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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> Ancient Greece (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Ἑλλάς, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: Hellás) was a northeastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> civilization, existing from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600 AD), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically related <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">city-states</a> and other territories. Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman period</a>, most of these regions were officially unified once under the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Macedon">Kingdom of Macedon</a> from 338 to 323 BC.<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western history</a>, the era of classical antiquity was immediately followed by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas1988-2">[1]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parthenon_(30276156187).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg/300px-Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg/450px-Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg/600px-Parthenon_%2830276156187%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8256" data-file-height="5504"></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, a temple dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>, located on the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.</figcaption></figure> Three centuries after the decline of <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a>, Greek urban <a href="/wiki/Poleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poleis">poleis</a> began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">the colonization</a> of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the age of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> to the death of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in 323 BC, and which included the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Athens">Golden Age of Athens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>. The unification of Greece by Macedon under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> and subsequent conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> by Alexander the Great spread Hellenistic civilization across the Middle East. The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Period">Hellenistic Period</a> is considered to have ended in 30 BC, when the last Hellenistic kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, was annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Classical <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece" title="Culture of Greece">Greek culture</a>, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, which carried a version of it throughout the Mediterranean and much of Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered the cradle of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a>, the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/seminal" class="extiw" title="wikt:seminal">seminal</a> culture from which the modern West derives many of its founding archetypes and ideas in politics, philosophy, science, and art.<a href="#cite_note-EllynMcGinnis2004-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FindlingPelle2004-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-ThompsonMullin-5">[4]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Chronology">1 Chronology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Historiography">2 Historiography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#History">3 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Archaic_period">3.1 Archaic period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Classical_Greece">3.2 Classical Greece</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Hellenistic_Greece">3.3 Hellenistic Greece</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Roman_Greece">3.4 Roman Greece</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Geography">4 Geography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Regions">4.1 Regions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Colonies">4.2 Colonies</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Politics_and_society">5 Politics and society</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Political_structure">5.1 Political structure</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Government_and_law">5.2 Government and law</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Social_structure">5.3 Social structure</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Slavery">5.3.1 Slavery</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Education">5.4 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Economy">5.5 Economy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Warfare">5.6 Warfare</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Culture">6 Culture</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Philosophy">6.1 Philosophy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Literature_and_theatre">6.2 Literature and theatre</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Music_and_dance">6.3 Music and dance</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Science_and_technology">6.4 Science and technology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Art_and_architecture">6.5 Art and architecture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Religion">6.6 Religion</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Legacy">7 Legacy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Notes">9 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#References">10 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Notes_2">10.1 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Bibliography">10.2 Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Further_reading">11 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#External_links">12 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Chronology">Chronology</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline of ancient Greece</a>.</div> <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD. Classical antiquity in Greece was preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BC), <a href="/wiki/Archaeologically" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologically">archaeologically</a> characterised by the <a href="/wiki/Protogeometric_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Protogeometric art">protogeometric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometric_art" title="Geometric art">geometric styles</a> of designs on pottery. Following the Dark Ages was the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Period</a>, beginning around the 8th century BC, which saw early developments in Greek culture and society leading to the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Period</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> from the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> The Classical Period is characterized by a "classical" style, i.e. one which was considered exemplary by later observers, most famously in the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> of Athens. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> during the 5th century, but displaced by <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a> during the early 4th century BC, before power shifted to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Thebes_(Boeotia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)">Thebes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Boeotian_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeotian League">Boeotian League</a> and finally to the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a>. This period was shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Macedon">Rise of Macedon</a>. Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period (323–146 BC), during which Greek culture and power expanded into the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> from the death of Alexander until the Roman conquest. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Greece">Roman Greece</a> is usually counted from the Roman victory over the <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinthians</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)" title="Battle of Corinth (146 BC)">Battle of Corinth</a> in 146 BC to the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a> as the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in 330 AD. Finally, <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> refers to the period of <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Greco-Roman_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism">Christianization</a> during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD, consummated by the closure of the <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Academy">Academy of Athens</a> by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> in 529.