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<span>Toggle Theories of development economics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_development_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mercantilism_and_physiocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mercantilism_and_physiocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Mercantilism and physiocracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mercantilism_and_physiocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Economic nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-WWII_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-WWII_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Post-WWII theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-WWII_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linear-stages-of-growth_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear-stages-of-growth_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Linear-stages-of-growth model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linear-stages-of-growth_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural-change_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural-change_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Structural-change theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural-change_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_dependence_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_dependence_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>International dependence theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_dependence_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neoclassical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoclassical_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Neoclassical theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoclassical_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topics_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topics_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Topics of research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topics_of_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Topics of research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Topics_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geography_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Geography and development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_development_and_ethnicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_development_and_ethnicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Economic development and ethnicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_development_and_ethnicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_role_of_ethnicity_in_economic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_ethnicity_in_economic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>The role of ethnicity in economic development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_ethnicity_in_economic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_development_and_its_impact_on_ethnic_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_development_and_its_impact_on_ethnic_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Economic development and its impact on ethnic conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_development_and_its_impact_on_ethnic_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recovery_from_conflict_(civil_war)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recovery_from_conflict_(civil_war)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Recovery from conflict (civil war)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recovery_from_conflict_(civil_war)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_indicator_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_indicator_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Growth indicator controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_indicator_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Recent developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_development_economists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_development_economists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notable development economists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_development_economists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Development economics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF)" title="تنمية (علم الاقتصاد) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تنمية (علم الاقتصاد)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nki%C5%9Faf_iqtisadiyyat%C4%B1" title="İnkişaf iqtisadiyyatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnkişaf iqtisadiyyatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Икономика на развитието – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Икономика на развитието" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_del_desenvolupament" title="Economia del desenvolupament – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Economia del desenvolupament" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozvojov%C3%A1_ekonomie" title="Rozvojová ekonomie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rozvojová ekonomie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udviklings%C3%B8konomi" title="Udviklingsøkonomi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Udviklingsøkonomi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entwicklungs%C3%B6konomie" title="Entwicklungsökonomie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Entwicklungsökonomie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_del_desarrollo" title="Economía del desarrollo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Economía del desarrollo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garapenaren_ekonomia" title="Garapenaren ekonomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Garapenaren ekonomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%87" title="اقتصاد توسعه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اقتصاد توسعه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89conomie_du_d%C3%A9veloppement" title="Économie du développement – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Économie du développement" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%9C%EB%B0%9C%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%9C%ED%95%99" title="개발경제학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="개발경제학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B6%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Զարգացման տնտեսագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Զարգացման տնտեսագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वैकासिक अर्थशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैकासिक अर्थशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_pembangunan" title="Ekonomi pembangunan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekonomi pembangunan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_dello_sviluppo" title="Economia dello sviluppo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Economia dello sviluppo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="განვითარების ეკონომიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="განვითარების ეკონომიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_pembangunan" title="Ekonomi pembangunan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ekonomi pembangunan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%A9%D0%B3%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Хөгжлийн эдийн засаг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хөгжлийн эдийн засаг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontwikkelingseconomie" title="Ontwikkelingseconomie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ontwikkelingseconomie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E7%99%BA%E7%B5%8C%E6%B8%88%E5%AD%A6" title="開発経済学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="開発経済学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utviklings%C3%B8konomi" title="Utviklingsøkonomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Utviklingsøkonomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomia_rozwoju" title="Ekonomia rozwoju – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekonomia rozwoju" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_do_desenvolvimento" title="Economia do desenvolvimento – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Economia do desenvolvimento" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_dezvolt%C4%83rii" title="Economia dezvoltării – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Economia dezvoltării" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экономика развития – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экономика развития" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Development economics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kehitystaloustiede" title="Kehitystaloustiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kehitystaloustiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utvecklingsekonomi" title="Utvecklingsekonomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Utvecklingsekonomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomikang_pangkaunlaran" title="Ekonomikang pangkaunlaran – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ekonomikang pangkaunlaran" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geli%C5%9Fme_iktisad%C4%B1" title="Gelişme iktisadı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gelişme iktisadı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%83" title="Економіка розвитку – 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border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/JEL_classification_codes" class="mw-redirect" title="JEL classification codes">Branches and subfields</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 100px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Micro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_design" 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.navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Development economics</b> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> that deals with economic aspects of the development process in low- and middle- income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structural_change" title="Structural change">structural change</a> but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population, for example, through health, education and workplace conditions, whether through public or private channels.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Development economics involves the creation of theories and methods that aid in the determination of policies and practices and can be implemented at either the domestic or international level.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may involve restructuring market incentives or using mathematical methods such as intertemporal <a href="/wiki/Optimization_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization (mathematics)">optimization</a> for project analysis, or it may involve a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common topics include growth theory, poverty and inequality, <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>, and institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike in many other fields of economics, approaches in development economics may incorporate social and political factors to devise particular plans.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also unlike many other fields of economics, there is no consensus on what students should know.<sup id="cite_ref-Leading_Issues_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leading_Issues-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different approaches may consider the factors that contribute to economic <a href="/wiki/Convergence_(economics)" title="Convergence (economics)">convergence</a> or non-convergence across households, regions, and countries.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_development_economics">Theories of development economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theories of development economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mercantilism_and_physiocracy">Mercantilism and physiocracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mercantilism and physiocracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg/220px-Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg/330px-Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg/440px-Historic_world_GDP_per_capita.