistant professor</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North died on November 23, 2015, at his summer home in <a href="/wiki/Benzonia,_Michigan" title="Benzonia, Michigan">Benzonia, Michigan</a> from <a href="/wiki/Esophageal_cancer" title="Esophageal cancer">esophageal cancer</a> at the age of 95.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_career">Academic career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Academic career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Douglass_North_1967.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Douglass_North_1967.jpg/220px-Douglass_North_1967.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Douglass_North_1967.jpg/330px-Douglass_North_1967.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Douglass_North_1967.jpg/440px-Douglass_North_1967.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="1467" /></a><figcaption>North in 1967</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1951 to 1983, North taught economics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a>, where he was an <a href="/wiki/Assistant_professor" title="Assistant professor">assistant professor</a> till 1956, an <a href="/wiki/Associate_professor" title="Associate professor">associate professor</a> from 1956 to 1960, and a <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">full professor</a> till 1983; he also chaired the economics department at Washington from 1967 to 1979. In 1960, North became co-editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Economic History">Journal of Economic History</a></i>, where he helped popularise <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">cliometrics</a>. In 1979 he served as the Peterkin Professor of Political Economy at <a href="/wiki/Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a>, and in 1981–82 as the <a href="/wiki/Pitt_Professor_of_American_History_and_Institutions" title="Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions">Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a>, before joining the faculty of <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a> in 1983 as the <a href="/wiki/Henry_R._Luce" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry R. Luce">Henry R. Luce</a> Professor of Law and Liberty in the Department of Economics (where he also directed the Center for Political Economy from 1984 to 1990). He also served as the Bartlett Burnap Senior Fellow at the <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a> at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1991, he became the first <a href="/wiki/Economic_historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic historian">economic historian</a> to win the <a href="/wiki/John_R._Commons" title="John R. Commons">John R. Commons</a> Award,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was established by the <a href="/wiki/Omicron_Delta_Epsilon" title="Omicron Delta Epsilon">International Honors Society for Economics</a> in 1965. </p><p>A collection of North's papers is housed at the Rubenstein Library at Duke University.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_agenda">Research agenda</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Research agenda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Along with <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Williamson" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Williamson">Oliver Williamson</a>, he helped found the International Society for the <a href="/wiki/New_Institutional_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="New Institutional Economics">New Institutional Economics</a> (ISNIE)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which held its first meeting in St. Louis in 1997. His research included <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">transaction costs</a>, the institutional basis of markets, and economic organization in history as well as economic development in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>. </p><p>North served as an expert for the <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Consensus" title="Copenhagen Consensus">Copenhagen Consensus</a> and as an advisor to governments around the world. He was engaged in research (with John J. Wallis of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland,_College_Park" title="University of Maryland, College Park">University of Maryland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barry_Weingast" class="mw-redirect" title="Barry Weingast">Barry Weingast</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>) on how countries emerge from what they call "the natural state" and into long-run economic growth. He was a trustee of <a href="/wiki/Economists_for_Peace_and_Security" title="Economists for Peace and Security">Economists for Peace and Security</a>, and a special adviser to the non-profit organization <a href="/wiki/Vipani" title="Vipani">Vipani</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Douglass_North_1979.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Douglass_North_1979.jpg/220px-Douglass_North_1979.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Douglass_North_1979.jpg/330px-Douglass_North_1979.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Douglass_North_1979.jpg/440px-Douglass_North_1979.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1026" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption>North in 1979</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutions"><i>Institutions</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1991 Douglass North published a paper, titled <i>Institutions</i>, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Perspectives" title="Journal of Economic Perspectives">Journal of Economic Perspectives</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This paper summarized much of his earlier research relating to economic and institutional change. North defines institutions as "humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic and social interactions". Constraints, as North describes, are devised as formal rules (constitutions, laws, property rights) and informal restraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, codes of conduct), which usually contribute to the perpetuation of order and safety within a market or society. The degree to which they are effective is subject to varying circumstances, such as a government's limited coercive force, a lack of organized state, or the presence of strong religious precept. </p><p>Section 2 of North's 1991 paper describes the economic development of societies as occurring in stages: </p><p>North begins with local exchange within the village. In this setting, specialization "is rudimentary and self-sufficiency characterizes most individual households", with small-scale village trade existing within dense social networks of informal constraints that facilitate local exchange, and a relatively low transaction cost. However, this confined market reduces the potential of specialization and increases production costs. In this close-knit network "people have an intimate understanding of each other, and the threat of violence is a continuous force for preserving order ..."