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiographers">Greek historiographers</a></div> The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in comprehensive, narrative <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, while earlier ancient history or <a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">protohistory</a> is known from much more fragmentary documents such as annals, king lists, and pragmatic <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> is widely known as the "father of history": his <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> are eponymous of the entire <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">field</a>. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, Herodotus' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th century BC historical figures such as <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I of Persia">Darius I of Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a>, and alluding to some 8th century BC persons such as <a href="/wiki/Candaules" title="Candaules">Candaules</a>. The accuracy of Herodotus' works is debated.<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Most were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than of many other cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline of ancient Greece</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History of Greece</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaic_period">Archaic period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg/239px-Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg" decoding="async" width="239" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 239px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg/239px-Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg" data-width="239" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg/359px-Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg/478px-Prothesis_Dipylon_Painter_Louvre_A517.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Dipylon Vase of the late <a href="/wiki/Geometric_art" title="Geometric art">Geometric period</a>, or the beginning of the Archaic period, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 750 BC.</figcaption></figure> The archaic period, lasting from approximately 800 to 500 BC, saw the culmination of political and social developments which had begun in the Greek dark age, with the polis (city-state) becoming the most important unit of political organisation in Greece.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> The absence of powerful states in Greece after the collapse of Mycenaean power, and the geography of Greece, where many settlements were separated from their neighbours by mountainous terrain, encouraged the development of small independent city-states.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> Several Greek states saw tyrants rise to power in this period, most famously at <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a> from 657 BC.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> The period also saw the founding of Greek colonies around the Mediterranean, with <a href="/wiki/Euboea" title="Euboea">Euboean</a> settlements at <a href="/wiki/Al-Mina" title="Al-Mina">Al-Mina</a> in the east as early as 800 BC, and <a href="/wiki/Ischia" title="Ischia">Ischia</a> in the west by 775.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Increasing contact with non-Greek peoples in this period, especially in the Near East, inspired developments in art and architecture, the adoption of coinage, and the development of the Greek alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> Athens developed its democratic system over the course of the archaic period. Already in the seventh century, the right of all citizen men to attend the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Greece)" title="Ecclesia (ancient Greece)">assembly</a> appears to have been established.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> After a failed coup led by <a href="/wiki/Cylon_of_Athens" title="Cylon of Athens">Cylon of Athens</a> around 636 BC, <a href="/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)" title="Draco (lawgiver)">Draco</a> was appointed to establish a code of laws in 621. This failed to reduce the political tension between the poor and the elites, and in 594 <a href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a> was given the authority to enact another set of reforms, which attempted to balance the power of the rich and the poor.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> In the middle of the sixth century, <a href="/wiki/Pisistratus" title="Pisistratus">Pisistratus</a> established himself as a tyrant, and after his death in 527 his son <a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a> inherited his position; by the end of the sixth century he had been overthrown and <a href="/wiki/Cleisthenes" title="Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a> carried out further democratising reforms.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> In Sparta, a political system with two kings, a <a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">council of elders</a>, and five <a href="/wiki/Ephors" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephors">ephors</a> developed over the course of the eighth and seventh century. According to Spartan tradition, this constitution was established by the legendary lawgiver <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_(lawgiver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycurgus (lawgiver)">Lycurgus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> Over the course of the <a href="/wiki/First_Messenian_War" title="First Messenian War">first</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Messenian_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Messenian war">second Messenian wars</a>, Sparta subjugated the neighbouring region of <a href="/wiki/Messenia" title="Messenia">Messenia</a>, enserfing the population.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> In the sixth century, Greek city-states began to develop formal relationships with one another, where previously individual rulers had relied on personal relationships with the elites of other cities.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Towards the end of the archaic period, Sparta began to build a series of alliances, the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a>, with cities including <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elis" title="Elis">Elis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a>,<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> isolating Messenia and reinforcing Sparta's position against <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a>, the other major power in the Peloponnese.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Other alliances in the sixth century included those between Elis and <a href="/wiki/Heraea_(Arcadia)" title="Heraea (Arcadia)">Heraea</a> in the Peloponnese; and between the Greek colony <a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a> in southern Italy, its allies, and the Serdaioi.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Greece">Classical Greece</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg/220px-EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1213" data-file-height="609"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 110px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg/220px-EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="110" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg/330px-EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg/440px-EarlyAthenianCoin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Early <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athenian</a> coin, depicting the head of <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> on the obverse and her owl on the reverse – 5th century BC.</figcaption></figure> In 499 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionian</a> city states under Persian rule rebelled against their Persian-supported tyrant rulers.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> Supported by troops sent from Athens and <a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a>, they advanced as far as <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> and burnt the city before being driven back by a Persian counterattack.