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>World GDP per capita, from 1400 to 2003 CE</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></div> <p>The earliest Western theory of development economics was <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, which developed in the 17th century, paralleling the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>. Earlier theories had given little attention to development. For example, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, the dominant school of thought during medieval feudalism, emphasized reconciliation with Christian theology and ethics, rather than development. The 16th- and 17th-century <a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a>, credited as the earliest modern school of economics, likewise did not address development specifically. </p><p>Major European nations in the 17th and 18th centuries all adopted mercantilist ideals to varying degrees, the influence only ebbing with the 18th-century development of <a href="/wiki/Physiocrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrats">physiocrats</a> in France and <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a> in Britain. Mercantilism held that a nation's prosperity depended on its supply of capital, represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state. It emphasised the maintenance of a high positive trade balance (maximising exports and minimising imports) as a means of accumulating this bullion. To achieve a positive trade balance, protectionist measures such as tariffs and subsidies to home industries were advocated. Mercantilist development theory also advocated <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>. </p><p>Theorists most associated with mercantilism include <a href="/wiki/Philipp_von_H%C3%B6rnigk" title="Philipp von Hörnigk">Philipp von Hörnigk</a>, who in his <i>Austria Over All, If She Only Will</i> of 1684 gave the only comprehensive statement of mercantilist theory, emphasizing production and an export-led economy.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In France, mercantilist policy is most associated with 17th-century finance minister <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Jean-Baptiste Colbert</a>, whose policies proved influential in later American development. </p><p>Mercantilist ideas continue in the theories of <a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">economic nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neomercantilism" title="Neomercantilism">neomercantilism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_nationalism">Economic nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Economic nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Hamilton_A17950.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Alexander_Hamilton_A17950.jpg/220px-Alexander_Hamilton_A17950.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Alexander_Hamilton_A17950.jpg/330px-Alexander_Hamilton_A17950.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Alexander_Hamilton_A17950.jpg/440px-Alexander_Hamilton_A17950.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3186" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, credited as Father of the National System</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Economic nationalism</a></div> <p>Following mercantilism was the related theory of <a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">economic nationalism</a>, promulgated in the 19th century related to the development and industrialization of the United States and Germany, notably in the policies of the <a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American System</a> in America and the <a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a> (customs union) in Germany. A significant difference from mercantilism was the de-emphasis on colonies, in favor of a focus on domestic production. </p><p>The names most associated with 19th-century economic nationalism are the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, the German-American <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">Friedrich List</a>, and the American economist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a>. Hamilton's 1791 <i><a href="/wiki/Report_on_Manufactures" title="Report on Manufactures">Report on Manufactures</a>,</i> his <i>magnum opus</i>, is the founding text of the American System, and drew from the mercantilist economies of Britain under Elizabeth I and France under Colbert. List's 1841 <i>Das Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie</i> (translated into English as The National System of Political Economy), which emphasized stages of growth. Hamilton professed that developing an <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialized economy</a> was impossible without <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a> because import duties are necessary to shelter domestic "<a href="/wiki/Infant_industry_argument" title="Infant industry argument">infant industries</a>" until they could achieve <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such theories proved influential in the United States, with much higher American average tariff rates on manufactured products between 1824 and the WWII period than most other countries,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalist policies, including protectionism, were pursued by American politician Henry Clay, and later by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, under the influence of economist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Charles_Carey" title="Henry Charles Carey">Henry Charles Carey</a>. </p><p>Forms of economic nationalism and neomercantilism have also been key in Japan's development in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the more recent development of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">Four Asian Tigers</a> (Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore), and, most significantly, China. </p><p>Following <a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a> and the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 United States presidential election</a>, some experts have argued a new kind of "self-seeking capitalism" popularly known as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Trumponomics" class="extiw" title="wikt:Trumponomics">Trumponomics</a> could have a considerable impact on cross-border investment flows and long-term capital allocation<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-WWII_theories">Post-WWII theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-WWII theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial development">Industrial development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Nurkse%27s_balanced_growth_theory" title="Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory">Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory</a></div> <p>The origins of modern development economics are often traced to the need for, and likely problems with the industrialization of eastern Europe in the aftermath of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The key authors are <a href="/wiki/Paul_Rosenstein-Rodan" title="Paul Rosenstein-Rodan">Paul Rosenstein-Rodan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Mandelbaum" title="Kurt Mandelbaum">Kurt Mandelbaum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Nurkse" title="Ragnar Nurkse">Ragnar Nurkse</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Singer" title="Hans Singer">Sir Hans Wolfgang Singer</a>. Only after the war did economists turn their concerns towards Asia, Africa, and Latin America. At the heart of these studies, by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Simon Kuznets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lewis_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Lewis (economist)">W. Arthur Lewis</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was an analysis of not only economic growth but also structural transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linear-stages-of-growth_model">Linear-stages-of-growth model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Linear-stages-of-growth model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rostow%27s_stages_of_growth" title="Rostow's stages of growth">Rostow's stages of growth</a></div> <p>An early theory of development economics, the linear-stages-of-growth model was first formulated in the 1950s by <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman_Rostow" class="mw-redirect" title="Walt Whitman Rostow">W. W. Rostow</a> in <i>The Stages of Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto,</i> following work of Marx and List. This theory modifies Marx's stages theory of development and focuses on the accelerated accumulation of capital, through the utilization of both domestic and international savings as a means of spurring investment, as the primary means of promoting economic growth and, thus, development.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The linear-stages-of-growth model posits that there are a series of five consecutive stages of development that all countries must go through during the process of development. These stages are "the traditional society, the pre-conditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption"<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simple versions of the <a href="/wiki/Harrod%E2%80%93Domar_model" title="Harrod–Domar model">Harrod–Domar model</a> provide a mathematical illustration of the argument that improved capital investment leads to greater economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such theories have been criticized for not recognizing that, while necessary, <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> is not a sufficient condition for development. That is to say that this early and simplistic theory failed to account for political, social, and institutional obstacles to development. Furthermore, this theory was developed in the early years of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and was largely derived from the successes of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>. This has led to the major criticism that the theory assumes that the conditions found in developing countries are the same as those found in post-WWII Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural-change_theory">Structural-change theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Structural-change theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Structural-change theory deals with policies focused on changing the economic structures of developing countries from being composed primarily of subsistence agricultural practices to being a "more modern, more urbanized, and more industrially diverse manufacturing and service economy." There are two major forms of structural-change theory: W. Lewis' <i>two-sector surplus model</i>, which views agrarian societies as consisting of large amounts of surplus labor which can be utilized to spur the development of an urbanized industrial sector, and Hollis Chenery's <i>patterns of development</i> approach, which holds that different countries become wealthy via different trajectories. The <i>pattern</i> that a particular country will follow, in this framework, depends on its size and resources, and potentially other factors including its current income level and comparative advantages relative to other nations.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Empirical analysis in this framework studies the "sequential process through which the economic, industrial, and institutional structure of an underdeveloped economy is transformed over time to permit new industries to replace traditional agriculture as the engine of economic growth."<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structural-change approaches to development economics have faced criticism for their emphasis on urban development at the expense of rural development which can lead to a substantial rise in inequality between internal regions of a country. The two-sector surplus model, which was developed in the 1950s, has been further criticized for its underlying assumption that predominantly agrarian societies suffer from a surplus of labor. Actual empirical studies have shown that such labor surpluses are only seasonal and drawing such labor to urban areas can result in a collapse of the agricultural sector. The patterns of development approach has been criticized for lacking a theoretical framework.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_dependence_theory">International dependence theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: International dependence theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>International <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">dependence theories</a> gained prominence in the 1970s as a reaction to the failure of earlier theories to lead to widespread successes in <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a>. Unlike earlier theories, international dependence theories have their origins in developing countries and view obstacles to development as being primarily external in nature, rather than internal. These theories view developing countries as being economically and politically dependent on more powerful, developed countries that have an interest in maintaining their dominant position. There are three different, major formulations of international dependence theory: <a href="/wiki/Neocolonial_dependence" title="Neocolonial dependence">neocolonial dependence</a> theory, the false-paradigm model, and the dualistic-dependence model. The first formulation of international dependence theory, neocolonial dependence theory, has its origins in <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and views the failure of many developing nations to undergo successful development as being the result of the historical development of the international capitalist system.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoclassical_theory">Neoclassical theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Neoclassical theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First gaining prominence with the rise of several conservative governments in the developed world during the 1980s, neoclassical theories represent a radical shift away from International Dependence Theories. Neoclassical theories argue that governments should not intervene in the economy; in other words, these theories are claiming that an unobstructed free market is the best means of inducing rapid and successful development. Competitive <a href="/wiki/Free_markets" class="mw-redirect" title="Free markets">free markets</a> unrestrained by excessive government regulation are seen as being able to naturally ensure that the allocation of resources occurs with the greatest efficiency possible and that economic growth is raised and stabilized.