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With growth, the market extends beyond the village into larger, interconnected regions. As the participants of a transaction become more socially distant, the terms of exchange must be made more explicit. This increase in transaction costs necessitates institutions that reduce the risks of being cheated, either by raising "the benefits of cooperative solutions or the costs of defection". With increased specialization, production costs are reduced and can justify higher transaction costs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As long-distance trade becomes more feasible, generally through caravans or lengthy ship voyages, individuals and groups experience occupational and geographic specialization. Society also experiences a rise of formal trading centers (temporary gathering places, towns or cities). From the development of long-distance trade arise two transactional cost problems. </p><p>The first transactional cost problem is agency: the transfer of one's goods or services outside the control of local rule leaves the rules of exchange undefined, the risk of unfair trade high, and the contracts within society unenforced. For this reason, sedentary merchants often would send their kin with the product to ensure its safe arrival and the fulfillment of agreed terms of exchange by the receiving party. </p><p>The second transactional cost problem is the enforcement of contracts. Historically this problem was met with either armed forces protecting ships or caravans, or use of tolls by local coercive groups. However, in modern societies, institutions acting cooperatively in the interest of free market trade provide protection for goods and enforcement of contracts. Negotiation and enforcement in alien parts of the world require the development of a standardized system of weights and measures. </p><p>As development continues, the rise of capital markets (and the protection of associated property rights), creates social capital and enables citizens to gain wealth. Technology plays an instrumental role in the continued development of manufacturing sectors, and acts to lower transaction costs in several ways. The most substantial benefits are generally the result of transportation improvements. </p><p>Eventually, society becomes overwhelmingly urban. This final stage of development specialization requires increasing percentages of the resources of the society to be active in the market so that the transaction sector becomes a large share of gross national product. Highly specialized forms of transaction organizations emerge at this stage. Globalized specialization and division of labor demand institutions to ensure property rights even when trading in neighboring countries enabling capital markets to develop "with credible commitment on the part of the players."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North enumerates three primitive types of exchange: </p> <ul><li>Tribal Society, which "relies on a dense social network".(Colson 1974, p. 59)</li> <li>Bazaars, which have "high measurement costs; continuous effort at clientization; intensive bargaining at every margin"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Long-distance caravan trade illustrates the informal constraints that made trade possible in a world where protection was essential and no organized state existed.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>All three methods above are found to be much less likely to evolve than large urban societies. </p><p>North's paper concludes with a few intriguing questions which his paper aimed to address: </p> <ul><li>What is it about informal constraints that give them such a pervasive influence upon the long-run character of economies?</li> <li>What is the relationship between formal and informal constraints?</li> <li>How does an economy develop the informal constraints that make individuals constrain their behavior so that they make political and judicial systems effective forces for third party enforcement?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transaction_Costs,_Institutions,_and_Economic_Performance"><span id="Transaction_Costs.2C_Institutions.2C_and_Economic_Performance"></span><i>Transaction Costs, Institutions, and Economic Performance</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Transaction Costs, Institutions, and Economic Performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a 1992 paper, North argues that <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical</a> economic theory overlooks the institutions required to create efficient markets with low monitoring and <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">transaction costs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-b1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He develops a framework for explaining how institutions change and become more efficient over time. </p><p>North theorizes that all transaction costs are rooted in <a href="/wiki/Information_asymmetries" class="mw-redirect" title="Information asymmetries">information asymmetries</a> between the parties to an exchange. Hence, each person must expend resources ascertaining the qualities of the good she is buying and enforcing the terms of the trade. Because these costs pose such a large barrier to economic growth, a central function of political and economic institutions is to control them, often by disincentivizing fraud, theft, and other socially detrimental behaviors. Yet those who command the political system will structure these institutions to maximize their personal benefit, rather than the social benefit, so transaction costs will not always be minimized by existing institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-b1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Importantly for North, individuals and organizations make their decisions on the basis of imperfect <a href="/wiki/Ideologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideologies">ideologies</a>, which are "mental models" for how the world functions. Therefore, the politicians who craft institutions will, despite their best efforts, occasionally fail to maximize their personal gain. When this happens, entrepreneurs who believe that institutional changes will significantly benefit them will enter the political realm to effect this change. The result is incremental institutional change, pushed forward by self-seeking individuals. </p><p>North argues that this change will usually be slow for two reasons. First, the powerful actors in control of the political systems made the institutions for their benefit and so will be reluctant to change them, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Path_dependence" title="Path dependence">path dependence</a>. Second, informal institutions—like social customs and cultural practices—are by their nature slow to change, yet play a role in determining transaction costs. </p><p>North goes on to apply this framework to analyze a few historical examples, including the <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Spain">imperial Spain</a>, as well as to offer some general policy recommendations.<sup id="cite_ref-b1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violence_and_the_Rise_of_Open-Access_Orders"><i>Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders</i>, North, Wallis, and Weingast integrate a theory of politics with a theory of economics to explain the institutions, i.e. the rules governing behavior, that develop in human societies. In their view, the primary task of any set of institutions is to limit violence among individuals. They focus on two sets of institutions—which they call social orders—that accomplish this task, but which also have different effects on economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-violence_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-violence-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first set of institutions are called "limited access orders," and they are characterized by elite control of the political and economic systems to extract rents. Violence is limited because the most powerful actors maintain law and order to protect their rents. However, their means of maintaining law and order require supporting economic and political monopolies, which stunt economic growth. </p><p>The second set of institutions that North et al. propose are called "open access orders," and they limit violence through a politically controlled military. These societies allow anyone who meets some impersonal criteria to form political and economic organizations, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeterian</a> process of "<a href="/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">creative destruction</a>." The military limits societal violence, and the political actors that control this military are themselves constrained by the constant competition for political and economic power that this process of creative destruction entails. Unlike limited access orders, open access orders stimulate economic growth since solutions to economic and political challenges can come from any individual in society, rather than a select few. </p><p>North et al. argue that modern open access orders emerged from limited access orders through a two-step process: first, the application of impersonal laws to elites and the consolidation of military power, and second, the extension of elite privileges to the rest of society. They apply this theory to explain the legitimacy of elections within different societies and to explain why economic growth is more consistent in modern open access orders than it is in limited access orders.