<a href="#cite_note-martin2013-31">[30]</a> The revolt continued until 494, when the rebelling Ionians were defeated.<a href="#cite_note-martin2013-31">[30]</a> Darius did not forget that Athens had assisted the Ionian revolt, and in 490 he assembled an armada to retaliate.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> Though heavily outnumbered, the Athenians—supported by their <a href="/wiki/Plataea" title="Plataea">Plataean</a> allies—defeated the Persian hordes at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a>, and the Persian fleet turned tail.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/300px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="793"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/300px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/450px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/600px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map showing events of the first phases of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/300px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="794"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/300px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png" data-width="300" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/450px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/600px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Delian League ("Athenian Empire"), immediately before the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> in 431 BC.</figcaption></figure> Ten years later, a <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">second invasion</a> was launched by Darius' son <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-martin131-34">[33]</a> The city-states of northern and central Greece submitted to the Persian forces without resistance, but a coalition of 31 Greek city states, including Athens and Sparta, determined to resist the Persian invaders.<a href="#cite_note-martin131-34">[33]</a> At the same time, Greek Sicily was invaded by a Carthaginian force.<a href="#cite_note-martin131-34">[33]</a> In 480 BC, the first major battle of the invasion was fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a>, where a small rearguard of Greeks, led by three hundred Spartans, held a crucial pass guarding the heart of Greece for several days; at the same time <a href="/wiki/Gelo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelo">Gelon</a>, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Carthaginian invasion at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Himera_(480_BC)" title="Battle of Himera (480 BC)">Battle of Himera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> The Persians were decisively defeated at sea by a primarily Athenian naval force at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>, and on land in 479 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> The alliance against Persia continued, initially led by the Spartan <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pausanias (general)">Pausanias</a> but from 477 by Athens,<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> and by 460 Persia had been driven out of the Aegean.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> During this long campaign, the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> gradually transformed from a defensive alliance of Greek states into an Athenian empire, as Athens' growing naval power intimidated the other league states.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> Athens ended its campaigns against Persia in 450, after a disastrous defeat in Egypt in 454, and the death of <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a> in action against the Persians on Cyprus in 450.<a href="#cite_note-martin147-40">[39]</a> As the Athenian fight against the Persian empire waned, conflict grew between Athens and Sparta. Suspicious of the increasing Athenian power funded by the Delian League, Sparta offered aid to reluctant members of the League to rebel against Athenian domination. These tensions were exacerbated in 462 BC when Athens sent a force to aid Sparta in overcoming a <a href="/wiki/Helot" class="mw-redirect" title="Helot">helot</a> revolt, but this aid was rejected by the Spartans.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> In the 450s, Athens took control of Boeotia, and won victories over <a href="/wiki/Aegina" title="Aegina">Aegina</a> and Corinth.<a href="#cite_note-martin147-40">[39]</a> However, Athens failed to win a decisive victory, and in 447 lost Boeotia again.<a href="#cite_note-martin147-40">[39]</a> Athens and Sparta signed the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_Peace" title="Thirty Years' Peace">Thirty Years' Peace</a> in the winter of 446/5, ending the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-martin147-40">[39]</a> Despite the treaty, Athenian relations with Sparta declined again in the 430s, and in 431 BC the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> began.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Archidamian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Archidamian War">first phase of the war</a> saw a series of fruitless annual invasions of Attica by Sparta, while Athens successfully fought the Corinthian empire in northwest Greece and defended its own empire, despite a <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens" title="Plague of Athens">plague</a> which killed the leading Athenian statesman <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hornblower160-43">[42]</a> The war turned after Athenian victories led by <a href="/wiki/Cleon" title="Cleon">Cleon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pylos" title="Battle of Pylos">Pylos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sphacteria" title="Battle of Sphacteria">Sphakteria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-hornblower160-43">[42]</a> and Sparta sued for peace, but the Athenians rejected the proposal.<a href="#cite_note-hornblower162-44">[43]</a> The Athenian failure to regain control of Boeotia at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delium" title="Battle of Delium">Delium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brasidas" title="Brasidas">Brasidas</a>' successes in northern Greece in 424 improved Sparta's position after Sphakteria.<a href="#cite_note-hornblower162-44">[43]</a> After the deaths of Cleon and Brasidas, the strongest proponents of war on each side, <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nikias" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Nikias">a peace treaty</a> was negoitiated in 421 by the Athenian general <a href="/wiki/Nicias" title="Nicias">Nicias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> The peace did not last, however. In 418 BC allied forces of Athens and Argos were defeated by Sparta at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(418_BC)" title="Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)">Mantinea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> In 415 Athens launched an ambitious <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">naval expedition</a> to dominate Sicily;<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> the expedition ended in disaster at the harbor of <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a>, with almost the entire army killed, and the ships destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> Soon after the Athenian defeat in Syracuse, Athens' Ionian allies began to rebel against the Delian league, while Persia began to once again involve itself in Greek affairs on the Spartan side.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> Initially the Athenian position continued relatively strong, with important victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus" title="Battle of Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a> in 410 and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a> in 406.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> However, in 405 the Spartan <a href="/wiki/Lysander" title="Lysander">Lysander</a> defeated Athens in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aegospotami" title="Battle of Aegospotami">Battle of Aegospotami</a>, and began to blockade Athens' harbour;<a href="#cite_note-Martin_2013_205-51">[50]</a> driven by hunger, Athens sued for peace, agreeing to surrender their fleet and join the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> Following the Athenian surrender, Sparta installed an oligarchic regime, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Tyrants" title="Thirty Tyrants">Thirty Tyrants</a>, in Athens,<a href="#cite_note-Martin_2013_205-51">[50]</a> one of a number of Spartan-backed oligarchies which rose to power after the Peloponnesian war.