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are several different approaches within the realm of neoclassical theory, each with subtle, but important, differences in their views regarding the extent to which the market should be left unregulated. These different takes on neoclassical theory are the <i>free market approach</i>, <i>public-choice theory</i>, and the <i>market-friendly approach</i>. Of the three, both the free-market approach and public-choice theory contend that the market should be totally free, meaning that any intervention by the government is necessarily bad. Public-choice theory is arguably the more radical of the two with its view, closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarianism</a>, that governments themselves are rarely good and therefore should be as minimal as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Academic economists have given varied policy advice to governments of developing countries. See for example, <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Chile" title="Economy of Chile">Economy of Chile</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arnold_Harberger" title="Arnold Harberger">Arnold Harberger</a>), <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Taiwan" title="Economic history of Taiwan">Economic history of Taiwan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sho-Chieh_Tsiang" title="Sho-Chieh Tsiang">Sho-Chieh Tsiang</a>). <a href="/wiki/Anne_Krueger" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne Krueger">Anne Krueger</a> noted in 1996 that success and failure of policy recommendations worldwide had not consistently been incorporated into prevailing academic writings on trade and development.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The market-friendly approach, unlike the other two, is a more recent development and is often associated with the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>. This approach still advocates free markets but recognizes that there are many imperfections in the markets of many developing nations and thus argues that some government intervention is an effective means of fixing such imperfections.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Development_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Development-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics_of_research">Topics of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Topics of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Development economics also includes topics such as <a href="/wiki/Debt_of_developing_countries" title="Debt of developing countries">third world debt</a>, and the functions of such organisations as the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>. In fact, the majority of development economists are employed by, do consulting with, or receive funding from institutions like the IMF and the World Bank.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many such economists are interested in ways of promoting stable and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable growth">sustainable growth</a> in poor countries and areas, by promoting domestic self-reliance and education in some of the lowest income countries in the world. Where economic issues merge with social and political ones, it is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">development studies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography_and_development">Geography and development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Geography and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economists <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey D. Sachs</a>, Andrew Mellinger, and John Gallup argue that a nation's geographical location and topography are key determinants and predictors of its economic prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas developed along the coast and near "navigable waterways" are far wealthier and more densely populated than those further inland. Furthermore, countries outside the tropic zones, which have more temperate climates, have also developed considerably more than those located within the <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Tropic of Cancer</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Tropic of Capricorn</a>. These climates outside the tropic zones, described as "temperate-near," hold roughly a quarter of the world's population and produce more than half of the world's GNP, yet account for only 8.4% of the world's inhabited area.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Understanding of these different geographies and climates is imperative, they argue, because future aid programs and policies to facilitate economic development must account for these differences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_development_and_ethnicity">Economic development and ethnicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Economic development and ethnicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A growing body of research has been emerging among development economists since the very late 20th century focusing on interactions between <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">ethnic diversity</a> and economic development, particularly at the level of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-state</a>. While most research looks at empirical economics at both the macro and the micro level, this field of study has a particularly heavy sociological approach. The more conservative branch of research focuses on tests for causality in the relationship between different levels of ethnic diversity and economic performance, while a smaller and more radical branch argues for the role of <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberal economics</a> in enhancing or causing <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a>. Moreover, comparing these two theoretical approaches brings the issue of <a href="/wiki/Endogeneity_(econometrics)" title="Endogeneity (econometrics)">endogeneity</a> (endogenicity) into questions. This remains a highly contested and uncertain field of research, as well as politically sensitive, largely due to its possible policy implications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_role_of_ethnicity_in_economic_development">The role of ethnicity in economic development</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The role of ethnicity in economic development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much discussion among researchers centers around defining and measuring two key but related variables: <b>ethnicity</b> and <b>diversity</b>. It is debated whether <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnicity</a> should be defined by culture, language, or religion. While conflicts in <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwanda</a> were largely along tribal lines, <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigeria's string of conflicts</a> is thought to be – at least to some degree – religiously based.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have proposed that, as the <a href="/wiki/Salience_(language)" title="Salience (language)">saliency</a> of these different ethnic variables tends to vary over time and across geography, research methodologies should vary according to the context.<sup id="cite_ref-Alesina_2005_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alesina_2005-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> provides an interesting example. Due to the fact that about 85% of its population defined themselves as <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a>, Somalia was considered to be a rather ethnically homogeneous nation.<sup id="cite_ref-Alesina_2005_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alesina_2005-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">civil war</a> caused ethnicity (or ethnic affiliation) to be redefined according to <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a> groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Alesina_2005_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alesina_2005-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is also much discussion in academia concerning the creation of an <a href="/wiki/Index_(economics)" title="Index (economics)">index</a> for "ethnic heterogeneity". Several indices have been proposed in order to model ethnic diversity (with regards to conflict). Easterly and Levine have proposed an ethno-linguistic fractionalization index defined as FRAC or ELF defined by: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}s_{i}^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msubsup> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}s_{i}^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f12ccf06ab349207cacf97d17f6bc281dd333b67" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:10.536ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}s_{i}^{2},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>s<sub>i</sub></i> is size of group <i>i</i> as a percentage of total population.<sup id="cite_ref-Alesina_2005_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alesina_2005-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ELF index is a measure of the probability that two randomly chosen individuals belong to different ethno-linguistic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Alesina_2005_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alesina_2005-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other researchers have also applied this index to religious rather than ethno-linguistic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though commonly used, Alesina and La Ferrara point out that the ELF index fails to account for the possibility that fewer large ethnic groups may result in greater inter-ethnic conflict than many small ethnic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Alesina_2005_25-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alesina_2005-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, researchers such as Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, have put forward the <i>Q</i> <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarization (politics)">polarization</a> index as a more appropriate measure of ethnic division.<sup id="cite_ref-Montalvo,_Jose_G_2005_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montalvo,_Jose_G_2005-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on a simplified adaptation of a polarization index developed by Esteban and Ray, the <i>Q</i> index is defined as </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q=1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}\left({\frac {{\tfrac {1}{2}}-s_{i}}{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right)^{2}\times s_{i},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>×</mo> <msub> <mi>s</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q=1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}\left({\frac {{\tfrac {1}{2}}-s_{i}}{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right)^{2}\times s_{i},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9d5e1351c51621b9eb73d30b7649bb1213f64829" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.338ex; width:30.019ex; height:8.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q=1-\sum _{i=1}^{N}\left({\frac {{\tfrac {1}{2}}-s_{i}}{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right)^{2}\times s_{i},}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>s<sub>i</sub></i> once again represents the size of group <i>i</i> as a percentage of total population, and is intended to capture the social distance between existing ethnic groups within an area.<sup id="cite_ref-Montalvo,_Jose_G_2005_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montalvo,_Jose_G_2005-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early researchers, such as Jonathan Pool, considered a concept dating back to the account of the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a>: that linguistic unity may allow for higher levels of development.<sup id="cite_ref-Pool,_Jonathan_1972_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pool,_Jonathan_1972-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While pointing out obvious oversimplifications and the subjectivity of definitions and data collection, Pool suggested that we had yet to see a robust economy emerge from a nation with a high degree of linguistic diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-Pool,_Jonathan_1972_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pool,_Jonathan_1972-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his research Pool used the "size of the largest native-language community as a percentage of the population" as his measure of linguistic diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-Pool,_Jonathan_1972_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pool,_Jonathan_1972-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not much later, however, Horowitz pointed out that both highly diverse and highly homogeneous societies exhibit less conflict than those in between.