<sup id="cite_ref-violence_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-violence-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Douglass_North_and_Lois_Heister_1963b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Douglass_North_and_Lois_Heister_1963b.jpg/220px-Douglass_North_and_Lois_Heister_1963b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Douglass_North_and_Lois_Heister_1963b.jpg/330px-Douglass_North_and_Lois_Heister_1963b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Douglass_North_and_Lois_Heister_1963b.jpg/440px-Douglass_North_and_Lois_Heister_1963b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1149" data-file-height="1323" /></a><figcaption>North and Heister in 1963</figcaption></figure> <p>North was married twice. His first marriage was to <a href="/wiki/Lois_North" title="Lois North">Lois Heister</a> in 1944 with whom he had three sons: Douglass Jr., Christopher and Malcolm. During the marriage, Heister became a notable activist and politician. The marriage ended in divorce. North remarried in 1972, to Elisabeth Case.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a Nobel laureate, North's reputation extended both from his own university environment to the international influences made by his research and writing. North's research in New Economic History has included such notable economists and historians as Jonathan Hughes, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Sutch" title="Richard Sutch">Richard Sutch</a>, Lloyd Mercer, Jim Sheperd, Donald Gordon, Gary Walton, <a href="/wiki/Lance_E._Davis" title="Lance E. Davis">Lance E. Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Huttenback" title="Robert Huttenback">Robert Huttenback</a>, Roger Ransom, Gaston Rimlinger, <a href="/wiki/Terry_L._Anderson" title="Terry L. Anderson">Terry L. Anderson</a>, P.J. Hill, Philip Coelho, and David Knowles as recorded in the 60th Anniversary dedication volume in memory of North.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications_2">Publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>North's other major publications include:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNorth1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">North, Douglass</a> (1991). "Institutions". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Perspectives" title="Journal of Economic Perspectives">Journal of Economic Perspectives</a></i>. <b>5</b> (1): 97–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.5.1.97">10.1257/jep.5.1.97</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Institutions&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-112&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.5.1.97&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth1955" class="citation journal cs1">North, Douglass C. (1955). "Location Theory and Regional Economic Growth". <i>Journal of Political Economy</i>. <b>63</b> (3): 243–258. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F257668">10.1086/257668</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1825076">1825076</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154428783">154428783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Location+Theory+and+Regional+Economic+Growth&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=243-258&rft.date=1955&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154428783%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1825076%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F257668&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>The Economic Growth of the United States, 1790–1860</i>, Prentice Hall, 1961.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth1965" class="citation journal cs1">North, Douglass C. (1965). "The State of Economic History". <i>American Economic Review</i>. <b>55</b> (1–2): 86–91. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1816246">1816246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=The+State+of+Economic+History&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=86-91&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1816246%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Institutional Change and American Economic Growth</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1971 (with Lance Davis).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth,_Douglass_CecilThomas,_Robert_Paul1973" class="citation book cs1">North, Douglass Cecil; Thomas, Robert Paul (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofwesternwor0000nort"><i>The Rise of the Western World: A New Economic History</i></a></span>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Western+World%3A+A+New+Economic+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.au=North%2C+Douglass+Cecil&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Robert+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofwesternwor0000nort&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Growth and Welfare in the American Past</i>, Prentice-Hall, 1974.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/structurechangei00doug"><i>Structure and Change in Economic History</i></a></span>. New York and London: W. W. Norton and Company. 1981. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/039395241X" title="Special:BookSources/039395241X"><bdi>039395241X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structure+and+Change+in+Economic+History&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+and+Company&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=039395241X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstructurechangei00doug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth1989" class="citation journal cs1">North, Douglass C. (1989). "Institutions and economic growth: An historical introduction". <i>World Development</i>. <b>17</b> (9): 1319–1332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0305-750X%2889%2990075-2">10.1016/0305-750X(89)90075-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Development&rft.atitle=Institutions+and+economic+growth%3A+An+historical+introduction&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1319-1332&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0305-750X%2889%2990075-2&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1989</li> <li><i>Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1990 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521397340" title="Special:BookSources/0521397340">0521397340</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth1994" class="citation journal cs1">North, Douglass C. (1994). "Economic Performance through Time". <i>American Economic Review</i>. <b>84</b> (3): 359–68. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118057">2118057</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Economic+Performance+through+Time&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=359-68&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2118057%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span> Also published as Nobel <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1993/north-lecture.html">Prize Lecture.</a></li> <li><i>Empirical Studies in Institutional Change</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1996 (edited with Lee Alston & Thrainn Eggertsson) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521557437" title="Special:BookSources/0521557437">0521557437</a>.</li> <li><i>Understanding the Process of Economic Change</i>, Princeton University Press, 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691145954" title="Special:BookSources/0691145954">0691145954</a>.</li> <li><i>Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2009 (with John Joseph Wallis and Barry R. Weingast) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1107646995" title="Special:BookSources/1107646995">1107646995</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1993/north-bio.html">"Douglass C. North – Biography"</a>. <i>Nobelprize.org</i>. Nobel Media. 