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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_necessity_of_city_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_necessity_of_city_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The necessity of city walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_necessity_of_city_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Archaeological evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Depictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Depictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Tactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Offensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Offensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Offensive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Offensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Defensive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Siege accounts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classical antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Medieval period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mongols_and_Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongols_and_Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mongols and Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongols_and_Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_gunpowder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_gunpowder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Age of gunpowder</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Age_of_gunpowder-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Age of gunpowder subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Age_of_gunpowder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emerging_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Emerging theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emerging_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_fortresses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_fortresses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>New fortresses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_fortresses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marshal_Vauban_and_Van_Coehoorn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marshal_Vauban_and_Van_Coehoorn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Marshal Vauban and Van Coehoorn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marshal_Vauban_and_Van_Coehoorn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Siege warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strategic_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategic_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Strategic concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategic_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_advances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_advances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Industrial advances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_advances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern warfare</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_warfare-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern warfare subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Airbridge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airbridge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Airbridge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airbridge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Post-World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Police_sieges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Police_sieges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Police sieges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Police_sieges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bele%C3%ABring" title="Beleëring – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Beleëring" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="حصار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حصار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setio" title="Setio – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Setio" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asediu" title="Asediu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Asediu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BChasir%C9%99" title="Mühasirə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mühasirə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pau-%C3%BBi-chi%C3%A0n" title="Pau-ûi-chiàn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Pau-ûi-chiàn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Аблога – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аблога" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Обсада – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Обсада" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsada" title="Opsada – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Opsada" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setge" title="Setge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Setge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obl%C3%A9h%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Obléhání – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Obléhání" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwarchae" title="Gwarchae – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwarchae" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belejring" title="Belejring – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Belejring" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belagerung" title="Belagerung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Belagerung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piiramine" title="Piiramine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Piiramine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πολιορκία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολιορκία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asedio" title="Asedio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Asedio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sie%C4%9Do" title="Sieĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sieĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setio" title="Setio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Setio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="محاصره نظامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="محاصره نظامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%A8ge_(militaire)" title="Siège (militaire) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Siège (militaire)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belegering" title="Belegering – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Belegering" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9igear" title="Léigear – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Léigear" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asedio" title="Asedio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Asedio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EC%84%B1%EC%A0%84" title="공성전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공성전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Պաշարում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պաշարում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%98%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="घेरा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="घेरा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsada" title="Opsada – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Opsada" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiejo" title="Asiejo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Asiejo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengepungan" title="Pengepungan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengepungan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assedio" title="Assedio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Assedio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8" title="מצור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מצור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangepungan" title="Pangepungan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Pangepungan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidio" title="Obsidio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Obsidio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplenkums" title="Aplenkums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aplenkums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assede" title="Assede – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Assede" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrom" title="Ostrom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ostrom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%89" title="حصار عسكرى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="حصار عسكرى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengepungan" title="Pengepungan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengepungan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belegering" title="Belegering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Belegering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belegeringe" title="Belegeringe – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Belegeringe" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BB%E5%9F%8E%E6%88%A6" title="攻城戦 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="攻城戦" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beleiring" title="Beleiring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Beleiring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8tge" title="Sètge – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sètge" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamal" title="Qamal – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qamal" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obl%C4%99%C5%BCenie" title="Oblężenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oblężenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerco" title="Cerco – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cerco" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asediu" title="Asediu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Asediu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Осада – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Осада" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rrethimi" title="Rrethimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rrethimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ass%C3%A8diu" title="Assèdiu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Assèdiu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege" title="Siege – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Siege" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obliehanie" title="Obliehanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Obliehanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obleganje" title="Obleganje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Obleganje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="گەمارۆدان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەمارۆدان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Опсада – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Опсада" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsada" title="Opsada – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Opsada" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piiritys" title="Piiritys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Piiritys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bel%C3%A4gring" title="Belägring – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Belägring" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="முற்றுகை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முற்றுகை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1" title="การล้อม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การล้อม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%C5%9Fatma" title="Kuşatma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kuşatma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D2%AF%D0%B7%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бүзээлел – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Бүзээлел" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Облога – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Облога" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%DB%81" title="محاصرہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="محاصرہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cu%E1%BB%99c_v%C3%A2y_h%C3%A3m" title="Cuộc vây hãm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cuộc vây hãm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BB%E5%9F%8E%E6%88%98" title="攻城战 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="攻城战" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BB%E5%9F%8E%E6%88%B0" title="攻城戰 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="攻城戰" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">Siege warfare</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military land blockade of a location</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Besiege" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Siege_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Siege (disambiguation)">Siege (disambiguation)</a>. For the video game of the same name, see <a href="/wiki/Besiege_(video_game)" title="Besiege (video game)">Besiege (video game)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Besieged_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Besieged (disambiguation)">Besieged (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Lisbon_by_Roque_Gameiro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Siege_of_Lisbon_by_Roque_Gameiro.jpg/300px-Siege_of_Lisbon_by_Roque_Gameiro.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Siege_of_Lisbon_by_Roque_Gameiro.jpg/450px-Siege_of_Lisbon_by_Roque_Gameiro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Siege_of_Lisbon_by_Roque_Gameiro.jpg/600px-Siege_of_Lisbon_by_Roque_Gameiro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of the 1147 <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lisbon" title="Siege of Lisbon">Siege of Lisbon</a>, painting by <a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Roque_Gameiro" title="Alfredo Roque Gameiro">Alfredo Roque Gameiro</a> (1917)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_army" title="Regular army">Regular</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">Standing army</a> / <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman" title="Rifleman">Rifleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Comms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">Commissar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_infantry" title="Mechanized infantry">Mechanized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">foreign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmatch" title="Overmatch">Overmatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_Warfare" title="Unrestricted Warfare">Unrestricted Warfare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripwire_force" title="Tripwire force">Tripwire force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Wargaming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_simulation" title="Military simulation">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military 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title="Military uniform">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargame</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>siege</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">sedere</i>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'to sit')<sup id="cite_ref-merriam_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merriam-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> of a city, or <a href="/wiki/Fortress" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortress">fortress</a>, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. <b>Siege warfare</b> (also called <b>siegecraft</b> or <b>poliorcetics</b>) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static, defensive position. Consequently, an opportunity for <a href="/wiki/Negotiation" title="Negotiation">negotiation</a> between combatants is common, as proximity and fluctuating advantage can encourage <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>. </p><p>A siege occurs when an attacker encounters a city or fortress that cannot be easily taken by a quick assault, and which refuses to <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrender (military)">surrender</a>. Sieges involve surrounding the target to block provision of supplies and reinforcement or escape of troops (a tactic known as "<a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">investment</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is typically coupled with attempts to reduce the fortifications by means of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> bombardment, <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining (military)">mining</a> (also known as sapping), or the use of deception or treachery to bypass defenses. </p><p>Failing a military outcome, sieges can often be decided by starvation, thirst, or disease, which can afflict either the attacker or defender. This form of siege, though, can take many months or even years, depending upon the size of the stores of food the fortified position holds. The attacking force can circumvallate the besieged place, which is to build a line of earth-works, consisting of a <a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">rampart</a> and trench, surrounding it. During the process of circumvallation, the attacking force can be set upon by another force, an ally of the besieged place, due to the lengthy amount of time required to force it to capitulate. A defensive ring of forts outside the ring of circumvallated forts, called contravallation, is also sometimes used to defend the attackers from outside. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ultimos_Momentos_en_Rancagua.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ultimos_Momentos_en_Rancagua.jpg/220px-Ultimos_Momentos_en_Rancagua.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ultimos_Momentos_en_Rancagua.jpg/330px-Ultimos_Momentos_en_Rancagua.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Ultimos_Momentos_en_Rancagua.jpg/440px-Ultimos_Momentos_en_Rancagua.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1119" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rancagua" title="Battle of Rancagua">siege of Rancagua</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Chilean_War_of_Independence" title="Chilean War of Independence">Chilean War of Independence</a>, painting by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Subercaseaux" title="Pedro Subercaseaux">Pedro Subercaseaux</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient cities in the Middle East show <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> evidence of fortified <a href="/wiki/City_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="City wall">city walls</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, there is both textual and archaeological evidence of prolonged sieges and siege machinery used against the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall#Effectiveness_against_artillery" title="Chinese city wall">defenders of city walls</a>. Siege machinery was also a tradition of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, siege warfare dominated the conduct of war in Europe. <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> gained some of his renown from design of fortifications. <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> campaigns were generally designed around a succession of sieges. In the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a>, increasing use of ever more powerful <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> reduced the value of fortifications. In the 20th century, the significance of the classical siege declined. With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">mobile warfare</a>, a single fortified stronghold is no longer as decisive as it once was. While traditional sieges do still occur, they are not as common as they once were due to changes in modes of battle, principally the ease by which huge volumes of destructive power can be directed onto a static target. Modern sieges are more commonly the result of smaller hostage, militant, or extreme <a href="/wiki/Resisting_arrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Resisting arrest">resisting arrest</a> situations. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_period">Ancient period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_necessity_of_city_walls">The necessity of city walls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The necessity of city walls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_relief_of_attack_on_an_enemy_town_during_the_reign_of_Tiglath-Pileser_III_720-738_BCE_from_his_palace_at_Kalhu_(Nimrud).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Assyrian_relief_of_attack_on_an_enemy_town_during_the_reign_of_Tiglath-Pileser_III_720-738_BCE_from_his_palace_at_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29.jpg/220px-Assyrian_relief_of_attack_on_an_enemy_town_during_the_reign_of_Tiglath-Pileser_III_720-738_BCE_from_his_palace_at_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Assyrian_relief_of_attack_on_an_enemy_town_during_the_reign_of_Tiglath-Pileser_III_720-738_BCE_from_his_palace_at_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29.jpg/330px-Assyrian_relief_of_attack_on_an_enemy_town_during_the_reign_of_Tiglath-Pileser_III_720-738_BCE_from_his_palace_at_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Assyrian_relief_of_attack_on_an_enemy_town_during_the_reign_of_Tiglath-Pileser_III_720-738_BCE_from_his_palace_at_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29.jpg/440px-Assyrian_relief_of_attack_on_an_enemy_town_during_the_reign_of_Tiglath-Pileser_III_720-738_BCE_from_his_palace_at_Kalhu_%28Nimrud%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="4608" /></a><figcaption>Assyrians using siege ladders in a relief of attack on an enemy town during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III 720–738 BCE from his palace at Kalhu (Nimrud)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, and defensive walls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFletcherCruickshank199620_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFletcherCruickshank199620-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some settlements in the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> were also fortified. By about 3500 BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a> floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. </p><p>The stone and mud brick houses of <a href="/wiki/Kot_Diji" title="Kot Diji">Kot Diji</a> were clustered behind massive stone flood dikes and defensive walls, for neighbouring communities quarrelled constantly about the control of prime agricultural land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStearns200117_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStearns200117-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a> (c. 2500 BC) in present-day south-east <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> has defensive walls and square bastions of <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">sun-dried bricks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFletcherCruickshank199620_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFletcherCruickshank199620-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>City walls and fortifications were essential for the defence of the first cities in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>. The walls were built of mudbricks, stone, wood, or a combination of these materials, depending on local availability. They may also have served the dual purpose of showing potential enemies the might of the kingdom. The great walls surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> gained a widespread reputation. The walls were 9.5 km (5.9 mi) in length, and up to 12 m (39 ft) in height. </p><p>Later, the walls of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, reinforced by towers, moats, and ditches, gained a similar reputation. In <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> built massive stone walls around their cities atop hillsides, taking advantage of the terrain. In <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> China, at the site of Ao, large walls were erected in the 15th century BC that had dimensions of 20 m (66 ft) in width at the base and enclosed an area of some 1,900 m (2,100 yd) squared.<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_43_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_43-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient Chinese capital for the <a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">State of Zhao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Handan" title="Handan">Handan</a>, founded in 386 BC, also had walls that were 20 m (66 ft) wide at the base; they were 15 m (49 ft) tall, with two separate sides of its rectangular enclosure at a length of 1,400 m (1,530 yd).<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_43_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_43-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization showed less effort in constructing defences, as did the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a> on <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>. These civilizations probably relied more on the defence of their outer borders or sea shores. Unlike the ancient Minoan civilization, the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a> emphasized the need for fortifications alongside natural defences of mountainous terrain, such as the massive <a href="/wiki/Cyclopean_masonry" title="Cyclopean masonry">Cyclopean walls</a> built at <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</a> and other adjacent Late Bronze Age (c. 1600–1100 BC) centers of central and southern Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeological_evidence">Archaeological evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Archaeological evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Siege" title="Special:EditPage/Siege">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ramesseum_siege_of_Dapur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ramesseum_siege_of_Dapur.jpg/170px-Ramesseum_siege_of_Dapur.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ramesseum_siege_of_Dapur.jpg/255px-Ramesseum_siege_of_Dapur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Ramesseum_siege_of_Dapur.jpg/340px-Ramesseum_siege_of_Dapur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>The Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dapur" title="Siege of Dapur">Siege of Dapur</a> in the 13th century BC, from <a href="/wiki/Ramesseum" title="Ramesseum">Ramesseum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although there are depictions of sieges from the ancient Near East in historical sources and in art, there are very few examples of siege systems that have been found archaeologically. Of the few examples, several are noteworthy: </p> <ul><li>The late 9th-century BC siege system surrounding <a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Safi" title="Tell es-Safi">Tell es-Safi</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gath_(city)" title="Gath (city)">Gath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, consists of a 2.5 km (1.6 mi) long siege trench, towers, and other elements, and is the earliest evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Circumvallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallation">circumvallation</a> system known in the world. It was apparently built by <a href="/wiki/Hazael" title="Hazael">Hazael</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aram_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram Damascus">Aram Damascus</a>, as part of his siege and conquest of <a href="/wiki/Philistine" class="mw-redirect" title="Philistine">Philistine</a> Gath in the late 9th century BC (mentioned in <a href="/wiki/II_Kings" class="mw-redirect" title="II Kings">II Kings</a> 12:18).</li> <li>The late 8th-century BC siege system surrounding the site of <a href="/wiki/Lachish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachish">Lachish</a> (Tell el-Duweir) in Israel, built by <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> of <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> in 701 BC, is not only evident in the archaeological remains, but is described in Assyrian and <a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">biblical</a> sources and in the reliefs of Sennacherib's palace in <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>.</li> <li>The Siege of Alt-<a href="/wiki/Paphos" title="Paphos">Paphos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian</a> army in the 4th century BC.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Depictions">Depictions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Depictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest representations of siege warfare have been dated to the <a href="/wiki/Protodynastic_Period_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Protodynastic Period of Egypt">Protodynastic Period of Egypt</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3000 BC</span>. These show the symbolic destruction of city walls by divine animals using hoes. </p><p>The first siege equipment is known from Egyptian tomb reliefs of the 24th century BC, showing Egyptian soldiers storming <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite</a> town walls on wheeled siege ladders. Later Egyptian temple reliefs of the 13th century BC portray the violent <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dapur" title="Siege of Dapur">Siege of Dapur</a>, a Syrian city, with soldiers climbing scale ladders supported by archers. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> palace reliefs of the 9th to 7th centuries BC display sieges of several Near Eastern cities. Though a simple battering ram had come into use in the previous millennium, the Assyrians improved siege warfare and used huge wooden tower-shaped battering rams with archers positioned on top. </p><p>In ancient China, sieges of city walls (along with naval battles) were portrayed on <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> <a href="/wiki/Hu_(vessel)" title="Hu (vessel)">'hu' vessels</a>, like those found in <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> in 1965, which have been dated to the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> (5th to 3rd centuries BC).<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_6_446_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_6_446-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tactics">Tactics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Offensive">Offensive</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Offensive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_tg_0000158_Belagerung_%5E_Festung_%5E_Belagerungsmaschine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Fotothek_df_tg_0000158_Belagerung_%5E_Festung_%5E_Belagerungsmaschine.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_tg_0000158_Belagerung_%5E_Festung_%5E_Belagerungsmaschine.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Fotothek_df_tg_0000158_Belagerung_%5E_Festung_%5E_Belagerungsmaschine.jpg/270px-Fotothek_df_tg_0000158_Belagerung_%5E_Festung_%5E_Belagerungsmaschine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Fotothek_df_tg_0000158_Belagerung_%5E_Festung_%5E_Belagerungsmaschine.jpg/360px-Fotothek_df_tg_0000158_Belagerung_%5E_Festung_%5E_Belagerungsmaschine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of various <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege machines</a> in the mid-16th century</figcaption></figure> <p>An attacker's first act in a siege might be a surprise attack, attempting to overwhelm the defenders before they were ready or were even aware there was a threat. This was how <a href="/wiki/William_de_Forz,_3rd_Earl_of_Albemarle" title="William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle">William de Forz</a> captured <a href="/wiki/Fotheringhay_Castle" title="Fotheringhay Castle">Fotheringhay Castle</a> in 1221.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common practice of siege warfare was to lay siege and just wait for the surrender of the enemies inside or, quite commonly, to coerce someone inside to betray the fortification. During the medieval period, negotiations would frequently take place during the early part of the siege. An attacker – aware of a prolonged siege's great cost in time, money, and lives – might offer generous terms to a defender who surrendered quickly. The defending troops would be allowed to march away unharmed, often retaining their weapons. However, a garrison commander who was thought to have surrendered too quickly might face execution by his own side for treason.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a siege progressed, the surrounding army would build <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">earthworks</a> (a line of <a href="/wiki/Circumvallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallation">circumvallation</a>) to completely encircle their target, preventing food, water, and other supplies from reaching the besieged city. If sufficiently desperate as the siege progressed, defenders and civilians might have been reduced to eating anything vaguely edible – horses, family pets, the leather from shoes, and even <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">each other</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a> siege of a rebellious Anatolian vassal in the 14th century BC ended when the queen mother came out of the city and begged for mercy on behalf of her people. The Hittite campaign against the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> in the 14th century BC bypassed the fortified city of <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a>. If the main objective of a campaign was not the conquest of a particular city, it could simply be passed by. When the main objective of the campaign had been fulfilled, the Hittite army returned to Carchemish and the city fell after an eight-day siege. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Disease</a> was another effective siege weapon, although the attackers were often as vulnerable as the defenders. In some instances, catapults or similar weapons were used to fling diseased animals over city walls in an early example of <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a>. If all else failed, a besieger could claim the booty of his conquest undamaged, and retain his men and equipment intact, for the price of a well-placed <a href="/wiki/Bribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Bribe">bribe</a> to a disgruntled gatekeeper. The <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_siege_of_Jerusalem" title="Assyrian siege of Jerusalem">Assyrian siege of Jerusalem</a> in the 8th century BC came to an end when the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> bought them off with gifts and tribute, according to the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> account, or when the Assyrian camp was struck by mass death, according to the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Biblical</a> account. Due to logistics, long-lasting sieges involving a minor force could seldom be maintained. A besieging army, encamped in possibly squalid field conditions and dependent on the countryside and its own supply lines for food, could very well be threatened with the disease and starvation intended for the besieged. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trebuchet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Trebuchet.jpg/220px-Trebuchet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Trebuchet.jpg/330px-Trebuchet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Trebuchet.jpg/440px-Trebuchet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Medieval <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchets</a> could sling about two projectiles per hour at enemy positions.</figcaption></figure> <p>To end a siege more rapidly, various methods were developed in ancient and medieval times to counter fortifications, and a large variety of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> was developed for use by besieging armies. Ladders could be used to <a href="/wiki/Escalade" title="Escalade">escalade</a> over the defenses. <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">Battering rams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_hook" title="Siege hook">siege hooks</a> could also be used to force through gates or walls, while <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">mangonels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onagers</a> could be used to launch projectiles to break down a city's fortifications and kill its defenders. A <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege tower</a>, a substantial structure built to equal or greater height than the fortification's walls, could allow the attackers to fire down upon the defenders and also advance troops to the wall with less danger than using ladders. </p><p>In addition to launching projectiles at the fortifications or defenders, it was also quite common to attempt to undermine the fortifications, causing them to collapse. This could be accomplished by digging a tunnel beneath the <a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">foundations</a> of the walls, and then deliberately collapsing or exploding the tunnel. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining (military)">mining</a>. The defenders could dig counter-tunnels to cut into the attackers' works and collapse them prematurely. </p><p>Fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Roman Empire</a> used <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>, which contained additives that made it hard to extinguish. Combined with a primitive <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrower</a>, it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A sallying out might also occur with such weapons, or if the siege was of a location on a coastline, from ships launched from the harbor of the location. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Defensive">Defensive</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Defensive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The universal method for defending against siege is the use of fortifications, principally walls and <a href="/wiki/Ditch_(fortification)" title="Ditch (fortification)">ditches</a>, to supplement natural features. A sufficient supply of food and water was also important to defeat the simplest method of siege warfare: <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a>. On occasion, the defenders would drive 'surplus' civilians out to reduce the demands on stored food and water.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskinHowland2006105_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskinHowland2006105-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> in China (481–221 BC), warfare lost its honorable, gentlemen's duty that was found in the previous era of the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>, and became more practical, competitive, cut-throat, and efficient for gaining victory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese invention of the hand-held, trigger-mechanism <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a> during this period revolutionized warfare, giving greater emphasis to infantry and cavalry and less to traditional <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a> warfare. </p><p>The philosophically <a href="/wiki/Pacifist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacifist">pacifist</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohist">Mohists</a> (followers of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>) of the 5th century BC believed in aiding the defensive warfare of smaller Chinese states against the hostile offensive warfare of larger domineering states. The Mohists were renowned in the smaller states (and the enemies of the larger states) for the inventions of siege machinery to scale or destroy walls. These included traction trebuchet <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a>, 8-foot (2.4 m) high <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistas</a>, a wheeled siege ramp with <a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">grappling hooks</a> known as the Cloud Bridge (the protractible, folded ramp slinging forward by means of a counterweight with rope and pulley), and wheeled 'hook-carts' used to latch large iron hooks onto the tops of walls to pull them down.