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Collier and Hoeffler provided evidence that both highly homogenous and highly heterogeneous societies exhibit lower risk of civil war, while societies that are more polarized are at greater risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Collier_1998_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collier_1998-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a matter of fact, their research suggests that a society with only two ethnic groups is about 50% more likely to experience civil war than either of the two extremes.<sup id="cite_ref-Collier_1998_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collier_1998-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, Mauro points out that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is positively correlated with corruption, which in turn is negatively correlated with economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, in a study on economic growth in African countries, Easterly and Levine find that linguistic fractionalization plays a significant role in reducing national income growth and in explaining poor policies.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical research</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Municipality" title="Municipality">municipal</a> level, has revealed that ethnic fractionalization (based on race) may be correlated with poor <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal management</a> and lower investments in <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">public goods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, more recent research would propose that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is indeed negatively correlated with economic growth while more polarized societies exhibit greater public consumption, lower levels of investment and more frequent civil wars.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_development_and_its_impact_on_ethnic_conflict">Economic development and its impact on ethnic conflict</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economic development and its impact on ethnic conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increasingly, attention is being drawn to the role of economics in <i>spawning</i> or <i>cultivating</i> <b>ethnic conflict</b>. Critics of earlier development theories, mentioned above, point out that "ethnicity" and ethnic conflict cannot be treated as exogenous variables.<sup id="cite_ref-rrp.sagepub_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrp.sagepub-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a body of literature that discusses how economic growth and development, particularly in the context of a <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalizing world</a> characterized by <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, appears to be leading to the extinction and homogenization of languages.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manuel Castells asserts that the "widespread destructuring of organizations, delegitimation of institutions, fading away of major social movements, and ephemeral cultural expressions" which characterize globalization lead to a renewed search for meaning; one that is based on identity rather than on practices.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barber and Lewis argue that culturally-based <a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">movements of resistance</a> have emerged as a reaction to the threat of <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernization</a> (perceived or actual) and <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberal</a> development.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On a different note, Chua suggests that ethnic conflict often results from the envy of the majority toward a wealthy minority which has benefited from trade in a neoliberal world.<sup id="cite_ref-rrp.sagepub_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrp.sagepub-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She argues that conflict is likely to erupt through political manipulation and the vilification of the minority.<sup id="cite_ref-rrp.sagepub_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrp.sagepub-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prasch points out that, as economic growth often occurs in tandem with increased <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">inequality</a>, ethnic or religious organizations may be seen as both assistance and an outlet for the disadvantaged.<sup id="cite_ref-rrp.sagepub_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrp.sagepub-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, empirical research by Piazza argues that economics and unequal development have little to do with <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">social unrest</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Piazza,_James_A._2006_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piazza,_James_A._2006-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, "more diverse societies, in terms of ethnic and religious <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a>, and political systems with large, complex, multiparty systems were more likely to experience terrorism than were more homogeneous states with few or no parties at the national level".<sup id="cite_ref-Piazza,_James_A._2006_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piazza,_James_A._2006-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recovery_from_conflict_(civil_war)"><span id="Recovery_from_conflict_.28civil_war.29"></span>Recovery from conflict (civil war)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Recovery from conflict (civil war)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Violent conflict and economic development are deeply intertwined. Paul Collier<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes how poor countries are more prone to civil conflict. The conflict lowers incomes catching countries in a "conflict trap." Violent conflict destroys physical capital (equipment and infrastructure), diverts valuable resources to military spending, discourages investment and disrupts exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recovery from civil conflict is very uncertain. Countries that maintain stability can experience a "peace dividend," through the rapid re-accumulation of physical capital (investment flows back to the recovering country because of the high return).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, successful recovery depends on the quality of legal system and the protection of private property.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investment is more productive in countries with higher quality institutions. Firms that experienced a civil war were more sensitive to the quality of the legal system than similar firms that had never been exposed to conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth_indicator_controversy">Growth indicator controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Growth indicator controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP per head)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_income" title="Real income">real income</a>, <a href="/wiki/Median_income" title="Median income">median income</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disposable_household_and_per_capita_income" title="Disposable household and per capita income">disposable income</a> are used by many developmental economists as an approximation of general national well-being. However, these measures are criticized as not measuring economic growth well enough, especially in countries where there is much economic activity that is not part of measured financial transactions (such as housekeeping and self-homebuilding), or where funding is not available for accurate measurements to be made publicly available for other economists to use in their studies (including private and institutional fraud, in some countries). </p><p>Even though per-capita GDP as measured can make economic well-being appear smaller than it really is in some developing countries, the discrepancy could be still bigger in a developed country where people may perform outside of financial transactions an even higher-value service than housekeeping or homebuilding as gifts or in their own households, such as counseling, <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_coaching" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle coaching">lifestyle coaching</a>, a more valuable home décor service, and time management. Even free choice can be considered to add value to lifestyles without necessarily increasing the financial transaction amounts. </p><p>More recent theories of Human Development have begun to see beyond purely financial measures of development, for example with measures such as medical care available, education, equality, and political freedom. One measure used is the <a href="/wiki/Genuine_Progress_Indicator" class="mw-redirect" title="Genuine Progress Indicator">Genuine Progress Indicator</a>, which relates strongly to theories of <a href="/wiki/Distributive_justice" title="Distributive justice">distributive justice</a>. Actual knowledge about what creates growth is largely unproven; however recent advances in <a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a> and more accurate measurements in many countries are creating new knowledge by compensating for the effects of variables to determine probable causes out of merely correlational statistics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_developments">Recent developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Recent developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fair_trade_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair trade movement">Fair trade movement</a></div> <p>Recent theories revolve around questions about what variables or inputs correlate or affect economic growth the most: elementary, secondary, or higher education, government policy stability, tariffs and subsidies, fair court systems, available infrastructure, availability of medical care, prenatal care and clean water, ease of entry and exit into trade, and equality of income distribution (for example, as indicated by the <a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a>), and how to advise governments about macroeconomic policies, which include all policies that affect the economy. Education enables countries to adapt the latest technology and creates an environment for new innovations. </p><p>The cause of limited growth and divergence in economic growth lies in the high rate of acceleration of technological change by a small number of developed countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This may not be the only cause. For example, Acemoglu and Robinson argue that institutions are a fundamental cause of long-run growth. (May 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These countries' acceleration of technology was due to increased incentive structures for mass education which in turn created a framework for the population to create and adapt new innovations and methods. Furthermore, the content of their education was composed of secular schooling that resulted in higher productivity levels and modern economic growth. </p><p>Researchers at the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a> also highlight the importance of using economic growth to improve the human condition, raising people out of poverty and achieving the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite research showing almost no relation between growth and the achievement of the goals 2 to 7 and statistics showing that during periods of growth poverty levels in some cases have actually risen (e.g. Uganda grew by 2.5% annually between 2000 and 2003, yet poverty levels rose by 3.8%), researchers at the ODI suggest growth is necessary, but that it must be equitable.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept of inclusive growth is shared even by key world leaders such as former Secretary General <a href="/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon" title="Ban Ki-moon">Ban Ki-moon</a>, who emphasises that: </p> <dl><dd>"Sustained and equitable growth based on dynamic structural economic change is necessary for making substantial progress in reducing poverty. It also enables faster progress towards the other Millennium Development Goals. While economic growth is necessary, it is not sufficient for progress on reducing poverty."<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Researchers at the ODI thus emphasise the need to ensure <a href="/wiki/Social_protection" title="Social protection">social protection</a> is extended to allow universal access and that active policy measures are introduced to encourage the private sector to create new jobs as the economy grows (as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Jobless_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jobless growth">jobless growth</a>) and seek to employ people from disadvantaged groups.<sup id="cite_ref-ODI_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODI-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_development_economists">Notable development economists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notable development economists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahbub_ul_Haq" title="Mahbub ul Haq">Mahbub ul Haq</a>, Minister of Finance for <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic of Pakistan">Islamic Republic of Pakistan</a>, special advisor at <a href="/wiki/UNDP" class="mw-redirect" title="UNDP">UNDP</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Yunus" title="Muhammad Yunus">Muhammad Yunus</a>, Founder of <a href="/wiki/Grameen_Bank" title="Grameen Bank">Grameen Bank</a>, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate by <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Nobel_Committee" title="Norwegian Nobel Committee">Norwegian Nobel Committee</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">Clark Medal</a> winner.