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 14,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Douglass+C.+North+%E2%80%93+Biography&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Feconomic-sciences%2Flaureates%2F1993%2Fnorth-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorth1991">North (1991)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/money/Douglass-C-North">"Britannica Money"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Britannica+Money&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fmoney%2FDouglass-C-North&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usmmaalumni.com/s/1860/18/interior.aspx?sid=1860&gid=2&pgid=1460">"Dr. Douglass C. North '43"</a>. <i>www.usmmaalumni.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.usmmaalumni.com&rft.atitle=Dr.+Douglass+C.+North+%2743&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usmmaalumni.com%2Fs%2F1860%2F18%2Finterior.aspx%3Fsid%3D1860%26gid%3D2%26pgid%3D1460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Breit, William and Barry T. Hirsch. (2004) <i>Lives of the Laureates</i>, 4th ed. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262025620" title="Special:BookSources/0262025620">0262025620</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverding2015" class="citation web cs1">Everding, Gerry (November 2, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.wustl.edu/news/Pages/douglass-north-obituary-11.24.15.aspx">"Obituary: Douglass C. North, Nobel Prize-winning economist, 95"</a>. Washington University in St. Louis<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Obituary%3A+Douglass+C.+North%2C+Nobel+Prize-winning+economist%2C+95&rft.pub=Washington+University+in+St.+Louis&rft.date=2015-11-02&rft.aulast=Everding&rft.aufirst=Gerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.wustl.edu%2Fnews%2FPages%2Fdouglass-north-obituary-11.24.15.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHershey2015" class="citation news cs1">Hershey, Robert D. Jr (November 2, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/25/business/economy/douglass-c-north-nobel-laureate-economist-dies-at-95.html">"Douglass C. North, Maverick Economist and Nobel Laureate, Dies at 95"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Douglass+C.+North%2C+Maverick+Economist+and+Nobel+Laureate%2C+Dies+at+95&rft.date=2015-11-02&rft.aulast=Hershey&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.+Jr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F11%2F25%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fdouglass-c-north-nobel-laureate-economist-dies-at-95.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hoover.org/bios/north.html">North's Profile</a>, <i>Hoover Institution</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080828113254/http://www.hoover.org/bios/north.html">Archived</a> August 28, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omicrondeltaepsilon.org/handbook.html#commons">John R. Commons Award</a>, <i>Omicron Delta Epsilon</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/findingaids/northdouglass">"Douglass Cecil North Papers, 1942–2006 and undated"</a>. Rubenstein Library, Duke University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Douglass+Cecil+North+Papers%2C+1942%E2%80%932006+and+undated&rft.pub=Rubenstein+Library%2C+Duke+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.duke.edu%2Frubenstein%2Ffindingaids%2Fnorthdouglass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ménard, Claude and Shirley, Mary M. (2014): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00624297/document#page=20">"The Contribution of Douglass North to New Institutional Economics"</a> in <i>Institutions, Property Rights, and Economic Growth</i>. Sebastian Galiani and Itai Sened (eds.). Cambridge University Press. p. 19. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781107300361.003">10.1017/CBO9781107300361.003</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107300361" title="Special:BookSources/9781107300361">9781107300361</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeertz,_CliffordGeertz,_HildredRosen,_Lawrence1979" class="citation book cs1">Geertz, Clifford; Geertz, Hildred; Rosen, Lawrence (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120318031951/http://www.getcited.org/pub/101883793"><i>Meaning and order in Moroccan society: Three essays in cultural analysis</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22175-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22175-7"><bdi>0-521-22175-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getcited.org/pub/101883793">the original</a> on March 18, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 2,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meaning+and+order+in+Moroccan+society%3A+Three+essays+in+cultural+analysis&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-521-22175-7&rft.au=Geertz%2C+Clifford&rft.au=Geertz%2C+Hildred&rft.au=Rosen%2C+Lawrence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.getcited.org%2Fpub%2F101883793&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b1_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth1992" class="citation book cs1">North, Douglass (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://khosachonline.ucoz.com/_ld/1/144_chi_ph_gd-th_ch.pdf="><i>Transaction costs, institutions, and economic performance</i></a>. San Francisco, CA: ICS Press. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transaction+costs%2C+institutions%2C+and+economic+performance&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+CA&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=ICS+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=Douglass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkhosachonline.ucoz.com%2F_ld%2F1%2F144_chi_ph_gd-th_ch.pdf%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-violence-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-violence_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-violence_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth,_DouglassWallis,_JohnWeingast,_Barry2009" class="citation journal cs1">North, Douglass; Wallis, John; Weingast, Barry (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236715418">"Violence and the Rise of Open Access Orders"</a>. <i>Journal of Democracy</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 55–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.0.0060">10.1353/jod.0.0060</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153774943">153774943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Democracy&rft.atitle=Violence+and+the+Rise+of+Open+Access+Orders&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-68&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjod.0.0060&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153774943%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=North%2C+Douglass&rft.au=Wallis%2C+John&rft.au=Weingast%2C+Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F236715418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nielsen, Klaus (January 27, 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/jan/27/douglass-north">Douglass North obituary</a>. <i>The Guardian</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ransom, Roger L.; Sutch, Richard and Walton, Gary M. (1981) <i>Explorations in the New Economic History: Essays in Honor of Douglass C. North</i>. Academic Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/e/pno11.html">Douglass C. North</a>. RePEc Personal Details</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/e/c/pno11.html">Douglass C. North</a>. RePEc citations</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Colson, Elizabeth. <i>Tradition and Contract: The Problem of Order</i>. Chicago: Adeline Publishing, 1974.