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurnbull200240_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurnbull200240-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ireland-Cahir_Castle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Ireland-Cahir_Castle.jpg/170px-Ireland-Cahir_Castle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Ireland-Cahir_Castle.jpg/255px-Ireland-Cahir_Castle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Ireland-Cahir_Castle.jpg/340px-Ireland-Cahir_Castle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="661" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cahir_Castle" title="Cahir Castle">Cahir Castle</a> in Ireland was besieged and captured three times: in 1599 by the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex" title="Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex">Earl of Essex</a>, in 1647 by Lord Inchiquin, and in 1650 by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into the city, the defenders used large <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> (the type the Chinese commonly used in heating up a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> for smelting <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>) to pump smoke into the tunnels in order to suffocate the intruders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advances in the prosecution of sieges in ancient and medieval times naturally encouraged the development of a variety of defensive countermeasures. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">medieval fortifications</a> became progressively stronger—for example, the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">concentric castle</a> from the period of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>—and more dangerous to attackers—witness the increasing use of <a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">machicolations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Murder-hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Murder-hole">murder-holes</a>, as well the preparation of <a href="/wiki/Early_thermal_weapons" title="Early thermal weapons">hot or incendiary substances</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellman195426_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellman195426-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">Arrowslits</a> (also called arrow loops or loopholes), <a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">sally ports</a> (airlock-like doors) for sallies and deep water wells were also integral means of resisting siege at this time. Particular attention would be paid to defending entrances, with gates protected by <a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">drawbridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">portcullises</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">barbicans</a>. <a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moats</a> and other water defenses, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellman195422_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellman195422-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, virtually all large cities had city walls—<a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Dubrovnik" title="Walls of Dubrovnik">Dubrovnik</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> is a well-preserved example—and more important cities had <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort">forts</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castles</a>. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1bor" title="Tábor">Tábor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, similar to those used much later in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Until the invention of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, cannon and <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">howitzers</a> (in modern times), the traditional methods of defense became less effective against a determined siege.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellman195444–45_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellman195444–45-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_accounts">Siege accounts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Siege accounts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Siege" title="Special:EditPage/Siege">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Although there are numerous ancient accounts of cities being sacked, few contain any clues to how this was achieved. Some popular tales existed on how the cunning heroes succeeded in their sieges. The best-known is the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_Horse" title="Trojan Horse">Trojan Horse</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a>, and a similar story tells how the <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Joppa</a> was conquered by the Egyptians in the 15th century BC. The Biblical <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Book of Joshua</a> contains the story of the miraculous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jericho" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jericho">Battle of Jericho</a>. </p><p>A more detailed historical account from the 8th century BC, called the <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piankhi stela</a>, records how the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Nubians</a> laid siege to and conquered several Egyptian cities by using battering rams, archers, and slingers and building <a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">causeways</a> across moats. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Classical antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, one hundred sieges were attempted and fifty-eight ended with the surrender of the besieged area.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_handbook_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford_handbook-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s army successfully besieged many powerful cities during his conquests. Two of his most impressive achievements in siegecraft took place in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Sogdian_Rock" title="Siege of the Sogdian Rock">Siege of the Sogdian Rock</a>. His <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a> built a <a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">causeway</a> that was originally 60 m (200 ft) wide and reached the range of his torsion-powered artillery, while his soldiers pushed <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a> housing stone throwers and light catapults to bombard the city walls. </p><p>Most conquerors before him had found <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> island-city about 1 km (1,100 yd) from the mainland, impregnable. The Macedonians built a <a href="/wiki/Mole_(architecture)" title="Mole (architecture)">mole</a>, a raised spit of earth across the water, by piling stones up on a natural <a href="/wiki/Land_bridge" title="Land bridge">land bridge</a> that extended underwater to the island, and although the Tyrians rallied by sending a <a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">fire ship</a> to destroy the towers, and captured the mole in a swarming frenzy, the city eventually fell to the Macedonians after a seven-month siege. In complete contrast to Tyre, Sogdian Rock was captured by stealthy attack. Alexander used commando-like tactics to scale the cliffs and capture the high ground, and the <a href="/wiki/Demoralization_(warfare)" title="Demoralization (warfare)">demoralized</a> defenders surrendered. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_siege_machines.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Roman_siege_machines.gif/220px-Roman_siege_machines.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Roman_siege_machines.gif/330px-Roman_siege_machines.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Roman_siege_machines.gif/440px-Roman_siege_machines.gif 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Roman siege machines</figcaption></figure> <p>The importance of siege warfare in the ancient period should not be underestimated. One of the contributing causes of <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>'s inability to defeat Rome was his lack of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege engines">siege engines</a>, thus, while he was able to defeat Roman armies in the field, he was unable to capture Rome itself. The legionary armies of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> are noted as being particularly skilled and determined in siege warfare. An astonishing number and variety of sieges, for example, formed the core of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>'s mid-1st-century BC conquest of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> (modern France). </p><p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i> (<i>Commentaries on the Gallic War</i>), Caesar describes how, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Battle of Alesia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> created two huge fortified walls around the city. The inner circumvallation, 16 km (10 mi), held in <a href="/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a>'s forces, while the outer <a href="/wiki/Contravallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Contravallation">contravallation</a> kept relief from reaching them. The Romans held the ground in between the two walls. The besieged Gauls, facing starvation, eventually surrendered after their relief force met defeat against Caesar's auxiliary cavalry. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a> <a href="/wiki/Zealots_(Judea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zealots (Judea)">Zealots</a> who defended <a href="/wiki/Masada" title="Masada">Masada</a> in AD 73 were defeated by the Roman legions, who built a ramp 100 metres (330 ft) high up to the fortress's west wall. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a>, siege warfare was extensively being used by both sides. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_period">Medieval period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medieval period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongols_and_Chinese">Mongols and Chinese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mongols and Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Middle Ages, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>'s campaign against China (then comprising the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Xia dynasty">Western Xia dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> until <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>, who eventually established the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in 1271, was very effective, allowing the Mongols to sweep through large areas. Even if they could not enter some of the more well-fortified cities, they used innovative battle tactics to grab hold of the land and the people: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By concentrating on the field armies, the strongholds had to wait. Of course, smaller fortresses, or ones easily surprised, were taken as they came along. This had two effects. First, it cut off the principal city from communicating with other cities where they might expect aid. Secondly, refugees from these smaller cities would flee to the last stronghold. The reports from these cities and the streaming hordes of refugees not only reduced the morale of the inhabitants and garrison of the principal city, it also strained their resources. Food and water reserves were taxed by the sudden influx of refugees. Soon, what was once a formidable undertaking became easy. The Mongols were then free to lay siege without interference of the field army, as it had been destroyed. At the siege of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu</a> used twenty catapults against the <i>Bab al-Iraq</i> (<a href="/wiki/Gates_of_Baghdad" title="Gates of Baghdad">Gate of Iraq</a>) alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970362_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970362-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In Jûzjânî, there are several episodes in which the Mongols constructed hundreds of siege machines in order to surpass the number which the defending city possessed. While Jûzjânî surely exaggerated, the improbably high numbers which he used for both the Mongols and the defenders do give one a sense of the large numbers of machines used at a single siege.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p></blockquote> <p>Another Mongol tactic was to use catapults to launch corpses of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">plague</a> victims into besieged cities. The disease-carrying <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> from the bodies would then infest the city, and the plague would spread, allowing the city to be easily captured, although this <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">transmission mechanism</a> was not known at the time. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimean</a> city of Kaffa (now <a href="/wiki/Feodosiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Feodosiya">Feodosiya</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caffa" title="Siege of Caffa">Siege of Caffa</a>. It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2011]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2011)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2011]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2011)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30%–60% of Europe's population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlchon200321_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlchon200321-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the first night while laying siege to a city, the leader of the Mongol forces would lead from a white <a href="/wiki/Tent" title="Tent">tent</a>: if the city surrendered, all would be spared. On the second day, he would use a red tent: if the city surrendered, the men would all be killed, but the rest would be spared. On the third day, he would use a black tent: no quarter would be given.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart1998105_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart1998105-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ulsan_waesung_attack.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ulsan_waesung_attack.jpg/220px-Ulsan_waesung_attack.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ulsan_waesung_attack.jpg/330px-Ulsan_waesung_attack.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ulsan_waesung_attack.jpg/440px-Ulsan_waesung_attack.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Korean</a> troops assault the Japanese forces of <a href="/wiki/Hideyoshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hideyoshi">Hideyoshi</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ulsan" title="Siege of Ulsan">Siege of Ulsan</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Imjin_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Imjin War">Imjin War</a> (1592–1598).</figcaption></figure> <p>However, the Chinese were not completely defenseless, and from AD 1234 until 1279, the Southern Song Chinese held out against the enormous barrage of Mongol attacks. Much of this success in defense lay in the world's first use of gunpowder (i.e. with early <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrowers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearms</a>, cannons, and <a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">land mines</a>) to fight back against the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tanguts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanguts">Tanguts</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurchens">Jurchens</a>, and then the Mongols. </p><p>The Chinese of the Song period also discovered the explosive potential of packing hollowed cannonball shells with gunpowder. Written later <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1350</span> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Huo Long Jing</a></i>, this manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a> recorded an earlier Song-era cast-iron cannon known as the 'flying-cloud thunderclap eruptor' (fei yun pi-li pao). The manuscript stated that (<a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a> spelling): </p> <blockquote> <p>The shells (<i>phao</i>) are made of cast iron, as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball. Inside they contain half a pound of 'magic' gunpowder (<i>shen huo</i>). They are sent flying towards the enemy camp from an eruptor (<i>mu phao</i>); and when they get there a sound like a thunder-clap is heard, and flashes of light appear. If ten of these shells are fired successfully into the enemy camp, the whole place will be set ablaze...<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_264_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_264-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (AD 1368–1644), the Chinese were very concerned with city planning in regards to gunpowder warfare. The site for constructing the walls and the thickness of the walls in Beijing's <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a> were favoured by the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> (r. 1402–1424) because they were in pristine position to resist cannon volley and were built thick enough to withstand attacks from cannon fire.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>For more, see <a href="/wiki/Technology_of_the_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology of the Song dynasty">Technology of the Song dynasty</a>.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Age_of_gunpowder">Age of gunpowder</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Age of gunpowder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Siege" title="Special:EditPage/Siege">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The introduction of gunpowder and the use of <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> brought about a new age in siege warfare. Cannons were first used in <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> China during the early 13th century, but did not become significant weapons for another 150 years or so. In early decades, cannons could do little against strong castles and fortresses, providing little more than smoke and fire. By the 16th century, however, they were an essential and regularized part of any campaigning army, or castle's defences. </p><p>The greatest advantage of cannons over other siege weapons was the ability to fire a heavier projectile, farther, faster, and more often than previous weapons. They could also fire projectiles in a straight line, so that they could destroy the bases of high walls. Thus, 'old fashioned' walls – that is, high and, relatively, thin – were excellent targets, and, over time, easily demolished. In 1453, the <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">Theodosian Walls</a> of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Roman Empire</a>, were broken through in <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">just six weeks</a> by the 62 cannons of <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed the Conqueror">Mehmed II</a>'s army, although in the end the conquest was a long and extremely difficult siege with heavy Ottoman casualties due to the repeated attempts at taking the city by assault. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sixteenth_Century_Cannon2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sixteenth_Century_Cannon2.jpg/170px-Sixteenth_Century_Cannon2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sixteenth_Century_Cannon2.jpg/255px-Sixteenth_Century_Cannon2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sixteenth_Century_Cannon2.jpg/340px-Sixteenth_Century_Cannon2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1691" data-file-height="2463" /></a><figcaption>Late 16th-century illustration of <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a> with <a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">gabions</a></figcaption></figure> <p>However, new fortifications, designed to withstand gunpowder weapons, were soon constructed throughout Europe. During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, siege warfare continued to dominate the conduct of the European wars. </p><p>Once siege guns were developed, the techniques for assaulting a town or fortress became well known and ritualized. The attacking army would surround a town. Then the town would be asked to surrender. If they did not comply, the besieging army would surround the town with temporary fortifications to stop <a href="/wiki/Sally_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sally (military)">sallies</a> from the stronghold or relief getting in. The attackers would next build a length of trenches parallel to the defenses (these are known as the "first parallel") and just out of range of the defending artillery. They would dig a trench (known as a forward) towards the town in a <a href="/wiki/Zigzag" title="Zigzag">zigzag</a> pattern so that it could not be <a href="/wiki/Enfilade" class="mw-redirect" title="Enfilade">enfiladed</a> by defending fire. Once they were within artillery range, they would dig another parallel (the Second Parallel) trench and fortify it with gun emplacements. This technique is commonly called entrenchment. </p><p>If necessary, using the first artillery fire for cover, the forces conducting the siege would repeat the process until they placed their guns close enough to be laid (aimed) accurately to make a breach in the fortifications. In order to allow the <a href="/wiki/Forlorn_hope" title="Forlorn hope">forlorn hope</a> and support troops to get close enough to exploit the breach, more zigzag trenches could be dug even closer to the walls, with more parallel trenches to protect and conceal the attacking troops. After each step in the process, the besiegers would ask the besieged to surrender. If the forlorn hope stormed the breach successfully, the defenders could expect no mercy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emerging_theories">Emerging theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Emerging theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The castles that in earlier years had been formidable obstacles were easily breached by the new weapons. For example, in Spain, the newly equipped army of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_and_Isabella" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand and Isabella">Ferdinand and Isabella</a> was able to conquer <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> strongholds in <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a> in 1482–1492 that had held out for centuries before the invention of cannons. </p><p>In the early 15th century, Italian architect <a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Leon Battista Alberti</a> wrote a treatise entitled <i>De Re aedificatoria</i>, which theorized methods of building fortifications capable of withstanding the new guns. He proposed that walls be "built in uneven lines, like the teeth of a saw". He proposed star-shaped fortresses with low, thick walls. </p><p>However, few rulers paid any attention to his theories. A few towns in Italy began building in the new style late in the 1480s, but it was only with the French invasion of the Italian peninsula in 1494–1495 that the new fortifications were built on a large scale. <a href="/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France" title="Charles VIII of France">Charles VIII</a> invaded Italy with an army of 18,000 men and a horse-drawn <a href="/wiki/Siege-train" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege-train">siege-train</a>. As a result, he could defeat virtually any city or state, no matter how well defended. In a panic, military strategy was completely rethought throughout the Italian states of the time, with a strong emphasis on the new fortifications that could withstand a modern siege. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_fortresses">New fortresses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: New fortresses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B12_098_1-Stadsprofiel_van-_CANDIA.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B12_098_1-Stadsprofiel_van-_CANDIA.jpeg/290px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B12_098_1-Stadsprofiel_van-_CANDIA.jpeg" decoding="async" width="290" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B12_098_1-Stadsprofiel_van-_CANDIA.jpeg/435px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B12_098_1-Stadsprofiel_van-_CANDIA.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B12_098_1-Stadsprofiel_van-_CANDIA.jpeg/580px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B12_098_1-Stadsprofiel_van-_CANDIA.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="2252" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Candia" title="Siege of Candia">Siege of Candia</a>, regarded as one of the longest sieges in history (1648–1669)</figcaption></figure> <p>The most effective way to protect walls against cannon fire proved to be depth (increasing the width of the defenses) and angles (ensuring that attackers could only fire on walls at an oblique angle, not square on). Initially, walls were lowered and backed, in front and behind, with earth. Towers were reformed into triangular bastions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETownshend2000211_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETownshend2000211-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This design matured into the <i><a href="/wiki/Trace_italienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Trace italienne">trace italienne</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">Star-shaped fortresses</a> surrounding towns and even cities with outlying defenses proved very difficult to capture, even for a well-equipped army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETownshend2000212_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETownshend2000212-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fortresses built in this style throughout the 16th century did not become fully obsolete until the 19th century, and were still in use throughout World War I (though modified for 20th-century warfare). During World War II, <i>trace italienne</i> fortresses could still present a formidable challenge, for example, in the last days of World War II, during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_in_Berlin" title="Battle in Berlin">Battle in Berlin</a>, that saw some of the heaviest urban fighting of the war, the Soviets did not attempt to storm the <a href="/wiki/Spandau_Citadel" title="Spandau Citadel">Spandau Citadel</a> (built between 1559 and 1594), but chose to <a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">invest</a> it and negotiate its surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002372–375_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002372–375-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the cost of building such vast modern fortifications was incredibly high, and was often too much for individual cities to undertake. Many were bankrupted in the process of building them; others, such as <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>, spent so much money on fortifications that they were unable to maintain their armies properly, and so lost their wars anyway. Nonetheless, innumerable large and impressive fortresses were built throughout northern Italy in the first decades of the 16th century to resist repeated French invasions that became known as the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a>. Many stand to this day. </p><p>In the 1530s and 1540s, the new style of fortification began to spread out of Italy into the rest of Europe, particularly to France, the Netherlands, and Spain. Italian engineers were in enormous demand throughout Europe, especially in war-torn areas such as the Netherlands, which became dotted by towns encircled in modern fortifications. The densely populated areas of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a> (the Netherlands) were infamous for their high degree of fortification of cities. It made campaigns in these areas very hard to successfully conduct, considering even minor cities had to be captured by siege within the span of the campaigning season. In the Dutch case, the possibility of flooding large parts of the land provided an additional obstacle to besiegers, for example at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Siege of Leiden</a>. For many years, defensive and offensive tactics were well balanced, leading to protracted and costly wars such as Europe had never known, involving more and more planning and government involvement. The new fortresses ensured that war rarely extended beyond a series of sieges. Because the new fortresses could easily hold 10,000 men, an attacking army could not ignore a powerfully fortified position without serious risk of counterattack. As a result, virtually all towns had to be taken, and that was usually a long, drawn-out affair, potentially lasting from several months to years, while the members of the town were starved to death. Most battles in this period were between besieging armies and relief columns sent to rescue the besieged. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marshal_Vauban_and_Van_Coehoorn">Marshal Vauban and Van Coehoorn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Marshal Vauban and Van Coehoorn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Siege" title="Special:EditPage/Siege">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuf-Brisach_007_850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Neuf-Brisach_007_850.jpg/220px-Neuf-Brisach_007_850.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Neuf-Brisach_007_850.jpg/330px-Neuf-Brisach_007_850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Neuf-Brisach_007_850.jpg/440px-Neuf-Brisach_007_850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vauban" class="mw-redirect" title="Vauban">Vauban</a>'s star-shaped fortified city of <a href="/wiki/Neuf-Brisach" title="Neuf-Brisach">Neuf-Brisach</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the 17th century, two influential military engineers, the French <a href="/wiki/Marshal" title="Marshal">Marshal</a> <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Le_Prestre_de_Vauban" class="mw-redirect" title="Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban">Vauban</a> and the Dutch military engineer <a href="/wiki/Menno_van_Coehoorn" title="Menno van Coehoorn">Menno van Coehoorn</a>, developed modern fortification to its pinnacle, refining siege warfare without fundamentally altering it: ditches would be dug; walls would be protected by <a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">glacis</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">bastions</a> would <a href="/wiki/Enfilade" class="mw-redirect" title="Enfilade">enfilade</a> an attacker. Both engineers developed their ideas independently, but came to similar general rules regarding defensive construction and offensive action against fortifications. Both were skilled in conducting sieges and defenses themselves. Before Vauban and Van Coehoorn, sieges had been somewhat slapdash operations. Vauban and Van Coehoorn refined besieging to a science with a methodical process that, if uninterrupted, would break even the strongest fortifications. Examples of their styles of fortifications are <a href="/wiki/Arras" title="Arras">Arras</a> (Vauban) and the no-longer-existent fortress of <a href="/wiki/Bergen_op_Zoom" title="Bergen op Zoom">Bergen op Zoom</a> (Van Coehoorn). The main differences between the two lay in the difference in terrain on which Vauban and Van Coehoorn constructed their defenses: Vauban in the sometimes more hilly and mountainous terrain of France, Van Coehoorn in the flat and floodable lowlands of the Netherlands. </p><p>Planning and maintaining a siege is just as difficult as fending one off. A besieging army must be prepared to repel both <a href="/wiki/Sortie_(siege_warfare)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sortie (siege warfare)">sorties</a> from the besieged area and also any attack that may try to relieve the defenders. It was thus usual to construct lines of trenches and defenses facing in both directions. The outermost lines, known as the lines of <a href="/wiki/Contravallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Contravallation">contravallation</a>, would surround the entire besieging army and protect it from attackers. </p><p>This would be the first construction effort of a besieging army, built soon after a fortress or city had been invested. A line of circumvallation would also be constructed, facing in towards the besieged area, to protect against sorties by the defenders and to prevent the besieged from escaping. The next line, which Vauban usually placed at about 600 metres (2,000 ft) from the target, would contain the main batteries of heavy cannons so that they could hit the target without being vulnerable themselves. Once this line was established, work crews would move forward, creating another line at 250 metres (1,000 ft). This line contained smaller guns. The final line would be constructed only 30 to 60 metres (100 to 200 ft) from the fortress. This line would contain the <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">mortars</a> and would act as a <a href="/wiki/Staging_area" title="Staging area">staging area</a> for attack parties once the walls were breached. Van Coehoorn developed a small and easily movable mortar named the <a href="/wiki/Coehorn" title="Coehorn">coehorn</a>, variations of which were used in sieges until the 19th century. It would also be from this line that miners working to undermine the fortress would operate. </p><p>The trenches connecting the various lines of the besiegers could not be built perpendicular to the walls of the fortress, as the defenders would have a clear line of fire along the whole trench. Thus, these lines (known as <a href="/wiki/Sapping" title="Sapping">saps</a>) needed to be sharply jagged. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/220px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/330px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg/440px-Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2783" data-file-height="1842" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a> took place in 1683 after <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> had been besieged by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> for two months.</figcaption></figure> <p>Another element of a fortress was the <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadel</a>. Usually, a citadel was a "mini fortress" within the larger fortress, sometimes designed as a <a href="/wiki/Reduit" title="Reduit">reduit</a>, but more often as a means of protecting the garrison from potential revolt in the city. The citadel was used in wartime and peacetime to keep the residents of the city in line. </p><p>As in ages past, most sieges were decided with very little fighting between the opposing armies. An attacker's army was poorly served, incurring the high casualties that a direct assault on a fortress would entail. Usually, they would wait until supplies inside the fortifications were exhausted or disease had weakened the defenders to the point that they were willing to surrender. At the same time, diseases, especially <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, were a constant danger to the encamped armies outside the fortress, and often forced a premature retreat. Sieges were often won by the army that lasted the longest. </p><p>An important element of <a href="/wiki/Strategy" title="Strategy">strategy</a> for the besieging army was whether or not to allow the encamped city to surrender. Usually, it was preferable to graciously allow a <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrender (military)">surrender</a>, both to save on casualties, and to set an example for future defending cities. A city that was allowed to surrender with minimal loss of life was much better off than a city that held out for a long time and was brutally butchered at the end. Moreover, if an attacking army had a reputation of killing and pillaging regardless of a surrender, then other cities' defensive efforts would be redoubled. Usually, a city would surrender (with no honour lost) when its inner lines of defense were reached by the attacker. In case of refusal, however, the inner lines would have to be stormed by the attacker and the attacking troops would be seen to be justified in sacking the city. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_warfare">Siege warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Siege warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Siege warfare dominated in Western Europe for most of the 17th and 18th centuries. An entire campaign, or longer, could be used in a single siege (for example, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a> in 1601–1604; <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_La_Rochelle" title="Siege of La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a> in 1627–1628). This resulted in extremely prolonged conflicts. The balance was that, while siege warfare was extremely expensive and very slow, it was very successful—or, at least, more so than encounters in the field. Battles arose through clashes between besiegers and relieving armies, but the principle was a slow, grinding victory by the greater economic power. The relatively rare attempts at forcing <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">pitched battles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus" title="Gustavus Adolphus">Gustavus Adolphus</a> in 1630; the French against the Dutch in 1672 or 1688) were almost always expensive failures. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_Yorktown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bataille_Yorktown.jpg/220px-Bataille_Yorktown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bataille_Yorktown.jpg/330px-Bataille_Yorktown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bataille_Yorktown.jpg/440px-Bataille_Yorktown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1909" data-file-height="1373" /></a><figcaption>Storming of Redoubt #10 during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown" title="Siege of Yorktown">Siege of Yorktown</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The exception to this rule were the English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldock1809515–520_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldock1809515–520-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, anything which tended to prolong the struggle, or seemed like want of energy and avoidance of a decision, was bitterly resented by the men of both sides. In France and Germany, the prolongation of a war meant continued employment for the soldiers, but in England, both sides were looking to end the war quickly. Even when in the end the <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a>—a regular professional army—developed the original decision-compelling spirit permeated the whole organisation, as was seen when pitched against regular professional continental troops the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)" title="Battle of the Dunes (1658)">Battle of the Dunes</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Badajoz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Battle_of_Badajoz.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Badajoz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Battle_of_Badajoz.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Badajoz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Battle_of_Badajoz.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Badajoz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1026" data-file-height="687" /></a><figcaption>British infantry attempt to scale the walls of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Badajoz_(1812)" title="Siege of Badajoz (1812)">Badajoz</a>, Peninsular War, 1812</figcaption></figure> <p>Experienced commanders on both sides in the English Civil War recommended the abandonment of garrisoned fortifications for two primary reasons. The first, as for example proposed by the Royalist <a href="/wiki/Sir_Richard_Willis,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Richard Willis, 1st Baronet">Sir Richard Willis</a> to King Charles, was that by abandoning the garrisoning of all but the most strategic locations in one's own territory, far more troops would be available for the field armies, and it was the field armies which would decide the conflict. The other argument was that by slighting potential strong points in one's own territory, an enemy expeditionary force, or local enemy rising, would find it more difficult to consolidate territorial gains against an inevitable counterattack. Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Meldrum" title="John Meldrum">John Meldrum</a> put forward just such an argument to the Parliamentary <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Both_Kingdoms" title="Committee of Both Kingdoms">Committee of Both Kingdoms</a>, to justify his slighting of <a href="/wiki/Gainsborough,_Lincolnshire" title="Gainsborough, Lincolnshire">Gainsborough</a> in Lincolnshire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESymonds1859270_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESymonds1859270-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFirth190229_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirth190229-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sixty years later, during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, the <a href="/wiki/John_Churchill,_1st_Duke_of_Marlborough" title="John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough">Duke of Marlborough</a> preferred to engage the enemy in pitched battles, rather than engage in siege warfare, although he was very proficient in both types of warfare. </p><p>On 15 April 1746, the day before the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden" title="Battle of Culloden">Battle of Culloden</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Dunrobin_Castle" title="Dunrobin Castle">Dunrobin Castle</a>, a party of <a href="/wiki/William_Sutherland,_17th_Earl_of_Sutherland" title="William Sutherland, 17th Earl of Sutherland">William Sutherland</a>'s militia conducted the last siege fought on the mainland of Great Britain against Jacobite members of <a href="/wiki/Clan_MacLeod" title="Clan MacLeod">Clan MacLeod</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strategic_concepts">Strategic concepts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Strategic concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, new techniques stressed the division of armies into all-arms corps that would march separately and only come together on the battlefield. The less-concentrated army could now live off the country and move more rapidly over a larger number of roads. </p><p>Fortresses commanding lines of communication could be bypassed and would no longer stop an invasion. Since armies could not live off the land indefinitely, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> always sought a quick end to any conflict by pitched battle. This military revolution was described and codified by <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz" title="Carl von Clausewitz">Clausewitz</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Industrial_advances">Industrial advances</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Industrial advances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Siege" title="Special:EditPage/Siege">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detaille_-_Engineer_Corps,_Siege_of_Anvers,_1832.