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> Spartan predominance did not last: after only a year, the Thirty had been overthrown.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> The first half of the fourth century saw the major Greek states attempt to dominate the mainland; none were successful, and their resulting weakness led to a power vacuum which would eventually be filled by Macedon under Philip II and then Alexander the Great.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> In the immediate aftermath of the Peloponnesian war, Sparta attempted to extend their own power, leading Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to join against them.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> Aiming to prevent any single Greek state gaining the dominance that would allow it to challenge Persia, the Persian king initially joined the alliance against Sparta, before imposing the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">Peace of Antalcidas</a> ("King's Peace") which restored Persia's control over the Anatolian Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg/170px-L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="4368"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 255px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg/170px-L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="255" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg/255px-L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg/340px-L%27atleta_di_Fano.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Victorious_Youth" title="Victorious Youth">Victorious Youth</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 310 BC) is a rare, water-preserved <a href="/wiki/Bronze_sculpture" title="Bronze sculpture">bronze sculpture</a> from ancient Greece.</figcaption></figure> By 371 BC, Thebes was in the ascendancy, defeating Sparta at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra" title="Battle of Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</a>, killing the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Cleombrotus_I" title="Cleombrotus I">Cleombrotus I</a>, and invading Laconia. Further Theban successes against Sparta in 369 led to Messenia gaining independence; Sparta never recovered from the loss of Messenia's fertile land and the helot workforce it provided.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> The rising power of Thebes led Sparta and Athens to join forces; in 362 they were defeated by Thebes at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(362_BC)" title="Battle of Mantinea (362 BC)">Battle of Mantinea</a>. In the aftermath of Mantinea, none of the major Greek states were able to dominate. Though Thebes had won the battle, their general Epaminondas was killed, and they spent the following decades embroiled in wars with their neighbours; Athens, meanwhile, saw its second naval alliance, formed in 377, collapse in the mid-350s.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> The power vacuum in Greece after the Battle of Mantinea was filled by Macedon, under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a>. In 338 BC, he defeated a Greek alliance at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a>, and subsequently formed the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a>. Philip planned to lead the League to invade Persia, but was murdered in 336 BC. His son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> was left to fulfil his father's ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> After campaigns against Macedon's western and northern enemies, and those Greek states that had broken from the League of Corinth following the death of Philip, Alexander began his campaign against Persia in 334 BC.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> He conquered Persia, defeating <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a> in 333 BC, and after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 BC proclaimed himself king of Asia.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> From 329 BC he led expeditions to Bactria and then India;<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> further plans to invade Arabia and North Africa were halted by his death in 323 BC.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_Greece">Hellenistic Greece</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg/220px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1536"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 132px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg/220px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="132" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg/330px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg/440px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a>, National Archaeological Museum, Naples.</figcaption></figure> The period from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC until the death of <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, the last Macedonian ruler of Egypt, is known as the Hellenistic period. In the early part of this period, a new form of kingship developed based on Macedonian and Near Eastern traditions. The first Hellenistic kings were previously Alexander's generals, and took power in the period following his death, though they were not part of existing royal lineages and lacked historic claims to the territories they controlled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013253-65">[64]</a> The most important of these rulers in the decades after Alexander's death were <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonus I">Antigonus I</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius</a> in Macedonia and the rest of Greece, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> in Egypt, and <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucus I">Seleucus I</a> in Syria and the former Persian empire;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013254%E2%80%93255-66">[65]</a> smaller Hellenistic kingdoms included the <a href="/wiki/Attalid" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid">Attalids</a> in Anatolia and the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013256-67">[66]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochen1.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/300px-Diadochen1.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="961"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/300px-Diadochen1.png" data-width="300" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/450px-Diadochen1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/600px-Diadochen1.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The major <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> realms included the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi kingdoms</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></div> Also shown on the map: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek colonies">Greek colonies</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> (non-Greek)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> (non-Greek)</div> The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid dynasty</a> occupied some of this area. Not shown: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a>. </figcaption></figure> In the early part of the Hellenistic period, the exact borders of the Hellenistic kingdoms were not settled. Antigonus attempted to expand his territory by attacking the other successor kingdoms until they joined against him, and he was killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> in 301 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255-68">[67]</a> His son Demetrius spent many years in Seleucid captivity, and his son, <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonus II">Antigonus II</a>, only reclaimed the Macedonian throne around 276.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255-68">[67]</a> Meanwhile, the Seleucid kingdom gave up territory in the east to the Indian king <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a> in exchange for war elephants, and later lost large parts of Persia to the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013255-68">[67]</a> By the mid-third century, the kingdoms of Alexander's successors was mostly stable, though there continued to be disputes over border areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2013256-67">[66]</a> The great capitals of Hellenistic culture were <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city-states. It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration of the young and ambitious to the new Greek empires in the east.