</li> <li>S. Galiani and I. Sened (eds.), 2014. Institutions, property rights and economic growth: The legacy of Douglass North, Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/institutions-property-rights-and-economic-growth/institutions-property-rights-and-economic-growth/C036667D3EA6FE5D511A1DFC7BC46D37">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/institutions-property-rights-and-economic-growth/institutions-property-rights-and-economic-growth/C036667D3EA6FE5D511A1DFC7BC46D37</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://voxeu.org/article/douglass-north-economist-s-historian">Kevin Bryan. 2015. Douglass North, an economist's historian. Voxeu.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://voxeu.org/article/ideas-douglass-north">John Wallis. 2015. Structure and change in economic history: The ideas of Douglass North. Voxeu.</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Douglass_North&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Douglass_North" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Douglass North">Douglass North</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Douglass_North" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Douglass North">Douglass North</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/710">Douglass North</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q243193#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hoover.org/fellows/10069">Hoover Institution homepage</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?80691">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/North.html">"Douglas C. North (1920–2015)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics">The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Library of Economics and Liberty">Library of Economics and Liberty</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a>. 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Douglas+C.+North+%281920%E2%80%932015%29&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Economics&rft.series=Library+of+Economics+and+Liberty&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econlib.org%2Flibrary%2FEnc%2Fbios%2FNorth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADouglass+North" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-LcMZqMAAAAJ">Douglass North</a> publications indexed by <a href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a></li> <li>Douglass North: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/NewInstE.North.pdf">The NIE and Development</a>. Essay (~ 1995), 8 p.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22North%2C%20Douglass%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Douglass%20North%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22North%2C%20Douglass%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Douglass%20North%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22North%2C%20D%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Douglass%20North%22%20OR%20description%3A%22North%2C%20Douglass%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Douglass%20North%22%29%20OR%20%28%221920-2015%22%20AND%20North%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Douglass North</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFF179;">Awards </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Gary_S._Becker" class="mw-redirect" title="Gary S. Becker">Gary S. Becker</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_laureates_in_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics">Laureate of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics</a> </b><br />1993 <br />Served alongside: <b><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Fogel" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert W. Fogel">Robert W. Fogel</a></b> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Harsanyi" class="mw-redirect" title="John C. Harsanyi">John C. Harsanyi</a><br /><a href="/wiki/John_F._Nash_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Nash Jr.">John F. Nash Jr.</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Selten" title="Reinhard Selten">Reinhard Selten</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Institutional_economics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Instecon" title="Template:Instecon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Instecon" title="Template talk:Instecon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Instecon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Instecon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Institutional_economics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional economics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutional economists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Abelshauser" title="Werner Abelshauser">Werner Abelshauser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Edwin_Ayres" title="Clarence Edwin Ayres">Clarence Edwin Ayres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_S._Bain" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe S. Bain">Joe S. Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimshon_Bichler" title="Shimshon Bichler">Shimshon Bichler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Brady" title="Robert A. Brady">Robert A. Brady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bromley" title="Daniel Bromley">Daniel Bromley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ha-Joon_Chang" title="Ha-Joon Chang">Ha-Joon Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maurice_Clark" title="John Maurice Clark">John Maurice Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Commons" title="John R. Commons">John R. Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_T._Ely" title="Richard T. Ely">Richard T. Ely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Frank" title="Robert H. Frank">Robert H. Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">John Kenneth Galbraith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walton_Hale_Hamilton" title="Walton Hale Hamilton">Walton Hale Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orris_C._Herfindahl" title="Orris C. Herfindahl">Orris C. Herfindahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_O._Hirschman" title="Albert O. Hirschman">Albert O. Hirschman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hodgson" title="Geoffrey Hodgson">Geoffrey Hodgson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Kornai" title="János Kornai">János Kornai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Simon Kuznets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter_Lewis" title="Hunter Lewis">Hunter Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_W._Markham" title="Jesse W. Markham">Jesse W. Markham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Clair_Mitchell" title="Wesley Clair Mitchell">Wesley Clair Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Nitzan" title="Jonathan Nitzan">Jonathan Nitzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Samuels" title="Warren Samuels">Warren Samuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Simiand" title="François Simiand">François Simiand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Stilwell_(economist)" title="Frank Stilwell (economist)">Frank Stilwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Stocking_Sr." title="George W. Stocking Sr.">George W. Stocking Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_P%C3%A5lsson_Syll" title="Lars Pålsson Syll">Lars Pålsson Syll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Thorstein Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lawrence_Wheelwright" title="Edward Lawrence Wheelwright">Edward Lawrence Wheelwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Zimmermann" title="Erich Zimmermann">Erich Zimmermann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional economists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armen_Alchian" title="Armen Alchian">Armen Alchian </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masahiko_Aoki" title="Masahiko Aoki">Masahiko Aoki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_N._S._Cheung" title="Steven N. S. Cheung">Steven N. S. Cheung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Demsetz" title="Harold Demsetz">Harold Demsetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avner_Greif" title="Avner Greif">Avner Greif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_M%C3%A9nard_(economist)" title="Claude Ménard (economist)">Claude Ménard</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Douglass North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mancur_Olson" title="Mancur Olson">Mancur Olson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Williamson" title="Oliver E. Williamson">Oliver E. Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral economists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Ainslie_(psychologist)" title="George Ainslie (psychologist)">George Ainslie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Ariely" title="Dan Ariely">Dan Ariely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nava_Ashraf" title="Nava Ashraf">Nava Ashraf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ofer_Azar" title="Ofer Azar">Ofer Azar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Bernheim" title="Douglas Bernheim">Douglas Bernheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Bowles_(economist)" title="Samuel Bowles (economist)">Samuel Bowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Brosnan" title="Sarah Brosnan">Sarah Brosnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Camerer" title="Colin Camerer">Colin Camerer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Cesarini" title="David Cesarini">David Cesarini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay-Yut_Chen" title="Kay-Yut Chen">Kay-Yut Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Croson" title="Rachel Croson">Rachel Croson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_De_Bondt" title="Werner De Bondt">Werner De Bondt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dolan_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Dolan (academic)">Paul Dolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Duneier" title="Stephen Duneier">Stephen Duneier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_C._Eckel" title="Catherine C. Eckel">Catherine C. Eckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armin_Falk" title="Armin Falk">Armin Falk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urs_Fischbacher" title="Urs Fischbacher">Urs Fischbacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gintis" title="Herbert Gintis">Herbert Gintis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uri_Gneezy" title="Uri Gneezy">Uri Gneezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halpern_(psychologist)" title="David Halpern (psychologist)">David Halpern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Holt" title="Charles A. Holt">Charles A. Holt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ryan_Just" title="David Ryan Just">David Ryan Just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_Kalil" title="Ariel Kalil">Ariel Kalil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Katona" title="George Katona">George Katona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_R._Kling" title="Jeffrey R. Kling">Jeffrey R. Kling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Loewenstein" title="George Loewenstein">George Loewenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Loomes" title="Graham Loomes">Graham Loomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_C._Madrian" title="Brigitte C. Madrian">Brigitte C. Madrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_McClelland" title="Gary McClelland">Gary McClelland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Motterlini" title="Matteo Motterlini">Matteo Motterlini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sendhil_Mullainathan" title="Sendhil Mullainathan">Sendhil Mullainathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Norton_(professor)" title="Michael Norton (professor)">Michael Norton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Rabin" title="Matthew Rabin">Matthew Rabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Rachlin" title="Howard Rachlin">Howard Rachlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_M._Schmidt" title="Klaus M. Schmidt">Klaus M. Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldar_Shafir" title="Eldar Shafir">Eldar Shafir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hersh_Shefrin" title="Hersh Shefrin">Hersh Shefrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert J. Shiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uwe_Sunde" title="Uwe Sunde">Uwe Sunde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Richard Thaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Vishny" title="Robert W. Vishny">Robert W. Vishny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Georg Weizsäcker">Georg Weizsäcker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic sociologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Beckert" title="Jens Beckert">Jens Beckert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_L._Block" title="Fred L. Block">Fred L. Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Smoot_Coleman" title="James Smoot Coleman">James S. Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_DiMaggio" title="Paul DiMaggio">Paul DiMaggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paula_England" title="Paula England">Paula England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Granovetter" title="Mark Granovetter">Mark Granovetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Angus_MacKenzie" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Angus MacKenzie">Donald Angus MacKenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_M._Podolny" title="Joel M. Podolny">Joel M. Podolny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynette_Spillman" title="Lynette Spillman">Lynette Spillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swedberg" title="Richard Swedberg">Richard Swedberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Th%C3%A9venot" title="Laurent Thévenot">Laurent Thévenot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Trigilia" title="Carlo Trigilia">Carlo Trigilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_White" title="Harrison White">Harrison White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viviana_Zelizer" title="Viviana Zelizer">Viviana Zelizer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key concepts and ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_effect" title="Accelerator effect">Accelerator effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administered_prices" title="Administered prices">Administered prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">Barriers to entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bounded_rationality" title="Bounded rationality">Bounded rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption" title="Conspicuous consumption">Conspicuous consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_leisure" title="Conspicuous leisure">Conspicuous leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_wisdom" title="Conventional wisdom">Conventional wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countervailing_power" title="Countervailing power">Countervailing power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_competition" title="Effective competition">Effective competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herfindahl_index" class="mw-redirect" title="Herfindahl index">Herfindahl index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiding_hand_principle" title="Hiding hand principle">Hiding hand principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirschman_cycle" title="Hirschman cycle">Hirschman cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuznets_swing" title="Kuznets swing">Kuznets cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_concentration" title="Market concentration">Market concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_power" title="Market power">Market power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_structure" title="Market structure">Market structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backwardness" title="Backwardness">Penalty of taking the lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satisficing" title="Satisficing">Satisficing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage_economy" title="Shortage economy">Shortage economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure%E2%80%93conduct%E2%80%93performance_paradigm" title="Structure–conduct–performance