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Aghion" title="Philippe Aghion">Philippe Aghion</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a>, co-authored textbook in economic growth, forwarded <a href="/wiki/Schumpeterian_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Schumpeterian growth">Schumpeterian growth</a>, and established <a href="/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">creative destruction</a> theories mathematically with <a href="/wiki/Peter_Howitt_(economist)" title="Peter Howitt (economist)">Peter Howitt</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nava_Ashraf" title="Nava Ashraf">Nava Ashraf</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriana_Bandiera" title="Oriana Bandiera">Oriana Bandiera</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> and Director of the <a href="/wiki/International_Growth_Centre" title="International Growth Centre">International Growth Centre</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhijit_Banerjee" title="Abhijit Banerjee">Abhijit Banerjee</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> and Director of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Latif_Jameel_Poverty_Action_Lab" title="Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab">Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab</a>, co-recipient of the 2019 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pranab_Bardhan" title="Pranab Bardhan">Pranab Bardhan</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, author of texts in both trade and development economics, and editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Development_Economics" title="Journal of Development Economics">Journal of Development Economics</a></i> from 1985 to 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushik_Basu" title="Kaushik Basu">Kaushik Basu</a>, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> and author of <i>Analytical Development Economics.</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Thomas_Bauer" title="Peter Thomas Bauer">Peter Thomas Bauer</a>, former professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, author of <i>Dissent on Development</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Besley" title="Tim Besley">Tim Besley</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, and commissioner of the UK <a href="/wiki/National_Infrastructure_Commission" title="National Infrastructure Commission">National Infrastructure Commission</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a>, professor of economics and law at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Birdsall" title="Nancy Birdsall">Nancy Birdsall</a> is the founding president of the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Global_Development" title="Center for Global Development">Center for Global Development</a> (CGD) in Washington, DC, USA, and former executive vice-president of the <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Development_Bank" title="Inter-American Development Bank">Inter-American Development Bank</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_E._Bloom" title="David E. Bloom">David E. Bloom</a>, professor of economics and <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard School of Public Health">Harvard School of Public Health</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bourguignon" title="François Bourguignon">François Bourguignon</a>, professor of economics and Director of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_School_of_Economics" title="Paris School of Economics">Paris School of Economics</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Burgess" title="Robin Burgess">Robin Burgess</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> and Director of the <a href="/wiki/International_Growth_Centre" title="International Growth Centre">International Growth Centre</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Caselli" title="Francesco Caselli">Francesco Caselli</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Collier" title="Paul Collier">Paul Collier</a>, author of <i>The Bottom Billion</i> which attempts to tie together a series of traps to explain the self-fulfilling nature of poverty at the lower end of the development scale.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_B._Connolly" title="Michael B. Connolly">Michael B. Connolly</a>, development economist and a university professor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partha_Dasgupta" title="Partha Dasgupta">Partha Dasgupta</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Donaldson_(economist)" title="Dave Donaldson (economist)">Dave Donaldson</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">Clark Medal</a> winner.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angus_Deaton" title="Angus Deaton">Angus Deaton</a>, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> and winner of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in Economics.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissa_Dell" title="Melissa Dell">Melissa Dell</a>, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">Clark Medal</a> winner.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_Djankov" class="mw-redirect" title="Simeon Djankov">Simeon Djankov</a>, research fellow at the Financial Markets Group of the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Duflo" title="Esther Duflo">Esther Duflo</a>, Director of <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Latif_Jameel_Poverty_Action_Lab" title="Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab">Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, 2009 <a href="/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program" title="MacArthur Fellows Program">MacArthur Fellow</a>, 2010 <a href="/wiki/John_Bates_Clark_Medal" title="John Bates Clark Medal">Clark Medal</a> winner, advocate for <a href="/wiki/Field_experiment" title="Field experiment">field experiment</a>, co-recipient of the 2019 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Easterly" title="William Easterly">William Easterly</a>, author of <i>The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists' Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics</i><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>White Man's Burden: How the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oded_Galor" title="Oded Galor">Oded Galor</a>, Israeli-American economist at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>; editor-in-chief of the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Growth" title="Journal of Economic Growth">Journal of Economic Growth</a></i>, the principal journal in economic growth. Developer of the <a href="/wiki/Unified_growth_theory" title="Unified growth theory">unified growth theory</a>, the newest alternative to theories of <a href="/wiki/Endogenous_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous growth">endogenous growth</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreesh_Ghatak" title="Maitreesh Ghatak">Maitreesh Ghatak</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Howitt_(economist)" title="Peter Howitt (economist)">Peter Howitt</a>, Canadian economist at <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>; past president of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Economics_Association" title="Canadian Economics Association">Canadian Economics Association</a>, introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Schumpeterian_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Schumpeterian growth">Schumpeterian growth</a> and established <a href="/wiki/Creative_destruction" title="Creative destruction">creative destruction</a> theory mathematically with <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Aghion" title="Philippe Aghion">Philippe Aghion</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seema_Jayachandran" title="Seema Jayachandran">Seema Jayachandran</a>, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dean_Karlan" title="Dean Karlan">Dean Karlan</a>, American economist at <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a>; co-director of the Global Poverty Research Lab at the Buffett Institute for Global Studies; founded <a href="/wiki/Innovations_for_Poverty_Action" title="Innovations for Poverty Action">Innovations for Poverty Action</a> (IPA), a New Haven, Connecticut, based research outfit dedicated to creating and evaluating solutions to social and <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a> problems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kremer" title="Michael Kremer">Michael Kremer</a>, University Professor at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">the University of Chicago</a>, co-recipient of the 2019 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliana_La_Ferrara" title="Eliana La Ferrara">Eliana La Ferrara</a>, professor at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy School of Government">Kennedy School of Government</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lewis_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Lewis (economist)">W. Arthur Lewis</a>, winner of the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in Economics for work in development economics.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Yifu_Lin" title="Justin Yifu Lin">Justin Yifu Lin</a>, Chinese economist at <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a>; former chief economist of <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, one of the most prominent Chinese economists.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sendhil_Mullainathan" title="Sendhil Mullainathan">Sendhil Mullainathan</a>, professor of computation and behavioural science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Booth_School_of_Business" title="University of Chicago Booth School of Business">University of Chicago Booth School of Business</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Nunn" title="Nathan Nunn">Nathan Nunn</a>, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Olken" title="Benjamin Olken">Benjamin Olken</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohini_Pande" title="Rohini Pande">Rohini Pande</a>, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lant_Pritchett" title="Lant Pritchett">Lant Pritchett</a>, professor at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy School of Government">Kennedy School of Government</a>, and has held several prominent research positions at the World Bank.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Qian" title="Nancy Qian">Nancy Qian</a>, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Raworth" title="Kate Raworth">Kate Raworth</a>, Senior Research Associate at the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Change_Institute" title="Environmental Change Institute">Environmental Change Institute</a> of the University of Oxford, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Doughnut_Economics:_Seven_Ways_to_Think_Like_a_21st-Century_Economist" title="Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist">Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist</a></i>, formerly economist for the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Report" title="Human Development Report">Human Development Report</a> and Senior Researcher at <a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Robinson_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Robinson (economist)">James Robinson</a>, professor of economics at the University of Chicago <a href="/wiki/Harris_School_of_Public_Policy_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Harris School of Public Policy Studies">Harris School of Public Policy Studies</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a>, professor at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy School of Government">Kennedy School of Government</a>, has written extensively on globalization.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Rosenzweig_(economist)" title="Mark Rosenzweig (economist)">Mark Rosenzweig</a>, a professor at Yale University and director of Economic Growth Center at Yale</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a>, professor at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Poverty" title="The End of Poverty">The End of Poverty</a>: Economic Possibilities of Our Time</i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/endofpo_sac_2005_00_9018">preview</a>) and <i>Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a>, Indian economist, first Asian <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winner for economics, author of <i>Development as Freedom,</i> known for incorporating philosophical components into economic models.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Stern,_Baron_Stern_of_Brentford" title="Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford">Nicholas Stern</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, former President of the <a href="/wiki/British_Academy" title="British Academy">British Academy</a> and former <a href="/wiki/World_Bank_Chief_Economist" class="mw-redirect" title="World Bank Chief Economist">World Bank Chief Economist</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a>, professor at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winner and former chief economist at the World Bank.