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as far away as present-day <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> survived until the end of the first century BC. The city-states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues; the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> (including Corinth and Argos)<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> (including Sparta and Athens).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] For much of the period until the Roman conquest, these leagues were at war, often participating in the conflicts between the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a> (the successor states to Alexander's empire).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century. Although the <a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First Macedonian War</a> was inconclusive, the Romans, in typical fashion, continued to fight Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic (by 149 BC). In the east, the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated, although a rump survived until 64 BC, whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC when it too was conquered by the Romans. The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece, and sided with the Seleucids in the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Seleucid War">Roman–Seleucid War</a>; when the Romans were victorious, the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic. Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon, it was also soon <a href="/wiki/Achaean_War#War" title="Achaean War">defeated and absorbed by the Romans</a> in 146 BC, bringing Greek independence to an end. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Greece">Roman Greece</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Greece in the Roman era</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine Greece</a></div> The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> after the Battle of Corinth. <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a> became a <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Prefect" title="Prefect">prefect</a>; however, some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation. The <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean Islands</a> were added to this territory in 133 BC. <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Sulla</a>. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar Augustus">Augustus</a> organized the peninsula as the province of <a href="/wiki/Achaea_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea (province)">Achaea</a> in 27 BC. Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire, as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman culture">Roman culture</a> had long been in fact <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek language</a> served as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> in the East and in <a href="/wiki/Italia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia (Roman province)">Italy</a>, and many Greek intellectuals such as <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> would perform most of their work in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regions">Regions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Regions of ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png/280px-Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="324" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="1100"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 280px;height: 324px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png/280px-Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png" data-width="280" data-height="324" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png/420px-Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png/560px-Ancient_Regions_Mainland_Greece.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent "barbarian" lands.</figcaption></figure> The territory of Greece is mountainous, and as a result, ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions, each with its own dialect, cultural peculiarities, and identity. Regionalism and regional conflicts were prominent features of ancient Greece. Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains, or on coastal plains, and dominated a certain area around them. In the south lay the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, consisting of the regions of Laconia (southeast), Messenia (southwest), Elis (west), Achaia (north), Korinthia (northeast), Argolis (east), and Arcadia (center). These names survive to the present day as <a href="/wiki/Regional_units_of_Greece" title="Regional units of Greece">regional units of modern Greece</a>, though with somewhat different boundaries. Mainland Greece to the north, nowadays known as <a href="/wiki/Central_Greece_(geographic_region)" title="Central Greece (geographic region)">Central Greece</a>, consisted of <a href="/wiki/Aetolia" title="Aetolia">Aetolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acarnania" title="Acarnania">Acarnania</a> in the west, <a href="/wiki/Locris" title="Locris">Locris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doris_(Greece)" title="Doris (Greece)">Doris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phocis_(ancient_region)" title="Phocis (ancient region)">Phocis</a> in the center, while in the east lay <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Megaris" title="Megaris">Megaris</a>. Northeast lay <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a> lay to the northwest. Epirus stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Ambracian_Gulf" title="Ambracian Gulf">Ambracian Gulf</a> in the south to the <a href="/wiki/Ceraunian_Mountains" title="Ceraunian Mountains">Ceraunian Mountains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aoos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aoos">Aoos</a> river in the north, and consisted of <a href="/wiki/Chaonia" title="Chaonia">Chaonia</a> (north), <a href="/wiki/Molossia" class="mw-redirect" title="Molossia">Molossia</a> (center), and Thesprotia (south). In the northeast corner was <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-britannica-76">[75]</a> originally consisting <a href="/wiki/Lower_Macedonia" title="Lower Macedonia">Lower Macedonia</a> and its regions, such as <a href="/wiki/Elimeia" title="Elimeia">Elimeia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pieria_(regional_unit)" title="Pieria (regional unit)">Pieria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Orestis_(region)" title="Orestis (region)">Orestis</a>. Around the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead kings of Macedon</a> started to expand into <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia" title="Upper Macedonia">Upper Macedonia</a>, lands inhabited by independent <a href="/wiki/Ancient_macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient macedonians">Macedonian</a> tribes like the <a href="/wiki/Lynkestis" title="Lynkestis">Lyncestae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orestae" class="mw-redirect" title="Orestae">Orestae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elimiotis" title="Elimiotis">Elimiotae</a> and to the west, beyond the <a href="/wiki/Axius_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Axius river">Axius river</a>, into <a href="/wiki/Eordaia" title="Eordaia">Eordaia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bottiaea" title="Bottiaea">Bottiaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mygdonia" title="Mygdonia">Mygdonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Almopia" title="Almopia">Almopia</a>, regions settled by Thracian tribes.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a> due north, the <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a> to the northeast, and the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a>, with whom the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a> were frequently in conflict, to the northwest. <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a> was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world, while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonies">Colonies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonisation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_cities_in_Thrace_and_Dacia#Greek" title="List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia">List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia § Greek</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png/390px-Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="190" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3507" data-file-height="1712"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 390px;height: 190px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png/390px-Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png" data-width="390" data-height="190" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png/585px-Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png/780px-Greek_Colonies_in_the_8th-6th_centuries_BC.