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Detaille_-_Engineer_Corps%2C_Siege_of_Anvers%2C_1832.jpg/220px-Detaille_-_Engineer_Corps%2C_Siege_of_Anvers%2C_1832.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Detaille_-_Engineer_Corps%2C_Siege_of_Anvers%2C_1832.jpg/330px-Detaille_-_Engineer_Corps%2C_Siege_of_Anvers%2C_1832.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Detaille_-_Engineer_Corps%2C_Siege_of_Anvers%2C_1832.jpg/440px-Detaille_-_Engineer_Corps%2C_Siege_of_Anvers%2C_1832.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>French Engineer Corps during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antwerp_(1832)" title="Siege of Antwerp (1832)">Siege of Antwerp</a>, 1832</figcaption></figure> <p>Advances in artillery made previously impregnable defenses useless. For example, the walls of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Vienna</a> that had held off the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Turks</a> in the mid-17th century were no obstacle to <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> in the early 19th. </p><p>Where sieges occurred (such as the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Delhi" title="Siege of Delhi">Siege of Delhi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cawnpore" title="Siege of Cawnpore">Siege of Cawnpore</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a>), the attackers were usually able to defeat the defenses within a matter of days or weeks, rather than weeks or months as previously. The great Swedish white-elephant fortress of <a href="/wiki/Karlsborg_Fortress" title="Karlsborg Fortress">Karlsborg</a> was built in the tradition of Vauban and intended as a reserve capital for Sweden, but it was obsolete before it was completed in 1869. </p><p>Railways, when they were introduced, made possible the movement and supply of larger armies than those that fought in the Napoleonic Wars. It also reintroduced siege warfare, as armies seeking to use railway lines in enemy territory were forced to capture fortresses which blocked these lines. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>, the battlefield front-lines moved rapidly through France. However, the Prussian and other German armies were delayed for months at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Metz_(1870)" title="Siege of Metz (1870)">Siege of Metz</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">Siege of Paris</a>, due to the greatly increased firepower of the defending infantry, and the principle of detached or semi-detached forts with heavy-caliber <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>. This resulted in the later construction of fortress works across Europe, such as the massive fortifications at <a href="/wiki/Verdun-sur-Meuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Verdun-sur-Meuse">Verdun</a>. It also led to the introduction of tactics which sought to induce surrender by bombarding the civilian population within a fortress, rather than the defending works themselves. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1854%E2%80%931855)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)">Siege of Sevastopol</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">siege of Petersburg</a> (1864–1865) during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> showed that modern citadels, when improved by improvised defences, could still resist an enemy for many months. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Plevna" title="Siege of Plevna">Siege of Plevna</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a> proved that hastily constructed field defenses could resist attacks prepared without proper resources, and were a portent of the trench warfare of World War I. </p><p>Advances in firearms technology without the necessary advances in battlefield communications gradually led to the defense again gaining the ascendancy. An example of siege during this time, prolonged during 337 days due to the isolation of the surrounded troops, was the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baler" title="Siege of Baler">Siege of Baler</a>, in which a reduced group of Spanish soldiers was besieged in a small church by the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippine</a> rebels in the course of the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, until months after the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a>, the end of the conflict. </p><p>Furthermore, the development of <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steamships</a> availed greater speed to <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runner" title="Blockade runner">blockade runners</a>, ships with the purpose of bringing cargo, e.g. food, to cities under blockade, as with <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a> during the American Civil War. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_warfare">Modern warfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Modern warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg/170px-Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg/255px-Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg/340px-Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="821" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Sepoy" title="Sepoy">sepoy</a> <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">PoW</a> shows the conditions of the garrison at <a href="/wiki/Kut" title="Kut">Kut</a> at the end <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">of the siege</a> in World War I.</figcaption></figure> <p>Mainly as a result of the increasing firepower (such as <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine guns</a>) available to defensive forces, <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a> briefly revived a form of siege warfare. Although siege warfare had moved out from an urban setting because city walls had become ineffective against modern weapons, trench warfare was nonetheless able to use many of the techniques of siege warfare in its prosecution (sapping, mining, <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">barrage</a> and, of course, <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">attrition</a>), but on a much larger scale and on a greatly extended front. </p><p>More traditional sieges of fortifications took place in addition to trench sieges. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Siege of Tsingtao</a> was one of the first major sieges of the war, but the inability for significant resupply of the German garrison made it a relatively one-sided battle. The Germans and the crew of an Austro-Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Protected_cruiser" title="Protected cruiser">protected cruiser</a> put up a hopeless defense and, after holding out for more than a week, surrendered to the Japanese, forcing the German <a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Squadron" title="East Asia Squadron">East Asia Squadron</a> to steam towards South America for a new coal source.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The East Asia Squadron was already off South America and had fought at Coronel by the time Tsingtau surrenedered to the Japanese (September 2023)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Siege#Dubious" title="Talk:Siege">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The other major siege outside Europe during the First World War was in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a>. After a failed attempt to move on Baghdad, stopped by the Ottomans at the bloody <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(1915)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (1915)">Battle of Ctesiphon</a>, the British and their large contingent of Indian <a href="/wiki/Sepoy" title="Sepoy">sepoy</a> soldiers were forced to retreat to Kut, where the Ottomans under German General <a href="/wiki/Colmar_Freiherr_von_der_Goltz" title="Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz">Baron Colmar von der Goltz</a> laid siege. The British attempts to resupply the force via the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river failed, and rationing was complicated by the refusal of many Indian troops to eat cattle products. By the time the garrison fell on 29 April 1916, starvation was rampant. Conditions did not improve greatly under Turkish imprisonment. Along with the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tanga" title="Battle of Tanga">Tanga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sandfontein" title="Battle of Sandfontein">Sandfontein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Namacurra" title="Battle of Namacurra">Namacurra</a>, it would be one of Britain's numerous embarrassing colonial defeats of the war. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911.jpg/220px-Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911.jpg/330px-Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911.jpg/440px-Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1845" data-file-height="996" /></a><figcaption>The Skoda 305 mm Model 1911</figcaption></figure> <p>The largest sieges of the war, however, took place in Europe. The initial German advance into Belgium produced four major sieges: the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Battle of Liège">Battle of Liège</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Namur_(1914)" title="Siege of Namur (1914)">Siege of Namur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maubeuge" title="Siege of Maubeuge">Siege of Maubeuge</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antwerp_(1914)" title="Siege of Antwerp (1914)">Siege of Antwerp</a>. All four would prove crushing German victories, at Liège and Namur against the Belgians, at Maubeuge against the French and at Antwerp against a combined Anglo-Belgian force. The weapon that made these victories possible were the German <a href="/wiki/Big_Bertha_(howitzer)" title="Big Bertha (howitzer)">Big Berthas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911" title="Skoda 305 mm Model 1911">Skoda 305 mm Model 1911</a> siege mortars, one of the best siege mortars of the war,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynoldsChurchillMiller1916406_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynoldsChurchillMiller1916406-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on loan from Austria-Hungary. These huge guns were the decisive weapon of siege warfare in the 20th century, taking part at Przemyśl, the Belgian sieges, on the Italian Front and Serbian Front, and even being reused in World War II. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Szturm_Twierdzy_Przemysl_A._Ritter_von_Meissl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Szturm_Twierdzy_Przemysl_A._Ritter_von_Meissl.jpg/220px-Szturm_Twierdzy_Przemysl_A._Ritter_von_Meissl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Szturm_Twierdzy_Przemysl_A._Ritter_von_Meissl.jpg/330px-Szturm_Twierdzy_Przemysl_A._Ritter_von_Meissl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Szturm_Twierdzy_Przemysl_A._Ritter_von_Meissl.jpg/440px-Szturm_Twierdzy_Przemysl_A._Ritter_von_Meissl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Siege of Przemyśl</figcaption></figure> <p>At the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Siege of Przemyśl">Siege of Przemyśl</a> during World War I, the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army" title="Austro-Hungarian Army">Austro-Hungarian</a> garrison showed excellent knowledge of siege warfare, not only waiting for relief, but sending sorties into Russian lines and employing an active defense that resulted in the capture of the Russian General <a href="/wiki/Lavr_Kornilov" title="Lavr Kornilov">Lavr Kornilov</a>. Despite its excellent performance, the garrison's food supply had been requisitioned for earlier offensives, a relief expedition was stalled by the weather, ethnic rivalries flared up between the defending soldiers, and a breakout attempt failed. When the commander of the garrison Hermann Kusmanek finally surrendered, his troops were eating their horses and the first attempt of large-scale air supply had failed. It was one of the few great victories obtained by either side during the war; 110,000 Austro-Hungarian prisoners were marched back to Russia. Use of aircraft for siege running, bringing supplies to areas under siege, would nevertheless prove useful in many sieges to come. </p><p>The largest siege of the war, and arguably the roughest, most gruesome battle in history, was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">Battle of Verdun</a>. Whether the battle can be considered true siege warfare is debatable. Under the theories of <a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Falkenhayn" title="Erich von Falkenhayn">Erich von Falkenhayn</a>, it is more distinguishable as purely attrition with a coincidental presence of fortifications on the battlefield. When considering the plans of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm,_German_Crown_Prince" title="Wilhelm, German Crown Prince">Crown Prince Wilhelm</a>, purely concerned with taking the citadel and not with French casualty figures, it can be considered a true siege. The main fortifications were <a href="/wiki/Fort_Douaumont" title="Fort Douaumont">Fort Douaumont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Vaux" title="Fort Vaux">Fort Vaux</a>, and the fortified city of Verdun itself. The Germans, through the use of huge artillery bombardments, flamethrowers, and infiltration tactics, were able to capture both Vaux and Douaumont, but were never able to take the city, and eventually lost most of their gains. It was a battle that, despite the French ability to fend off the Germans, neither side won. The German losses were not worth the potential capture of the city, and the French casualties were not worth holding the symbol of her defense. </p><p>The development of the armored <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tank</a> and improved <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">tactics</a> at the end of World War I swung the pendulum back in favor of maneuver, and with the advent of Blitzkrieg in 1939, the end of traditional siege warfare was at hand. The <a href="/wiki/Maginot_Line" title="Maginot Line">Maginot Line</a> would be the prime example of the failure of immobile, post–World War I fortifications. Although sieges would continue, it would be in a totally different style and on a reduced scale. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a> of the Second World War truly showed that fixed fortifications are easily defeated by manoeuvre instead of frontal assault or long sieges. The great <a href="/wiki/Maginot_Line" title="Maginot Line">Maginot Line</a> was bypassed, and battles that would have taken weeks of siege could now be avoided with the careful application of air power (such as the German <a href="/wiki/Paratrooper" title="Paratrooper">paratrooper</a> capture of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Eben-Emael" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Eben-Emael">Fort Eben-Emael</a>, Belgium, early in World War II). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leningrad_Siege_May_1942_-_January_1943.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Leningrad_Siege_May_1942_-_January_1943.png/400px-Leningrad_Siege_May_1942_-_January_1943.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Leningrad_Siege_May_1942_-_January_1943.png/600px-Leningrad_Siege_May_1942_-_January_1943.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Leningrad_Siege_May_1942_-_January_1943.png/800px-Leningrad_Siege_May_1942_-_January_1943.png 2x" data-file-width="1058" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>Map showing Axis encirclement during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">siege of Leningrad</a> (1942–1943)</figcaption></figure> <p>The most important siege was the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a>, that lasted over 29 months, about half of the duration of the entire Second World War. The siege of Leningrad resulted in the deaths of some <a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_by_casualties" title="List of battles by casualties">one million of the city's inhabitants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, the siege of Leningrad on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> was the deadliest siege of a city in history. In the west, apart from the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a>, the sieges were not on the same scale as those on the European Eastern front; however, there were several notable or critical sieges: the island of <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, for which the population won the <a href="/wiki/George_Cross" title="George Cross">George Cross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tobruk" title="Siege of Tobruk">Tobruk</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asian theatre</a>, there was the siege of <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a>, sieges of <a href="/wiki/Myitkyina" title="Myitkyina">Myitkyina</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Admin_Box" title="Battle of the Admin Box">Admin Box</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">Imphal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Kohima</a>, which was the high-water mark for the Japanese advance into <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">India</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a> saw the use of the heaviest and most powerful individual siege engines ever to be used: the German <a href="/wiki/Schwerer_Gustav" title="Schwerer Gustav">800 mm railway gun</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Karl-Ger%C3%A4t" title="Karl-Gerät">600 mm siege mortar</a>. Though a single shell could have disastrous local effect, the guns were susceptible to air attack in addition to being slow to move. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Airbridge">Airbridge</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Airbridge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the war both the Western Allies and the Germans tried to supply forces besieged behind enemy lines with ad-hoc <a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">airbridges</a>. Sometimes these attempts failed, as happened to the besieged <a href="/wiki/6th_Army_(Wehrmacht)" title="6th Army (Wehrmacht)">German Sixth Army</a> the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad#Sixth_Army_surrounded" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, and sometimes they succeeded as happened during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Admin_Box" title="Battle of the Admin Box">Battle of the Admin Box</a> (5 – 23 February 1944) and the short <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bastogne" title="Siege of Bastogne">Siege of Bastogne</a> (December 1944). </p><p>The logistics of strategic airbridge operations were developed by the Americans flying <a href="/wiki/Military_transport_aircraft" title="Military transport aircraft">military transport aircraft</a> from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> to <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912-1949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912-1949)">China</a> over <a href="/wiki/The_Hump" title="The Hump">the Hump</a> (1942–1945), to resupply the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Chinese war effort</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, and to the USAAF <a href="/wiki/XX_Bomber_Command" title="XX Bomber Command">XX Bomber Command</a> (during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Matterhorn" title="Operation Matterhorn">Operation Matterhorn</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Tactical airbridge methods were developed and, as planned, used extensively for supplying the <a href="/wiki/Chindits" title="Chindits">Chindits</a> during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Thursday" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Thursday">Operation Thursday</a> (February – May 1944). The Chindits, a specially trained division of the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian</a> armies, were flown deep behind Japanese front lines in the South-East Asian theatre to jungle clearings in Burma where they set up fortified airheads from which they sailed out to attack Japanese lines of communications, while defending the bases from Japanese counterattacks. The bases were re-supplied by air with casualties flown out by returning aircraft. When the Japanese attacked in strength the Chindits abandoned the bases and either moved to new bases, or back to Allied lines.