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sutton_(economist)" title="John Sutton (economist)">John Sutton</a>, emeritus professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Thorbecke" title="Erik Thorbecke">Erik Thorbecke</a>, a co-originator of <a href="/wiki/Foster%E2%80%93Greer%E2%80%93Thorbecke" class="mw-redirect" title="Foster–Greer–Thorbecke">Foster–Greer–Thorbecke</a> poverty measure who also played a significant role in the development and popularization of <a href="/wiki/Social_accounting_matrix" title="Social accounting matrix">social accounting matrix</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Todaro" title="Michael Todaro">Michael Todaro</a>, known for the Todaro and <a href="/wiki/Harris%E2%80%93Todaro_model" title="Harris–Todaro model">Harris–Todaro models</a> of migration and urbanization; Economic Development.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Townsend" title="Robert M. Townsend">Robert M. Townsend</a>, professor at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> known for his <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cier.uchicago.edu/">Thai Project</a>, a model for many other applied and theoretical projects in economic development.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Venables" title="Anthony Venables">Anthony Venables</a>, professor of economics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernando_de_Soto_(economist)" title="Hernando de Soto (economist)">Hernando de Soto</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/The_Other_Path" class="mw-redirect" title="The Other Path">The Other Path: The Economic Answer to Terrorism</a> and The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Radelet" title="Steven Radelet">Steven Radelet</a>, professor at <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a> and author of The Great Surge-The Ascent of the Developing World.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Chinese economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_and_economic_growth" title="Democracy and economic growth">Democracy and economic growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency theory</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook/Issues" class="extiw" title="b:Development Cooperation Handbook/Issues">Development Cooperation Issues</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikibooks"><img alt="Wikibooks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/14px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/21px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/28px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook/Stories" class="extiw" title="b:Development Cooperation Handbook/Stories">Development Cooperation Stories</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikibooks"><img alt="Wikibooks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/14px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/21px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/28px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook/Testimonials" class="extiw" title="b:Development Cooperation Handbook/Testimonials">Development Cooperation Testimonials</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikibooks"><img alt="Wikibooks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/14px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/21px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/28px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Development wave">Development wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_and_Capability_Association" title="Human Development and Capability Association">Human Development and Capability Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Feminist_Economics" title="International Association for Feminist Economics">International Association for Feminist Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">International development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_publications_in_economics#Development_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of publications in economics">Important publications in development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">International development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Human_Development_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Human Development Index">UN Human Development Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenz_curve" title="Lorenz curve">Lorenz curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrod%E2%80%93Domar_model" title="Harrod–Domar model">Harrod–Domar model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_relief" title="Debt relief">Debt relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_security" title="Human security">Human security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaldor%27s_growth_laws" title="Kaldor's growth laws">Kaldor's growth laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_%22Development_Economics%22" title="The Poverty of "Development Economics"">The Poverty of "Development Economics"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_development_theory" title="Social development theory">Social development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_education_and_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's education and development">Women's education and development</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bell, Clive (1987). "development economics," <a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics</a>, v. 1, pp. 818, 825.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arndt, H. W. (1981). "Economic Development: A Semantic History," <i>Economic Development and Cultural Change</i>, 29(3), p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1153704">pp. 457</a>–66. Chicago: The Chicago University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bell, Clive (1987). 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"Rooted in Poverty?: Terrorism, Poor Economic Development, and Social Cleavages". <i>Terrorism and Political Violence</i>. <b>18</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">159–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F095465590944578">10.1080/095465590944578</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54195092">54195092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Terrorism+and+Political+Violence&rft.atitle=Rooted+in+Poverty%3F%3A+Terrorism%2C+Poor+Economic+Development%2C+and+Social+Cleavages&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F095465590944578&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54195092%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Piazza&rft.aufirst=James+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collier, Paul. "<a href="/wiki/The_Bottom_Billion" title="The Bottom Billion">The Bottom Billion</a>." <i>The Bottom Billion</i> (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollier1999" class="citation journal cs1">Collier, Paul (1999). "On the consequences of civil war". <i>Oxf. Econ. Pap</i>. <b>51</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">168–</span>83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foep%2F51.1.168">10.1093/oep/51.1.168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxf.+Econ.+Pap.&rft.atitle=On+the+consequences+of+civil+war&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E168-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foep%2F51.1.168&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collier, Paul. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/workingpapers/pdfs/9508text.pdf">Civil War and the Economics of the Peace Dividend</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923211417/http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/workingpapers/pdfs/9508text.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-09-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" Working Paper. Centre for the Study of African Economies (1995).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Reilly, Colin <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ces/journal/v56/n1/full/ces201328a.html">"Investment and Institutions in Post Civil War Recovery</a>". <i>Comparative Economic Studies</i> 56, 1–24 (March 2014) |doi:10.1057/ces.2013.28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Reilly, Colin "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2484629">Firm Investment Decisions in the Post Conflict Context</a>" forthcoming <i>The Economics of Transition</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODI-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Claire Melamed, Kate Higgins and Andy Sumner (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4892&title=millennium-development-goals-equitable-growth-policy-brief">Economic growth and the MDGs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717041456/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4892&title=millennium-development-goals-equitable-growth-policy-brief">Archived</a> 2011-07-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100424195122/http://www.fff.org/freedom/fd0205g.asp">"description"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fff.org/freedom/fd0205g.asp">the original</a> on 2010-04-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=description&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fff.org%2Ffreedom%2Ffd0205g.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100529180519/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=8978">"review"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=8978">the original</a> on 2010-05-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=review&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fcatalog%2Fitem%2Fdefault.asp%3Fttype%3D2%26tid%3D8978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Iw5IZCTh-kC&q=William+Easterly+%22White+Man's+Burden%22">description</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Iw5IZCTh-kC">preview).</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWriter2021" class="citation web cs1">Writer, Christina Pazzanese Harvard Staff (2021-06-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2021/06/tracing-amartya-sens-path-from-childhood-during-the-raj-to-nobel-prize-and-beyond/">"Tracing Amartya Sen's journey from colonial India to Nobel Prize and beyond"</a>. <i>Harvard Gazette</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Gazette&rft.atitle=Tracing+Amartya+Sen%27s+journey+from+colonial+India+to+Nobel+Prize+and+beyond&rft.date=2021-06-03&rft.aulast=Writer&rft.aufirst=Christina+Pazzanese+Harvard+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2021%2F06%2Ftracing-amartya-sens-path-from-childhood-during-the-raj-to-nobel-prize-and-beyond%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130113093625/http://publications.worldbank.org/ecommerce/catalog/product?item_id=7014177"><i>Development Economics through the Decades: A Critical Look at 30 Years of the World Development Report</i></a> World Bank Publications, Washington DC (2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8213-7255-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8213-7255-5">978-0-8213-7255-5</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511201842/http://publications.worldbank.org/ecommerce/catalog/product-detail?product_id=7208402"><i>The Complete World Development Report, 1978–2009 (Single User DVD): 30th Anniversary Edition</i></a> World Bank Publications, Washington DC (2009), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8213-7270-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8213-7270-8">978-0-8213-7270-8</a></li> <li>Behrman, J.R. (2001). "Development, Economics of," <i><a href="/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_%26_Behavioral_Sciences" title="International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences">International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences</a></i>, pp. 3566–3574 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090123005450/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7MRM-4MT09VJ-YN&_rdoc=2&_hierId=151000136&_refWorkId=21&_explode=151000131,151000136&_fmt=summary&_orig=na&_docanchor=&_idxType=SC&view=c&_ct=14&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=488e4c7acc9e0ed4241e314e5a4c7734">Abstract.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell1987" class="citation journal cs1">Bell, Clive (1987). "Development economics". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics</a></i>. <b>1</b>: <span class="nowrap">818–</span>26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Palgrave%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Development+economics&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E818-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrook1992" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clive_Crook" title="Clive Crook">Crook, Clive</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/ThirdWorldEconomicDevelopment.html">"Third World Economic Development"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/David_R._Henderson" title="David R. Henderson">David R. Henderson</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concise Encyclopedia of Economics">Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</a></i> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Library of Economics and Liberty">Library of Economics and Liberty</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Third+World+Economic+Development&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Economics&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Library+of+Economics+and+Liberty&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Crook&rft.aufirst=Clive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econlib.org%2Flibrary%2FEnc1%2FThirdWorldEconomicDevelopment.