paradigm">Structure–conduct–performance paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technostructure" title="Technostructure">Technostructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_two-level_planning" title="Theory of two-level planning">Theory of two-level planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veblen_good" title="Veblen good">Veblen goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veblenian_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Veblenian dichotomy">Veblenian dichotomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_economic_thought#French_historical_school" title="Schools of economic thought">French historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-Keynesian economics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chicago_school_of_economics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chicago_school_economists" title="Template:Chicago school economists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chicago_school_economists" title="Template talk:Chicago school economists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago_school_economists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chicago school economists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chicago_school_of_economics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Frank Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Calvert_Simons" title="Henry Calvert Simons">Henry Calvert Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Viner" title="Jacob Viner">Jacob Viner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Schultz" title="Theodore Schultz">Theodore Schultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George Stigler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Schwartz" title="Anna Schwartz">Anna Schwartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Brunner_(economist)" title="Karl Brunner (economist)">Karl Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_D._Cagan" title="Phillip D. Cagan">Phillip D. Cagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_G._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry G. Johnson">Harry G. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_H._Meltzer" title="Allan H. Meltzer">Allan H. Meltzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Laidler" title="David Laidler">David Laidler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Sumner" title="Scott Sumner">Scott Sumner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">New economic history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Douglass North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert Fogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Townsend" title="Robert M. Townsend">Robert M. Townsend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">New social economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Mincer" title="Jacob Mincer">Jacob Mincer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Heckman" title="James Heckman">James Heckman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherwin_Rosen" title="Sherwin Rosen">Sherwin Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_M._Murphy" title="Kevin M. Murphy">Kevin M. Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._List" title="John A. List">John A. List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudhir_Venkatesh" title="Sudhir Venkatesh">Sudhir Venkatesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Levitt" title="Steven Levitt">Steven Levitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_G._Fryer_Jr." title="Roland G. Fryer Jr.">Roland Fryer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Public choice theory">Public choice school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Tullock" title="Gordon Tullock">Gordon Tullock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Gregory_Holcombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Randall Gregory Holcombe">Randall Holcombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Downs" title="Anthony Downs">Anthony Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Niskanen" title="William A. Niskanen">William A. Niskanen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Caplan" title="Bryan Caplan">Bryan Caplan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Director" title="Aaron Director">Aaron Director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Landes" title="William Landes">William Landes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Richard Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Epstein" title="Richard Epstein">Richard Epstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Easterbrook" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank H. Easterbrook">Frank H. Easterbrook</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Business and finance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Markowitz" title="Harry Markowitz">Harry Markowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_Scholes" title="Myron Scholes">Myron Scholes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merton_Miller" title="Merton Miller">Merton Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Simon" title="Julian Simon">Julian Lincoln Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Fama" title="Eugene Fama">Eugene Fama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_French" title="Kenneth French">Kenneth French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campbell_Harvey" title="Campbell Harvey">Campbell Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Peter_Hansen" title="Lars Peter Hansen">Lars Peter Hansen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Sveriges_Riksbank_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences_laureates" title="Template:Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences_laureates" title="Template talk:Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences_laureates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Sveriges_Riksbank_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_laureates_in_Economic_Sciences" title="List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1969–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Ragnar Frisch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Jan Tinbergen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul A. Samuelson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Simon Kuznets</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">John R. Hicks</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth J. Arrow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Wassily Leontief</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a> / <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich August von Hayek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kantorovich" title="Leonid Kantorovich">Leonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Tjalling C. Koopmans</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Bertil Ohlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Meade" title="James Meade">James E. Meade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Schultz" title="Theodore Schultz">Theodore W. Schultz</a> / <a href="/wiki/W._Arthur_Lewis" title="W. Arthur Lewis">Sir Arthur Lewis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Klein" title="Lawrence Klein">Lawrence R. Klein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/James_Tobin" title="James Tobin">James Tobin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George J. Stigler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Debreu" title="Gérard Debreu">Gérard Debreu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stone" title="Richard Stone">Richard Stone</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Franco_Modigliani" title="Franco Modigliani">Franco Modigliani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert M. Solow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Allais" title="Maurice Allais">Maurice Allais</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Trygve_Haavelmo" title="Trygve Haavelmo">Trygve Haavelmo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Harry_Markowitz" title="Harry Markowitz">Harry M. Markowitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Merton_Miller" title="Merton Miller">Merton H. Miller</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_F._Sharpe" title="William F. Sharpe">William F. Sharpe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald H. Coase</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary S. Becker</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Fogel" title="Robert Fogel">Robert W. Fogel</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Douglass C. North</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/John_Harsanyi" title="John Harsanyi">John C. Harsanyi</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Forbes_Nash_Jr." title="John Forbes Nash Jr.">John F. Nash Jr.