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-World_War_II">Post-World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Post-World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dien_Bien_Phu002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Dien_Bien_Phu002.jpg/220px-Dien_Bien_Phu002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Dien_Bien_Phu002.jpg/330px-Dien_Bien_Phu002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Dien_Bien_Phu002.jpg/440px-Dien_Bien_Phu002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1206" data-file-height="813" /></a><figcaption>French troops seeking cover in trenches, Dien Bien Phu, 1954</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarajevo_Siege_Collecting_Firewood_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Sarajevo_Siege_Collecting_Firewood_2.jpg/220px-Sarajevo_Siege_Collecting_Firewood_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Sarajevo_Siege_Collecting_Firewood_2.jpg/330px-Sarajevo_Siege_Collecting_Firewood_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Sarajevo_Siege_Collecting_Firewood_2.jpg/440px-Sarajevo_Siege_Collecting_Firewood_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1688" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Sarajevo residents collecting firewood, winter of 1992–1993</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marawi-structures-stats.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Marawi-structures-stats.jpg/220px-Marawi-structures-stats.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Marawi-structures-stats.jpg/330px-Marawi-structures-stats.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Marawi-structures-stats.jpg/440px-Marawi-structures-stats.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>Map of destroyed infrastructure following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Marawi">Siege of Marawi</a>, 2017</figcaption></figure> <p>Several times during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> the western powers had to use their airbridge expertise. </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a> from June 1948 to September 1949, the Western Powers flew over 200,000 flights, providing to West Berlin up to 8,893 tons of necessities each day.</li> <li>Airbridge was used extensively during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Dien Bien Phu</a> during the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>, but failed to prevent its fall to the <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Minh">Việt Minh</a> in 1954.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">the next Vietnam War</a>, airbridge proved crucial during the siege of the American base at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khe_Sanh" title="Battle of Khe Sanh">Khe Sanh</a> in 1968. The resupply it provided kept the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Army_of_Vietnam" title="People's Army of Vietnam">North Vietnamese Army</a> from capturing the base.</li></ul> <p>In both Vietnamese cases, the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_South_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam">NLF</a> were able to cut off the opposing army by capturing the surrounding rugged terrain.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Dien Bien Phu, the French were unable to use air power to overcome the siege and were defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorocco198452_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorocco198452-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, at Khe Sanh, a mere 14 years later, advances in air power—and a reduction in Vietnamese anti-aircraft capability—allowed the United States to withstand the siege. The resistance of US forces was assisted by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Army_of_Vietnam" title="People's Army of Vietnam">PAVN</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">PLAF</a> forces' decision to use the Khe Sanh siege as a strategic distraction to allow their mobile warfare offensive, the first <a href="/wiki/Tet_Offensive" title="Tet Offensive">Tet Offensive</a>, to unfold securely. </p><p>The Battle of Khe Sanh displays typical features of modern sieges, as the defender has greater capacity to withstand the siege, the attacker's main aim is to bottle operational forces or create a strategic distraction, rather than take the siege to a conclusion. </p><p>In neighboring Cambodia, at that time known as the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_coup_of_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambodian coup of 1970">Khmer Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a> used siege tactics to cut off supplies from <a href="/wiki/Phnom_Penh" title="Phnom Penh">Phnom Penh</a> to other government-held enclaves in an attempt to break the will of the government to continue fighting. </p><p>In 1972, during the Easter offensive, the siege of <a href="/wiki/An_L%E1%BB%99c,_B%C3%ACnh_Ph%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc" title="An Lộc, Bình Phước">An Lộc</a> Vietnam occurred. ARVN troops and U.S. advisers and air power successfully defeated communist forces. The Battle of An Lộc pitted some 6,350 ARVN men against a force three times that size. During the peak of the battle, ARVN had access to only one 105 mm howitzer to provide close support, while the enemy attack was backed by an entire artillery division. ARVN had no tanks, the NVA communist forces had two armoured regiments. ARVN prevailed after over two months of continuous fighting. As General Paul Vanuxem, a French veteran of the Indochina War, wrote in 1972 after visiting the liberated city of An Lộc: "An Lộc was the Verdun of Vietnam, where Vietnam received as in baptism the supreme consecration of her will." </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War" title="1982 Lebanon War">1982 Lebanon War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defence_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel Defence Forces">Israel Defence Forces</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Beirut" title="Siege of Beirut">besieged</a> <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, to quickly realize their goals including the eviction of the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a> from the country. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> in the 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Republika_Srpska" title="Republika Srpska">Republika Srpska</a> forces <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sarajevo" title="Siege of Sarajevo">besieged</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarajevo" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Bosnia-Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnia-Herzegovina">Bosnia-Herzegovina</a>. The siege lasted from 1992 until 1996. </p><p>Numerous sieges haven taken place during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Homs" title="Siege of Homs">Siege of Homs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Koban%C3%AE" title="Siege of Kobanî">Siege of Kobanî</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Deir_ez-Zor_(2014%E2%80%932017)" title="Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)">Siege of Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nubl_and_al-Zahraa" title="Siege of Nubl and al-Zahraa">Siege of Nubl and al-Zahraa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_al-Fu%27ah_and_Kafriya" title="Siege of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya">Siege of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya</a>. </p><p>Multiple sieges took place in the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mariupol" title="Siege of Mariupol">Siege of Mariupol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Israel–Hamas war">Israel–Hamas war</a> in 2023-2024 contained multiple sieges, including the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_City" title="Siege of Gaza City">Siege of Gaza City</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Khan_Yunis" title="Siege of Khan Yunis">Siege of Khan Yunis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Police_sieges">Police sieges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Police sieges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Police_action" title="Police action">Police action</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shootout" title="Shootout">Shootout</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LAPD_SWAT_Truck_Hostage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/LAPD_SWAT_Truck_Hostage.jpg/220px-LAPD_SWAT_Truck_Hostage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/LAPD_SWAT_Truck_Hostage.jpg/330px-LAPD_SWAT_Truck_Hostage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/LAPD_SWAT_Truck_Hostage.jpg/440px-LAPD_SWAT_Truck_Hostage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department" title="Los Angeles Police Department">Los Angeles Police Department</a> <a href="/wiki/LAPD_Metropolitan_Division" title="LAPD Metropolitan Division">Metropolitan Division</a> truck at the scene of a standoff in 2009</figcaption></figure> <p>Siege tactics continue to be employed in <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a> contexts; such a siege is typically called a <b>standoff</b> or, in law enforcement <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">jargon</a>, a <b>barricade situation</b>. Standoffs may result from crimes and incidents such as <a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">robberies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Police_raid" title="Police raid">raids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">search</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arrest_warrant" title="Arrest warrant">arrest warrants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prison_riot" title="Prison riot">prison riots</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist attacks</a>. Standoffs occur due to a variety of factors, most prominently the safety of police (against whom the besieged may have the upper hand), the besieged <a href="/wiki/Suspect" title="Suspect">suspects</a> (who police generally intend to <a href="/wiki/Arrest" title="Arrest">arrest</a>), bystanders (who may be in the <a href="/wiki/Crossfire" title="Crossfire">crossfire</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">hostages</a> (who may be injured or killed by the suspects). </p><p>The optimal result of most standoffs is a peaceful resolution: the safe extraction of hostages and bystanders, and the peaceful surrender and arrest of the hostage-takers. To ensure this, police make use of trained <a href="/wiki/Crisis_negotiation" title="Crisis negotiation">negotiators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_psychology" title="Criminal psychology">psychologists</a> to learn the hostage-takers' demands (and meet said demands if feasible or permissible), gain the hostage-takers' trust, clarify that police do not intend to kill them or will even <a href="/wiki/Crime_scene_getaway" title="Crime scene getaway">let them go</a> (regardless of whether such claims are true), and coax the hostage-takers into surrendering or at least releasing hostages. In the event a peaceful resolution is impossible—negotiations fail or do not proceed, hostages are released but the hostage-takers refuse to surrender, the hostage-takers resist violently, or hostages are killed—police may respond in force, generally being able to rely on <a href="/wiki/Police_tactical_unit" title="Police tactical unit">police tactical units</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> support if possible and required. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Training_Exercise_at_NAS_Whidbey_Island_DVIDS371387.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Training_Exercise_at_NAS_Whidbey_Island_DVIDS371387.jpg/220px-Training_Exercise_at_NAS_Whidbey_Island_DVIDS371387.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Training_Exercise_at_NAS_Whidbey_Island_DVIDS371387.jpg/330px-Training_Exercise_at_NAS_Whidbey_Island_DVIDS371387.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Training_Exercise_at_NAS_Whidbey_Island_DVIDS371387.jpg/440px-Training_Exercise_at_NAS_Whidbey_Island_DVIDS371387.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Washington_State_Patrol" title="Washington State Patrol">Washington State Patrol</a> <a href="/wiki/SWAT" title="SWAT">SWAT</a> attempting to arrest a suspect during a simulated standoff in 2011</figcaption></figure> <p>Most standoffs are much shorter than military sieges, often lasting hours or days at most. Lengthy sieges may still occur, albeit rarely, such as the 51-day-long 1993 <a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a>. Most standoffs end in a peaceful resolution (i.e. <a href="/wiki/1973_Brooklyn_hostage_crisis" title="1973 Brooklyn hostage crisis">1973 Brooklyn hostage crisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/1997_Roby_standoff" title="1997 Roby standoff">1997 Roby standoff</a>), though some may end in a police or military assault (i.e. 1994 <a href="/wiki/Air_France_Flight_8969" title="Air France Flight 8969">Air France Flight 8969 hijacking</a>, 1980 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Embassy_siege" title="Iranian Embassy siege">Iranian Embassy siege</a>) or, in the worst-case scenarios, the deaths of authorities, hostage-takers, or hostages (i.e. 1985 <a href="/wiki/1985_MOVE_bombing" title="1985 MOVE bombing">MOVE bombing</a>, 1985 <a href="/wiki/EgyptAir_Flight_648" title="EgyptAir Flight 648">EgyptAir Flight 648 hijacking</a>, 2004 <a href="/wiki/Beslan_school_siege" title="Beslan school siege">Beslan school siege</a>, 2022 <a href="/wiki/Robb_Elementary_School_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="Robb Elementary School shooting">Robb Elementary School shooting</a>). The aforementioned worst-case scenarios often result from poor planning, tactics, or negotiations on the part of the authorities (e.g. accidental killings of hostages by <a href="/wiki/Unit_777" title="Unit 777">Unit 777</a> during the EgyptAir Flight 648 hijacking), or from violent acts committed by the hostage-takers (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Suicide_attack" title="Suicide attack">suicide bombings</a> and executions during the Beslan school siege). </p><p>In some jurisdictions, depending on certain circumstances, standoffs that would usually be handled by police may be transferred to the military. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, standoffs with terrorists may be transferred to military responsibility for a military assault on the besieged. The threat of such an action ended the 1975 <a href="/wiki/Balcombe_Street_siege" title="Balcombe Street siege">Balcombe Street siege</a>, but the 1980 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Embassy_siege" title="Iranian Embassy siege">Iranian Embassy siege</a> ended in a military assault and the deaths of all but one of the hostage-takers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sieges" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sieges">Sieges</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Battleplan" title="Battleplan">Battleplan</a></i> (documentary TV series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">Breastwork (fortification)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_tactics" title="Infiltration tactics">Infiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_stand" title="Last stand">Last stand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Medieval warfare</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar (fortification)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Siege_engines" title="Category:Siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Siege_equipment" title="Category:Siege equipment">Siege equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Lists</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">List of established military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">List of sieges</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-merriam-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-merriam_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/siege">"Definition of SIEGE"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. 15 June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240406043037/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/siege">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=Definition+of+SIEGE&rft.date=2023-06-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fsiege&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/invest">"Definition of INVEST"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. 10 June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240405152643/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/invest">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=Definition+of+INVEST&rft.date=2023-06-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Finvest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFletcherCruickshank199620-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFletcherCruickshank199620_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFletcherCruickshank199620_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFletcherCruickshank1996">Fletcher & Cruickshank 1996</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStearns200117-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStearns200117_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStearns2001">Stearns 2001</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_3_43-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_43_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_3_43_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchofield2006" class="citation book cs1">Schofield, Louise (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C"><i>The Mycenaeans</i></a>. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-867-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89236-867-9"><bdi>978-0-89236-867-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mycenaeans&rft.place=Los+Angeles%2C+CA&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=J.+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-89236-867-9&rft.aulast=Schofield&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQXwzT1048Z4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_6_446-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_6_446_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Volume 5, Part 6, 446.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&pg=RA2-PA266"><i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology</i></a>. Oxford University Press. 2010. pp. 266–267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533403-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533403-6"><bdi>978-0-19-533403-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Warfare+and+Military+Technology&rft.pages=266-267&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533403-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmzwpq6bLHhMC%26pg%3DRA2-PA266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, pp. 660, 663</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskinHowland2006105-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskinHowland2006105_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskinHowland2006">Hoskin & Howland 2006</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurnbull200240-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurnbull200240_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurnbull2002">Turnbull 2002</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellman195426-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellman195426_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellman1954">Sellman 1954</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellman195422-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellman195422_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellman1954">Sellman 1954</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellman195444–45-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellman195444–45_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellman1954">Sellman 1954</a>, pp. 44–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford_handbook-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oxford_handbook_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellTritle2013" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Brian; Tritle, Lawrence A. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JneX52Op-s8C&q=success+rate+of+sieges&pg=PA644"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 644. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199333806" title="Special:BookSources/9780199333806"><bdi>9780199333806</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Warfare+in+the+Classical+World&rft.pages=644&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199333806&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.au=Tritle%2C+Lawrence+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJneX52Op-s8C%26q%3Dsuccess%2Brate%2Bof%2Bsieges%26pg%3DPA644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970362-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970362_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2011]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2011)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWheelis2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2011]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2011)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWheelis2002">Wheelis 2002</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlchon200321-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlchon200321_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlchon2003">Alchon 2003</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart1998105-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart1998105_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart1998">Stewart 1998</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-needham_volume_5_part_7_264-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-needham_volume_5_part_7_264_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnbull2012" class="citation book cs1">Turnbull, Stephen (2012). <i>Chinese Walled Cities 221 BC– AD 1644</i>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846038921" title="Special:BookSources/9781846038921"><bdi>9781846038921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Walled+Cities+221+BC%E2%80%93+AD+1644&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781846038921&rft.aulast=Turnbull&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETownshend2000211-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETownshend2000211_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTownshend2000">Townshend 2000</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETownshend2000212-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETownshend2000212_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTownshend2000">Townshend 2000</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002372–375-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002372–375_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeevor2002">Beevor 2002</a>, pp. 372–375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldock1809515–520-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldock1809515–520_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldock1809">Baldock 1809</a>, pp. 515–520.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Atkinson, Charles Francis (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Great_Rebellion#The_Royalist_and_Parliamentarian_Armies" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Great Rebellion">Great Rebellion: 2. The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 403.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Great+Rebellion%3A+2.+The+Royalist+and+Parliamentarian+Armies&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=403&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Charles+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESymonds1859270-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESymonds1859270_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSymonds1859">Symonds 1859</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirth190229-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFirth190229_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFirth1902">Firth 1902</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynoldsChurchillMiller1916406-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReynoldsChurchillMiller1916406_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReynoldsChurchillMiller1916">Reynolds, Churchill & Miller 1916</a>, p. 406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a> (2010). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n856VkLmF34C">Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></i>. Basic Books. p. 173. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00239-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00239-0">0-465-00239-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/articles/special-force-legacy-of-the-chindits/">"The History Press | Special Force: Legacy of the Chindits"</a>. <i>www.thehistorypress.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thehistorypress.co.uk&rft.atitle=The+History+Press+%7C+Special+Force%3A+Legacy+of+the+Chindits&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehistorypress.co.uk%2Farticles%2Fspecial-force-legacy-of-the-chindits%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example the challenges noted in <a href="#CITEREFWindrow2005">Windrow 2005</a>, pp. 437, 438</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorocco198452-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorocco198452_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorocco1984">Morocco 1984</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolityukZinets2022" class="citation news cs1">Polityuk, Pavel; Zinets, Natalia (21 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/ukraine-says-situation-mariupol-very-difficult-rejects-surrender-ultimatum-2022-03-21/">"Ukraine says situation in besieged Mariupol is 'very difficult'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Ukraine+says+situation+in+besieged+Mariupol+is+%27very+difficult%27&rft.date=2022-03-21&rft.aulast=Polityuk&rft.aufirst=Pavel&rft.au=Zinets%2C+Natalia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fukraine-says-situation-mariupol-very-difficult-rejects-surrender-ultimatum-2022-03-21%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlchon2003" class="citation book cs1">Alchon, Suzanne Austin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YiHHnV08ebkC&pg=PA21"><i>A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective</i></a>. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-2871-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-2871-7"><bdi>0-8263-2871-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+pest+in+the+land%3A+new+world+epidemics+in+a+global+perspective&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8263-2871-7&rft.aulast=Alchon&rft.aufirst=Suzanne+Austin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYiHHnV08ebkC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldock1809" class="citation book cs1">Baldock, Thomas Stanford (1809). <i>Cromwell as a Soldier</i>. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x_ooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA515">515–520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cromwell+as+a+Soldier&rft.pages=515-520&rft.pub=K.+Paul%2C+Trench%2C+Tr%C3%BCbner+%26+Company&rft.date=1809&rft.aulast=Baldock&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Stanford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Antony_Beevor" title="Antony Beevor">Beevor, Antony</a> (2002). <i>Berlin: The Downfall 1945</i>. Viking-Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-88695-5"><bdi>0-670-88695-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berlin%3A+The+Downfall+1945&rft.pub=Viking-Penguin+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-670-88695-5&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirth1902" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Harding_Firth" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Harding Firth">Firth, C. H.</a> (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cromwellsarmyhis00firtuoft"><i>Cromwell's Army: A History of the English Soldier During the Civil Wars, the Commonwealth and the Protectorate</i></a>. Sussex: Methurn & Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cromwellsarmyhis00firtuoft#page/n43/mode/1up">29</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cromwell%27s+Army%3A+A+History+of+the+English+Soldier+During+the+Civil+Wars%2C+the+Commonwealth+and+the+Protectorate&rft.place=Sussex&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Methurn+%26+Company&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Firth&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcromwellsarmyhis00firtuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="citation book cs1">Ebrey; Walthall; Palais (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a></span>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Ebrey&rft.au=Walthall&rft.au=Palais&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feastasiacultural00ebre_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcherCruickshank1996" class="citation book cs1">Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyarchitect1905flet"><i>Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture</i></a></span> (20th ed.). Architectural Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyarchitect1905flet/page/n71">20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7506-2267-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7506-2267-9"><bdi>0-7506-2267-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Banister+Fletcher%27s+A+History+of+Architecture&rft.pages=20&rft.edition=20th&rft.pub=Architectural+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7506-2267-9&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Banister&rft.au=Cruickshank%2C+Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryarchitect1905flet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFunderburk2021" class="citation book cs1">Funderburk, Jordan (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1160939"><i>Siege Operations for 21st Century Warfare</i></a>. U.S. Army. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220506031811/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1160939">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Siege+Operations+for+21st+Century+Warfare&rft.pub=U.S.+Army&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Funderburk&rft.aufirst=Jordan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fsti%2Fcitations%2FAD1160939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrousset1970" class="citation book cs1">Grousset, René (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou"><i>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia</i></a></span>. Rutgers University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou/page/362">362</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-1304-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-1304-9"><bdi>0-8135-1304-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+the+Steppes%3A+A+History+of+Central+Asia&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-8135-1304-9&rft.aulast=Grousset&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempireofsteppes00grou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoskinHowland2006" class="citation book cs1">Hoskin, John; Howland, Carol (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHn_8ihziN8C&pg=PA105"><i>Vietnam</i></a>. New Holland Publishers. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84537-551-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84537-551-5"><bdi>978-1-84537-551-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=New+Holland+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84537-551-5&rft.aulast=Hoskin&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Howland%2C+Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZHn_8ihziN8C%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1998" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, William (1998). <i>Dictionary of images and symbols in counselling</i> (1st ed.). Jessica Kingsley. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GGJmFIf6mtIC&pg=PA105">105</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85302-351-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85302-351-5"><bdi>1-85302-351-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+images+and+symbols+in+counselling&rft.pages=105&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Jessica+Kingsley&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-85302-351-5&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorocco1984" class="citation book cs1">Morocco, John (1984). <i>Thunder from Above: Air War, 1941–1968</i>. Boston: Boston Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thunder+from+Above%3A+Air+War%2C+1941%E2%80%931968&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Boston+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Morocco&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1986). <i>Science and Civilization in China</i>. Vol. 4. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=Caves+Books+Ltd&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1986). <i>Science and Civilization in China</i>. Vol. 5. Taiepi: Caves Books Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China&rft.place=Taiepi&rft.pub=Caves+Books+Ltd&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1986). <i>Science and Civilization in China</i>. Vol. 5. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=Caves+Books+Ltd&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynoldsChurchillMiller1916" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Francis Joseph; Churchill, Allen Leon; Miller, Francis Trevelyan (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storygreatwar05palmgoog"><i>The story of the great war: history of the European War from official sources; complete historical records of events to date</i></a>. P.F. Collier & Son. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storygreatwar05palmgoog/page/n434">406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+story+of+the+great+war%3A+history+of+the+European+War+from+official+sources%3B+complete+historical+records+of+events+to+date&rft.pages=406&rft.pub=P.F.+Collier+%26+Son&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Francis+Joseph&rft.au=Churchill%2C+Allen+Leon&rft.au=Miller%2C+Francis+Trevelyan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstorygreatwar05palmgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoland1992" class="citation journal cs1">Roland, Alex (1992). "Secrecy, Technology, and War: Greek Fire and the Defense of Byzantium, Technology and Culture". <i>Technology and Culture</i>. <b>33</b> (4): 655–679. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3106585">10.2307/3106585</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3106585">3106585</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:113017993">113017993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Secrecy%2C+Technology%2C+and+War%3A+Greek+Fire+and+the+Defense+of+Byzantium%2C+Technology+and+Culture&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=655-679&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A113017993%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3106585%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3106585&rft.aulast=Roland&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellman1954" class="citation book cs1">Sellman, R. R. (1954). <i>Castles and Fortresses</i>. Methuen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Castles+and+Fortresses&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Sellman&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearns2001" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Peter N. (2001). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea"><i>The Encyclopedia of World History: ancient, medieval, and modern</i></a></span> (6th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea/page/n651">17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-65237-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-65237-5"><bdi>0-395-65237-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+World+History%3A+ancient%2C+medieval%2C+and+modern&rft.pages=17&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-395-65237-5&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaworl00stea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSymonds1859" class="citation book cs1">Symonds, Richard (1859). Long, Charles Edward (ed.). <i>Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army During the Great Civil War</i>. Works of the Camden Society. Vol. 74. The Camden Society. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dx0IAAAAIAAJ">270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diary+of+the+Marches+of+the+Royal+Army+During+the+Great+Civil+War&rft.series=Works+of+the+Camden+Society&rft.pages=270&rft.pub=The+Camden+Society&rft.date=1859&rft.aulast=Symonds&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownshend2000" class="citation book cs1">Townshend, Charles (2000). <i>The Oxford History of Modern War</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=–1Tr0uEpc5sC&pg=PA211">211, 212</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-285373-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-285373-2"><bdi>0-19-285373-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Modern+War&rft.pages=211%2C+212&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-285373-2&rft.aulast=Townshend&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnbull2002" class="citation book cs1">Turnbull, Stephen R. (2002). <i>Siege Weapons of the Far East</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Siege+Weapons+of+the+Far+East&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Turnbull&rft.aufirst=Stephen+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelis2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wheelis, M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol8no9/01-0536.htm">"Biological warfare at the 1346 siege of Caffa"</a>. <i>Emerg Infect Dis</i>. <b>8</b> (9). Center for Disease Control: 971–975. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0809.010536">10.3201/eid0809.010536</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">2732530</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12194776">12194776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerg+Infect+Dis&rft.atitle=Biological+warfare+at+the+1346+siege+of+Caffa&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=971-975&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12194776&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid0809.010536&rft.aulast=Wheelis&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fncidod%2FEID%2Fvol8no9%2F01-0536.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWindrow2005" class="citation book cs1">Windrow, Martin (2005). <i>The Last Valley: Dien Bien Phu and the French defeat in Vietnam</i>. London: Cassell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Valley%3A+Dien+Bien+Phu+and+the+French+defeat+in+Vietnam&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Windrow&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffy1996" class="citation book cs1">Duffy, Christopher (1996) [1975]. <i>Fire & Stone: The Science of Fortress Warfare (1660–1860)</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Stackpole Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+%26+Stone%3A+The+Science+of+Fortress+Warfare+%281660%E2%80%931860%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffy1996" class="citation book cs1">Duffy, Christopher (1996). <i>Siege Warfare: Fortress in the Early Modern World, 1494–1660</i>. Routledge and Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Siege+Warfare%3A+Fortress+in+the+Early+Modern+World%2C+1494%E2%80%931660&rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffy1985" class="citation book cs1">Duffy, Christopher (1985). <i>Siege Warfare, Volume II: The Fortress in the Age of Vauban and Frederick the Great</i>. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Siege+Warfare%2C+Volume+II%3A+The+Fortress+in+the+Age+of+Vauban+and+Frederick+the+Great&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlan1974" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Garlan, Yvon (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cefael.efa.gr/detail.php?site_id=1&actionID=page&serie_id=BefarA&volume_number=223&issue_number=0"><i>Recherches de poliorcétique grecque</i></a> (in French). Paris: De Boccard.