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/317650570">317650570</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50016270">50016270</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/163149563">163149563</a></li> <li>Easterly, William (2002), <i>Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists' Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics</i>, The MIT Press</li> <li>Ben Fine and Jomo K.S. (eds, 2005), <i>The New Development Economics: Post Washington Consensus Neoliberal Thinking</i>, Zed Books</li> <li>Peter Griffiths (2003), <i>The Economist's Tale: A Consultant Encounters Hunger and the World Bank</i>, Zed Books</li> <li>K.S. Jomo (2005), <i>Pioneers of Development Economics: Great Economists on Development</i>, Zed Books – the contributions of economists such as Marshall and Keynes, not normally considered development economists</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Justin_Yifu_Lin" title="Justin Yifu Lin">Lin, Justin Yifu</a> (2012). <i>The Quest for Prosperity: How Developing Economies Can Take Off</i>. Princeton, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15589-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15589-0"><bdi>978-0-691-15589-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quest+for+Prosperity%3A+How+Developing+Economies+Can+Take+Off&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15589-0&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Justin+Yifu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gerald M. Meier (2005), <i>Biography of a Subject: An Evolution of Development Economics</i>, Oxford University Press</li> <li>Gerald M. Meier, Dudley Seers [editors] (1984), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061215224957/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS_IBank_Servlet?pcont=details">Pioneers in Development</a></i>, World Bank</li> <li>Dwight H. Perkins, Steven Radelet, Donald R. Snodgrass, Malcolm Gillis and Michael Roemer (2001). <i>Economics of Development</i>, 5th edition, New York: W. W. Norton.</li> <li>Jeffrey D. Sachs (2005), <i>The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time</i>, Penguin Books</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debraj_Ray_(economist)" title="Debraj Ray (economist)">Debraj Ray</a> (1998). <i>Development Economics</i>, Princeton University Press, . Other editions: Spanish, Antoni Bosch. 2002 Chinese edition, Beijing University Press. 2002, Indian edition, Oxford, 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/6315.html">Description</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090701033901/http://press.princeton.edu/TOCs/c6315.html">table of contents</a>, and excerpt, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090213181416/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s6315.html">ch. 1.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wider.unu.edu/publications/">World Institute for Development Economics Research Publications/Discussion Papers</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithRees,_Gareth1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Emrys_Smith" title="Charles Emrys Smith">Smith, Charles</a>; Rees, Gareth (1998). <i>Economic Development, 2nd edition</i>. Basingstoke: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-72228-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-72228-2"><bdi>978-0-333-72228-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Development%2C+2nd+edition&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-333-72228-2&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Rees%2C+Gareth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADevelopment+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Todaro" title="Michael Todaro">Michael Todaro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Smith_(economist)" title="Stephen C. Smith (economist)">Stephen C. Smith</a>, Economic Development, 10th Ed., Addison-Wesley, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oz-1X8IYfKkC&dq=Michael+Todaro+and+Stephen+C.+Smith,+%22Economic+Development%22&pg=PA583">Description.</a></li> <li><i>Handbook of Development Economics</i>, Elsevier. Description and table of contents: <ul><li>Hollis B. Chenery and <a href="/wiki/T._N._Srinivasan" title="T. N. Srinivasan">T. N. Srinivasan</a>, eds. (1988, 1989). Vol. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006221407/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/601091/description#description">1</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081011231254/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/601092/description#description">2</a></li> <li>Jere Behrman and T.N. Srinivasan, eds. (1995). Vol <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081012121627/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/601093/description#description">3A</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907073110/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/601094/description#description">3B</a></li> <li>T. Paul Schultz and John Strauss, eds. (2008). Vol <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028010111/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/714636/description#description">4</a></li> <li>Dani Rodrik and Mark R. Rosenzweig, eds. (2009). Vol <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100821083312/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/720553/description#description">5</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_economics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120918105449/http://www.exeter.edu/academics/11017.aspx">Development Economics and Economic Development</a>, a list of resources for development economics.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10640716">Technology in emerging economies</a> (<i>The Economist</i>).</li> <li><a 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual-sector_model" title="Dual-sector model">Dual-sector model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_push_model" title="Big push model">Big push model</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critical_minimum_effort_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Critical minimum effort theory (page does not exist)">Critical minimum effort theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Nurkse%27s_balanced_growth_theory" title="Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory">Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_unbalanced_growth" title="Strategy of unbalanced growth">Strategy of unbalanced growth</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_dualism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social dualism (page does not exist)">Social dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technological_dualism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technological dualism (page does not exist)">Technological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fei%E2%80%93Ranis_model_of_economic_growth" title="Fei–Ranis model of economic growth">Fei–Ranis model of economic growth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microeconomics291" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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href="/wiki/Consumer_choice" title="Consumer choice">Consumer choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convexity_in_economics" title="Convexity in economics">Convexity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-convexity_(economics)" title="Non-convexity (economics)">non-convexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_cost" title="Economic cost">Cost</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Average_cost" title="Average cost">Average</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_cost" title="Marginal cost">Marginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">Opportunity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_cost" title="Implicit cost">Implicit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cost" title="Social cost">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunk_cost" title="Sunk cost">Sunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">Transaction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">Cost–benefit analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadweight_loss" title="Deadweight loss">Deadweight loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_(economics)" title="Distribution (economics)">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">Economies of scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scope" title="Economies of scope">Economies of scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(economics)" title="Elasticity (economics)">Elasticity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross_elasticity_of_demand" title="Cross elasticity of demand">Cross elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_elasticity_of_demand" title="Income elasticity of demand">Income elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_demand" title="Price elasticity of demand">Price elasticity of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_supply" title="Price elasticity of supply">Price elasticity of supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_equilibrium" title="Economic equilibrium">Equilibrium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_equilibrium_theory" title="General equilibrium theory">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_firm" title="Theory of the firm">Firms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">Goods and services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goods" title="Goods">Goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income%E2%80%93consumption_curve" title="Income–consumption curve">Income–consumption curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indifference_curve" title="Indifference curve">Indifference curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertemporal_choice" title="Intertemporal choice">Intertemporal choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_structure" title="Market structure">Market structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monopolistic_competition" title="Monopolistic competition">Monopolistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_competition" title="Perfect competition">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duopoly" title="Duopoly">Duopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_monopoly" title="Bilateral monopoly">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_monopoly" title="Complementary monopoly">Complementary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopsony" title="Monopsony">Monopsony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopsony" title="Oligopsony">Oligopsony</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pareto_efficiency" title="Pareto efficiency">Pareto efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_(economics)" title="Preference (economics)">Preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">Price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">Price controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_ceiling" title="Price ceiling">Price ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_floor" title="Price floor">Price floor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_discrimination" title="Price discrimination">Price discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_signal" title="Price signal">Price signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_system" title="Price system">Price system</a>/<a href="/wiki/Free_price_system" title="Free price system">Free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pricing" title="Pricing">Pricing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_set" title="Production set">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public good (economics)">Public goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">Rationing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_rent" title="Economic rent">Rent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Returns_to_scale" title="Returns to scale">Returns to scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">Risk aversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage" title="Shortage">Shortage</a>/<a href="/wiki/Excess_supply" title="Excess supply">Excess supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_effect" title="Substitution effect">Substitution effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_surplus" title="Economic surplus">Surplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">Social choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">Supply and demand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand" title="Demand">Demand</a>/<a href="/wiki/Law_of_demand" title="Law of demand">Law of demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_(economics)" title="Supply (economics)">Supply</a>/<a href="/wiki/Law_of_supply" title="Law of supply">Law of supply</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">Utility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expected_utility_hypothesis" title="Expected