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Ancient Greek colonies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">archaic period</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG/220px-Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG/220px-Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG/330px-Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG/440px-Agrigento-Tempio_della_Concordia01.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Concordia,_Agrigento" title="Temple of Concordia, Agrigento">Temple of Concordia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valle_dei_Templi" title="Valle dei Templi">Valle dei Templi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a>, the Greek <a href="/wiki/Classical_demography#Ancient_Greece_and_Greek_colonies" title="Classical demography">population</a> grew beyond the capacity of the limited <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a> of Greece proper, <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">resulting in the large-scale establishment of colonies</a> elsewhere: according to one estimate, the population of the widening area of Greek settlement increased roughly tenfold from 800 BC to 400 BC, from 800,000 to as many as <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>7+1⁄2-10 million.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> This was not simply for trade, but also to found settlements. These <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek colonies">Greek colonies</a> were not, as Roman colonies were, dependent on their mother-city, but were independent city-states in their own right.<a href="#cite_note-BoardmanHammond-xiii-79">[78]</a> Greeks settled outside of Greece in two distinct ways. The first was in permanent settlements founded by Greeks, which formed as independent poleis. The second form was in what historians refer to as <a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">emporia</a>; trading posts which were occupied by both Greeks and non-Greeks and which were primarily concerned with the manufacture and sale of goods. Examples of this latter type of settlement are found at <a href="/wiki/Al_Mina" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Mina">Al Mina</a> in the east and <a href="/wiki/Pithekoussai" class="mw-redirect" title="Pithekoussai">Pithekoussai</a> in the west.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> coast of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> was colonized first, followed by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Cyprus" title="Ancient history of Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a> and south coast of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. Eventually, Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present-day <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and Russia (<a href="/wiki/Taganrog" title="Taganrog">Taganrog</a>). To the west the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a> (called "<a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>") were settled, followed by <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">Southern France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, and even eastern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. Greek colonies were also founded in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a>. Modern <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syracuse, Italy">Syracuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> and <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae (Συράκουσαι), Neapolis (Νεάπολις), Massalia (Μασσαλία) and <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantion</a> (Βυζάντιον). These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states, boosting the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">economy of ancient Greece</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Politics_and_society">Politics and society</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_structure">Political structure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_citizenship#Ancient_Greece" title="History of citizenship">History of citizenship § Ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg/170px-Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2570"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 257px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg/170px-Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="257" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg/255px-Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg/340px-Bust_Pericles_Chiaramonti.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Marble bust of Pericles with a <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_helmet" title="Corinthian helmet">Corinthian helmet</a>, Roman copy of a Greek original, <a href="/wiki/Museo_Chiaramonti" class="mw-redirect" title="Museo Chiaramonti">Museo Chiaramonti</a>, Vatican Museums; Pericles was a key <a href="/wiki/Populist" class="mw-redirect" title="Populist">populist</a> political figure in the development of the radical <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a></figcaption></figure> Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poleis">poleis</a>). This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies, which were either <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Realm" title="Realm">kingdoms</a> ruling over relatively large territories. Undoubtedly, the <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Greece" title="Geography of Greece">geography of Greece</a>—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains, and rivers—contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were "one people"; they had the same <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">religion</a>, same basic culture, and same language. Furthermore, the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins; <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe. Yet, although these higher-level relationships existed, they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics. The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, the vast majority of poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> Thus, the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were its fragmented nature (and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin), and the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states. The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout <a href="/wiki/The_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="The Mediterranean">the Mediterranean</a>, which, though they might count a certain Greek polis as their 'mother' (and remain sympathetic to her), were completely independent of the founding city. Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbors, but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare. Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues, membership of which was in a constant state of flux. Later in the Classical period, the leagues would become fewer and larger, be dominated by one city (particularly <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>); and often poleis would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). Even after <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> conquered the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory or unify it into a new province, but compelled most of the poleis to join his own <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Corinthian League">Corinthian League</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_and_law">Government and law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Ancient Greek law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg/220px-Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1730"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 181px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg/220px-Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="181" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg/330px-Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg/440px-Law_Code_Gortyn_Louvre_Ma703.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Inheritance law, part of the <a href="/wiki/Gortyn_code" title="Gortyn code">Law Code of Gortyn</a>, Crete, fragment of the 11th column. Limestone, 5th century BC</figcaption></figure> Initially many Greek city-states seem to have been petty kingdoms; there was often a city official carrying some residual, ceremonial functions of the king (<a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a>), e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Archon_basileus" title="Archon basileus">archon basileus</a> in Athens.