</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Selten" title="Reinhard Selten">Reinhard Selten</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Robert E. Lucas Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/James_Mirrlees" title="James Mirrlees">James A. Mirrlees</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Vickrey" title="William Vickrey">William Vickrey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Merton" title="Robert C. Merton">Robert C. Merton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Myron_Scholes" title="Myron Scholes">Myron S. Scholes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mundell" title="Robert Mundell">Robert A. Mundell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/James_Heckman" title="James Heckman">James J. Heckman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_McFadden" title="Daniel McFadden">Daniel L. McFadden</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/George_Akerlof" title="George Akerlof">George A. Akerlof</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Spence" title="Michael Spence">A. Michael Spence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph E. Stiglitz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vernon_L._Smith" title="Vernon L. Smith">Vernon L. Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Engle" title="Robert F. Engle">Robert F. Engle III</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clive_Granger" title="Clive Granger">Clive W.J. Granger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/Finn_E._Kydland" title="Finn E. Kydland">Finn E. Kydland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Prescott" title="Edward C. Prescott">Edward C. Prescott</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Aumann" title="Robert Aumann">Robert J. Aumann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Schelling" title="Thomas Schelling">Thomas C. Schelling</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Phelps" title="Edmund Phelps">Edmund S. Phelps</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_Maskin" title="Eric Maskin">Eric S. Maskin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roger_Myerson" title="Roger Myerson">Roger B. Myerson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Williamson" title="Oliver E. Williamson">Oliver E. Williamson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Diamond" title="Peter Diamond">Peter A. Diamond</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dale_T._Mortensen" title="Dale T. Mortensen">Dale T. Mortensen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christopher_A._Pissarides" title="Christopher A. Pissarides">Christopher A. Pissarides</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Sargent" title="Thomas J. Sargent">Thomas J. Sargent</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christopher_A._Sims" title="Christopher A. Sims">Christopher A. Sims</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/Alvin_E._Roth" title="Alvin E. Roth">Alvin E. Roth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Shapley" title="Lloyd Shapley">Lloyd S. Shapley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Fama" title="Eugene Fama">Eugene F. Fama</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lars_Peter_Hansen" title="Lars Peter Hansen">Lars Peter Hansen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Shiller" title="Robert J. Shiller">Robert J. Shiller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Tirole" title="Jean Tirole">Jean Tirole</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Angus_Deaton" title="Angus Deaton">Angus Deaton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hart_(economist)" title="Oliver Hart (economist)">Oliver Hart</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bengt_Holmstr%C3%B6m" title="Bengt Holmström">Bengt Holmström</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Richard H. Thaler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/William_Nordhaus" title="William Nordhaus">William Nordhaus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Romer" title="Paul Romer">Paul Romer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2019_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">2019</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abhijit_Banerjee" title="Abhijit Banerjee">Abhijit Banerjee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Esther_Duflo" title="Esther Duflo">Esther Duflo</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kremer" title="Michael Kremer">Michael Kremer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="2020 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Milgrom" title="Paul Milgrom">Paul Milgrom</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Wilson" title="Robert B. Wilson">Robert B. Wilson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="2021 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Card" title="David Card">David Card</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Angrist" title="Joshua Angrist">Joshua Angrist</a> / <a href="/wiki/Guido_Imbens" title="Guido Imbens">Guido Imbens</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="2022 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Diamond" title="Douglas Diamond">Douglas Diamond</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Dybvig" title="Philip H. Dybvig">Philip H. Dybvig</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="2023 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Goldin" title="Claudia Goldin">Claudia Goldin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_Johnson_(economist)" title="Simon Johnson (economist)">Simon Johnson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_A._Robinson" title="James A. Robinson">James A. Robinson</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1993_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1993_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1993 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1993_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1993 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1993_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1993 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1993_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1993 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kary_Mullis" title="Kary Mullis">Kary B. 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W. de Klerk">Frederik Willem de Klerk</a> (South Africa)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Russell Alan Hulse</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/119307944">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79127766">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122782988">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122782988">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00451470">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=vse2005290891&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech 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href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00604348?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=266137">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-LcMZqMAAAAJ">Google Scholar</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd119307944.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/119307944">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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