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recherches+de+poliorc%C3%A9tique+grecque&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=De+Boccard&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Garlan&rft.aufirst=Yvon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcefael.efa.gr%2Fdetail.php%3Fsite_id%3D1%26actionID%3Dpage%26serie_id%3DBefarA%26volume_number%3D223%26issue_number%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynn1999" class="citation book cs1">Lynn, John A. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warsoflouisxiv1600lynn"><i>The Wars of Louis XIV</i></a></span>. Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582056292" title="Special:BookSources/0582056292"><bdi>0582056292</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+Louis+XIV&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0582056292&rft.aulast=Lynn&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarsoflouisxiv1600lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2004" class="citation book cs1">May, Timothy. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080518020854/http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html">"Mongol Arms"</a>. <i>Explorations in Empire, Pre-Modern Imperialism Tutorial: the Mongols</i>. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html">the original</a> on 18 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mongol+Arms&rft.btitle=Explorations+in+Empire%2C+Pre-Modern+Imperialism+Tutorial%3A+the+Mongols&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin-Madison&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Timothy.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.accd.edu%2Fsac%2Fhistory%2Fkeller%2FMongols%2Fempsub2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstwald2007" class="citation book cs1">Ostwald, Jamel (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-rZX8-tgjrUC&pg=PR7"><i>Vauban Under Siege: Engineering Efficiency and Martial Vigor in the War of the Spanish Succession</i></a>. History of Warfare. Vol. 41 (illustrated ed.). Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15489-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15489-6"><bdi>978-90-04-15489-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vauban+Under+Siege%3A+Engineering+Efficiency+and+Martial+Vigor+in+the+War+of+the+Spanish+Succession&rft.series=History+of+Warfare&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15489-6&rft.aulast=Ostwald&rft.aufirst=Jamel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-rZX8-tgjrUC%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarner1968" class="citation book cs1">Warner, Philip (1968). <i>Sieges of the Middle Ages</i>. G. Bell & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sieges+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=G.+Bell+%26+Sons&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Warner&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><b>Historiography</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachrach1994" class="citation journal cs1">Bachrach, Bernard S (1994). "Medieval siege warfare: a reconnaissance". <i>Journal of Military History</i>. <b>58</b> (1): 119–133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2944182">10.2307/2944182</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2944182">2944182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Medieval+siege+warfare%3A+a+reconnaissance&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=119-133&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2944182&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2944182%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bachrach&rft.aufirst=Bernard+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" 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class="spoken-wikipedia-files"> <ol><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="1221" data-mwtitle="Siege(part1of2).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Siege%28part1of2%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5a/Siege%28part1of2%29.ogg/Siege%28part1of2%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="1012" data-mwtitle="Siege(part2of2).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Siege%28part2of2%29.ogg" 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style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">2006-01-14</span>)</span>, and do not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/ethnohistory/v046/46.4keener.html">Native American Siege Warfare.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20070928110729/http://www.sunward1.com/woodkits.htm">Siege Kits</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redstoneprojects.com/trebuchetstore/trebuchet_illustrations.html">Scenes of Siege Warfare</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/weapons/siege_warfare.htm">Three ancient Egyptian Sieges: Megiddo, Dapur, Hermopolis</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.keyway.ca/htm2003/20030411.htm">The Siege Of The City</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080730020728/http://www.keyway.ca/htm2003/20030411.htm">Archived</a> 30 July 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Biblical perspectives.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/lostempires/trebuchet/">Secrets of Lost Empires: Medieval Siege</a> (PBS) Informative and interactive webpages about medieval siege tactics.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_military_decorations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of highest military decorations">Highest</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Categories:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_ranks" title="Category:Military ranks">Ranks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_defence" title="Ministry of defence">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Armed Forces</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando" title="Commando">Commando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><i>Functional specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Reconnaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reconnaissance_units" title="List of reconnaissance units">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Military police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_forces" title="Security forces">Security forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_guard" title="Border guard">Border guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_logistics_units_and_formations" title="Category:Military logistics units and formations">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Categories:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Combat_occupations" title="Category:Combat occupations">Combat occupations</a></li> <li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruit_training" title="Military recruit training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military maneuvers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">Combat training</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_arms" title="Combat arms">Combat arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_reconnaissance" title="Special reconnaissance">Special reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li> <li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surface_combatant" title="Surface combatant">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_combat_ship" title="Littoral combat ship">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrol_boat" title="Patrol boat">Patrol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ship</a></li> <li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Structure_of_contemporary_armed_forces" title="Category:Structure of contemporary armed forces">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Structure_of_contemporary_armies" title="Category:Structure of contemporary armies">Armies by country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_combatant_command" title="Unified combatant command">Unified combatant command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">General staff</a></li> <li><i>Land:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_group" title="Army group">Army group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_army" title="Field army">Field army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">Corps</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_corps" title="List of military corps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">Division</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_divisions" title="List of military divisions">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigade" title="Brigade">Brigade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Brigades_by_type" title="Category:Brigades by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regiment" title="Regiment">Regiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regiments_by_country" title="Category:Regiments by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regiments_by_type" title="Category:Regiments by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battalion" title="Battalion">Battalion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battalions_by_country" title="Category:Battalions by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battalions_by_type" title="Category:Battalions by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platoon" title="Platoon">Platoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squad" title="Squad">Squad</a></li> <li><i>Naval:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_fleet" title="Naval fleet">Naval fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_force#Naval" title="Task force">Task force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_strike_group" title="Carrier strike group">Carrier strike group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_(naval)" title="Division (naval)">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flotilla" title="Flotilla">Flotilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squadron_(naval)" title="Squadron (naval)">Squadron</a></li> <li><i>Air:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_box" title="Combat box">Combat box</a></li> <li><i>Special units by nation:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Fleet" title="Battle Fleet">Battle Fleet; U.S. Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_(military_formation)" title="Front (military formation)">Front; Russian land forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Ground:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle" title="Military vehicle">Ground</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_vehicles" title="List of military vehicles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_vehicle" title="Combat vehicle">Combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tracked_military_vehicles" title="Category:Tracked military vehicles">Tracked vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wheeled_military_vehicles" title="Category:Wheeled military vehicles">Wheeled vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">Tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle" title="Infantry fighting vehicle">Infantry fighting vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles" title="Lists of armoured fighting vehicles">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles_by_country" title="List of armoured fighting vehicles by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armored_car_(military)" title="Armored car (military)">Armored car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_car" title="Scout car">Scout car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle#Military_trucks" title="Military vehicle">Truck</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_trucks" title="Category:Military trucks">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_truck" title="Gun truck">Gun truck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery" title="Self-propelled artillery">Self-propelled artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_howitzers#Self-propelled_howitzers" title="List of howitzers">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon" title="Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon">Anti-aircraft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_railways" title="Military railways">Rail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Land</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Artillery:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery" title="Field artillery">Artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artillery" title="List of artillery">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artillery_by_country" title="List of artillery by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery_battery" title="Artillery battery">Battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_gun" title="Field gun">Field gun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_field_guns" title="List of field guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">Howitzer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_howitzers" title="List of howitzers">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_artillery" title="Rocket artillery">Rocket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocket_artillery" title="List of rocket artillery">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Small_Arms_and_Light_Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Arms and Light Weapons">Infantry guns</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_pistol" title="Service pistol">Pistols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">Machine guns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_machine_guns" title="List of machine guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Service_rifle" title="Service rifle">Service rifles</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_rifle" title="Battle rifle">Battle rifles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battle_rifles" title="List of battle rifles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_rifle" title="Assault rifle">Assault rifle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_assault_rifles" title="List of assault rifles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sniper_rifle" title="Sniper rifle">Sniper rifle</a></li> <li><i>Other infantry weapons:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazooka" title="Bazooka">Bazooka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_gun" title="Anti-tank gun">Anti-tank gun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-tank_guns" title="List of anti-tank guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">Grenade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grenades" title="Category:Grenades">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">Flamethrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">Bayonet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_knife" title="Combat knife">Combat knife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_knives" title="Category:Military knives">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">Missiles</a>:</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder-fired_missile" title="Shoulder-fired missile">Shoulder-fired</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_guided_missile" title="Anti-tank guided missile">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles" title="List of missiles">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles_by_country" title="List of missiles by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">Mortar</a> <ul><li><i>Lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_infantry_mortars" title="List of infantry mortars">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heavy_mortars" title="List of heavy mortars">Heavy</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Other:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">Shells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Sea/Air:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">Guided missiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles" title="List of missiles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Naval</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_artillery" title="Naval artillery">Naval artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_guns" title="List of naval guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-ship_missile" title="Anti-ship missile">Anti-ship missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">Torpedoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">Depth charges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">Close-in weapons</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aircraft_guns" title="Category:Aircraft guns">Guns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Air-launched_missiles" title="Category:Air-launched missiles">Missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_bomb" title="Aerial bomb">Bombs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Military equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_equipment" title="Lists of military equipment">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_equipment_by_country" title="Category:Military equipment by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_helmet" title="Combat helmet">Helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_combat_helmets" title="List of combat helmets">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_clothing_camouflage_patterns" title="List of military clothing camouflage patterns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_armor" title="Body armor">Body armor</a></li> <li><i>Facilities:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_hospital" title="Field hospital">Field hospital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combat systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li> <li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo Data Computer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">Warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy" title="Strategy">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">Combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Military science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><i>By era:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>By type:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armoured warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawfare" title="Lawfare">Lawfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">Alliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li> <li><i>Public policy:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_budget" title="Military budget">Defense budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Defense policy</a></li> <li><i>Related:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Military lists</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">Military tactics</a></li> <li><i>History lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_wars" title="Lists of wars">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><i>Related lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other namespace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Templates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War">War</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons" title="Template:Weapons">Weapons</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Military_ranks_by_country" title="Template:Military ranks by country">Ranks</a>}}</span></li> <li><i>Vehicles and weapons</i> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Tanks" title="Template:Tanks">Tanks</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons" title="Template:Weapons">Weapons</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Modern_IFV_and_APC" title="Template:Modern IFV and APC">Infantry fighting vehicles</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Warship_types_of_the_19th_%26_20th_centuries" title="Template:Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries">Modern warships</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Military_aircraft_types_(roles)" title="Template:Military aircraft types (roles)">Aircraft</a>}}</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Specific modern wars</i> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Napoleonic_Wars" title="Template:Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_I" title="Template:World War I">World War I</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II">World War II</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War">Cold War</a>}}</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_wars_by_country_involved" title="Category:Lists of wars by country involved">Lists of wars by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_by_time" title="Category:Conflicts by time">Conflicts by time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a 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