utility hypothesis">Expected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">Marginal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">Wage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_decision_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical decision theory">Statistical decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_economics_(civil_engineering)" title="Engineering economics (civil engineering)">Civil engineering economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_organization" title="Industrial organization">Industrial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfoundations" title="Microfoundations">Microfoundations of macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Microeconomics" title="Category:Microeconomics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Urban_planning715" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_urban_planning" title="Outline of urban planning">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">Urban area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City" title="City">City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">Metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">Suburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_and_zoning_commission" title="Planning and zoning commission">Planning and zoning commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_management" title="Growth management">Growth management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Urbanism_Day" title="World Urbanism Day">World Urbanism Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_market_area" title="Labor market area">Labor market area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major<br />branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_planning" title="Comprehensive planning">Comprehensive planning</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="History of urban planning">History of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">Spatial planning</a> (Eur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">Redevelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">Urbanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Rural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_development" title="Preservation development">Preservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_housing" title="Rural housing">Rural housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Village_design_statement" title="Village design statement">Village design statement</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">Regional planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Planning_Association_of_America" title="Regional Planning Association of America">Regional Planning Association of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation_resource_planning" title="Recreation resource planning">Recreation resource planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">Transportation planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_forecasting" title="Transportation forecasting">Transportation forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trip_distribution" title="Trip distribution">Trip distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_planning_model" title="Rational planning model">Rational planning model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_transportation_planner" title="Professional transportation planner">Professional transportation planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_freight_distribution" title="Urban freight distribution">Urban freight distribution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_economic_development" title="Community economic development">Community economic development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts/ <br />theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athens_Charter" title="Athens Charter">Athens Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-sky_movement" title="Dark-sky movement">Dark-sky movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">Garden city movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_planning" title="Indigenous planning">Indigenous planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_movement" title="Settlement movement">Settlement movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_towns" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition towns">Transition towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY" title="YIMBY">YIMBY</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborative planning">Collaborative planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Context theory">Context theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekistics" title="Ekistics">Ekistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Intelligent_Urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Intelligent Urbanism">Intelligent urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livable_streets" class="mw-redirect" title="Livable streets">Livable streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market urbanism">Market urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical planning">Radical planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">Urban renewal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Cities_by_type" title="Category:Cities by type">Cities by type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Company_town" title="Company town">Company town</a> / <a href="/wiki/Monotown" title="Monotown">Monotown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commuter_town" title="Commuter town">Commuter town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">Ghost town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_city" title="Global city">Global city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_community" title="Mining community">Mining community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pit_village" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit village">Pit village</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_camp" title="Man camp">Man camp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logging_camp" title="Logging camp">Logging camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_village" title="Model village">Model village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">Planned community</a> (New town)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_village" title="Urban village">Urban village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomtown" title="Boomtown">Boomtown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing" title="Affordable housing">Affordable housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">Cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_development" title="Cluster development">Cluster development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Communities">Complete Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_city" title="Creative city">Creative city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtering_(housing)" title="Filtering (housing)">Filtering (housing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brusselization" title="Brusselization">Brusselization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infill" title="Infill">Infill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_city" title="Healthy city">Healthy cities</a> / <a href="/wiki/Healthy_community_design" title="Healthy community design">Healthy community design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LEED-ND" class="mw-redirect" title="LEED-ND">LEED-ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrog_development" title="Leapfrog development">Leapfrog development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Cities_Program" title="Model Cities Program">Model cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(spatial_and_transport_planning)" title="Permeability (spatial and transport planning)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placemaking" title="Placemaking">Placemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_gain" title="Planning gain">Planning gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Permission" class="mw-redirect" title="Planning Permission">Planning Permission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Rural flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_use" title="Temporary use">Temporary use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_place" title="Third place">Third place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tract_housing" title="Tract housing">Tract housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transferable_development_rights" title="Transferable development rights">Transferable development rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_growth_boundary" title="Urban growth boundary">Urban growth boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">Urban sprawl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peri-urbanisation" title="Peri-urbanisation">Peri-urbanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_vitality" title="Urban vitality">Urban vitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verticalization" title="Verticalization">Verticalization</a> / <a href="/wiki/High-rise" class="mw-redirect" title="High-rise">High-rise urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">Theorists/<br />practitioners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Duany" title="Andrés Duany">Andrés Duany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Perry" title="Clarence Perry">Clarence Perry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Stein" title="Clarence Stein">Clarence Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Buchanan_(town_planner)" title="Colin Buchanan (town planner)">Colin Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Appleyard" title="Donald Appleyard">Donald Appleyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Bacon_(architect)" title="Edmund Bacon (architect)">Edmund Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Benveniste" title="Guy Benveniste">Guy Benveniste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_McHarg" title="Ian McHarg">Ian McHarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rouse" title="James Rouse">James Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantinos_Apostolos_Doxiadis" class="mw-redirect" title="Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis">Konstantinos Doxiadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_A._Lynch" title="Kevin A. Lynch">Kevin A. Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loretta_Lees" title="Loretta Lees">Loretta Lees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Calthorpe" title="Peter Calthorpe">Peter Calthorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(architect)" title="Thomas Adams (architect)">Thomas Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_theorists" title="List of urban theorists">List of urban theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_planners" title="List of urban planners">List of urban planners</a></li></ul> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farrelly" title="Elizabeth Farrelly">Elizabeth Farrelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler" title="James Howard Kunstler">James Howard Kunstler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randal_O%27Toole" title="Randal O'Toole">Randal O'Toole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_education" title="Urban planning education">Planning education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Accreditation_Board" title="Planning Accreditation Board">Planning Accreditation Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_real_estate_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate real estate education">Real estate education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Professional_planning_institutes" title="Category:Professional planning institutes">Professional organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Australia" title="Urban planning in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_China" title="Urban planning in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Urban planning in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning_in_Serbia" title="Spatial planning in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Singapore" title="Urban planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_and_country_planning_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Town and country planning in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Barcelona" title="Urban planning of Barcelona">Barcelona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Shanghai" title="Urban planning of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Sydney" title="Urban planning of Sydney">Sydney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Africa" title="Urban planning in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_communist_countries" title="Urban planning in communist countries">Communist countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Urban planning in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_spatial_planning" title="Marine spatial planning">Marine spatial planning </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/28px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/42px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/56px-COL-city_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" 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