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> However, by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness, most had already become aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchies</a>. It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance, in Athens, the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary, lifelong chief magistracy (<a href="/wiki/Archon_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Archon of Athens">archon</a>) by <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial, elected archonship; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship. Through each stage, more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole, and away from a single individual. Inevitably, the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a> (not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies), would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power. In a system wracked with <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class conflict</a>, government by a 'strongman' was often the best solution. Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century BC. When this tyranny was ended, the Athenians founded <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">the world's first democracy</a> as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power. A <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">citizens' assembly</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a>), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Draco_(lawgiver)" title="Draco (lawgiver)">Draco</a> in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a> (early 6th century), but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, such as <a href="/wiki/Metic" title="Metic">metics</a> (foreigners living in Athens) or <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">slaves</a>, had no political rights at all. After the rise of democracy in Athens, other city-states founded democracies. However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of <a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">diarchy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sparta" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a> belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids, descendants respectively of <a href="/wiki/Eurysthenes" title="Eurysthenes">Eurysthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Procles" title="Procles">Procles</a>. Both dynasties' founders were believed to be twin sons of <a href="/wiki/Aristodemus" title="Aristodemus">Aristodemus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Heracleidae" title="Heracleidae">Heraclid</a> ruler. However, the powers of these kings were held in check by both a council of elders (the <a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a>) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings (the <a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephors</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_structure">Social structure</h3></div> Only free, land-owning, <a href="/wiki/Native_born" class="mw-redirect" title="Native born">native born</a> men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city-state. In most city-states, unlike the situation in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, social prominence did not allow special rights. Sometimes families controlled public <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> functions, but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government. In Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were called <a href="/wiki/Homoioi" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoioi">homoioi</a>, meaning "peers". However, Spartan kings, who served as the city-state's dual military and religious leaders, came from two families.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Greece#Women_in_ancient_Greece" title="Women in Greece">Women in Ancient Greece</a> appear to have primarily performed domestic tasks, managed households, and borne and reared children. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slavery">Slavery</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery in ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg/220px-Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg/220px-Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg/330px-Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg/440px-Grabstein_einer_Frau_mit_Dienerin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Gravestone of a woman with her slave child-attendant, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 BC</figcaption></figure> Slaves had no power or status. Slaves had the right to have a family and own property, subject to their master's goodwill and permission, but they had no political rights. By 600 BC, <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a> had spread in Greece. By the 5th century BC, slaves made up one-third of the total population in some city-states. Between 40–80% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a> were slaves.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize. However, unlike later <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, the ancient Greeks did not think in terms of <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers, and even poor families might have owned a few slaves. Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves. Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard. Unlike in Rome, <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedmen</a> did not become citizens. Instead, they were mixed into the population of <a href="/wiki/Metic" title="Metic">metics</a>, which included people from foreign countries or other city-states who were officially allowed to live in the state. City-states legally owned slaves. These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families, living on their own and performing specialized tasks. In Athens, public slaves were trained to look out for <a href="/wiki/Coin_counterfeiting" title="Coin counterfeiting">counterfeit coinage</a>, while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple's <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures" title="List of Greek mythological figures">deity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian</a> slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions. Sparta had a special type of slaves called <a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">helots</a>. Helots were <a href="/wiki/Messenia_(ancient_region)" title="Messenia (ancient region)">Messenians</a> enslaved en masse during the <a href="/wiki/First_Messenian_War" title="First Messenian War">Messenian Wars</a> by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay. Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a>. Their masters treated them harshly, and helots <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">revolted</a> against their masters several times. In 370/69 BC, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a>' liberation of Messenia from Spartan rule, the helot system there came to an end and the helots won their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> However, it did continue to persist in Laconia until the 2nd century BC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Greece" title="Education in ancient Greece">Education in ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/220px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1614" data-file-height="1652"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 225px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/220px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="225" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/330px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/440px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaic</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></figcaption></figure> For most of Greek history, education was private, except in Sparta. During the Hellenistic period, some city-states established <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government funded)">public schools</a>. Only wealthy families could afford a teacher. Boys learned how to read, write and quote literature. They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service. They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen. Girls also learned to read, write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household. They almost never received education after childhood.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> Boys went to school at the age of seven, or went to the barracks, if they lived in Sparta. The three types of teachings were: grammatistes for arithmetic, kitharistes for music and dancing, and Paedotribae for sports. Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos, a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day. Classes were held in teachers' private houses and included reading, writing, mathematics, singing, and playing the lyre and flute. When the boy became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling, running, and throwing discus and javelin. In Athens, some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture, sciences, music, and the arts. The schooling ended at age 18, followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> Some of Athens' greatest such schools included the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum" title="Lyceum">Lyceum</a> (the so-called <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stageira" class="mw-redirect" title="Stageira">Stageira</a>)<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a> (founded by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> of Athens).<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg_2007_70-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called <a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy of ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture in ancient Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery in ancient Greece</a></div> At its economic height in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the free citizenry of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> represented perhaps the most prosperous society in the ancient world, some economic historians considering Greece one of the most advanced pre-industrial economies. In terms of wheat, wages reached an estimated 7–12 kg daily for an unskilled worker in urban Athens, 2–3 times the 3.75 kg of an unskilled rural labourer in Roman Egypt, though Greek farm incomes too were on average lower than those available to urban workers.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> While slave conditions varied widely, the institution served to sustain the incomes of the free citizenry: an estimate of economic development drawn from the latter (or derived from urban incomes alone) is therefore likely to overstate the true overall level despite widespread evidence for high living standards. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warfare">Warfare</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Ancient Greek warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek-Persian_duel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/220px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="859"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 218px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/220px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="218" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/330px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/440px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Greek <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient <a href="/wiki/Kylix" title="Kylix">kylix</a>, 5th century BC.</figcaption></figure> At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city-states relied on their own citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their own professions (especially in the case of, for example, farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than five percent of the losing side, but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front. The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>. To fight the enormous armies of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labor. Although alliances between city-states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics. Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta, the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies, naval battles and blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society. Athens owned one of the largest war fleets in ancient Greece. It had over 200 <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">triremes</a> each powered by 170 oarsmen who were seated in 3 rows on each side of the ship. The city could afford such a large fleet—it had over 34,000 oarsmen—because it owned a lot of silver mines that were worked by slaves. According to <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Ober" title="Josiah Ober">Josiah Ober</a>, Greek city-states faced approximately a one-in-three chance of destruction during the archaic and classical period.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/220px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1584"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/220px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/330px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/440px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The carved busts of four ancient Greek philosophers, on display in the British Museum. From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>.</figcaption></figure> Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiry</a>. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophers</a>, to medieval <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Muslim philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Islamic scientists</a>, to the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the ancient Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a>, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization. The first known philosophers of Greece were the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic">pre-Socratics</a>, who attempted to provide naturalistic, non-mythical descriptions of the world. They were followed by <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, one of the first philosophers based in Athens during <a href="/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens" title="Fifth-century Athens">its golden age</a> whose ideas, despite being known by second-hand accounts instead of writings of his own, laid the basis of Western philosophy. Socrates' disciple <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, who wrote <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a> and established a radical difference between ideas and the concrete world, and Plato's disciple <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who wrote extensively about nature and ethics, are also immensely influential in Western philosophy to this day. The later <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, also originating in Greece, is defined by names such as <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">cynicism</a>), <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">stoicism</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_and_theatre">Literature and theatre</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_comedy" title="Ancient Greek comedy">Ancient Greek comedy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre of ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus,_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC,_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus,_Greece_(14015010416).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg/220px-The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg/220px-The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg/330px-The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg/440px-The_great_theater_of_Epidaurus%2C_designed_by_Polykleitos_the_Younger_in_the_4th_century_BC%2C_Sanctuary_of_Asklepeios_at_Epidaurus%2C_Greece_%2814015010416%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Theatre_of_Epidaurus" title="Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus">ancient Theatre of Epidaurus</a>, 4th century BC</figcaption></figure> The earliest Greek literature was poetry and was composed for performance rather than private consumption.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> The earliest Greek poet known is <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, although he was certainly part of an existing tradition of oral poetry.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> Homer's poetry, though it was developed around the same time that the Greeks developed writing, would have been composed orally; the first poet to certainly compose their work in writing was <a href="/wiki/Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Greek_lyric" title="Greek lyric">lyric poet</a> from the mid-seventh century BC.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_tragedy" title="Greek tragedy">Tragedy</a> developed around the end of the archaic period, taking elements from across the pre-existing genres of late archaic poetry.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> Towards the beginning of the classical period, comedy began to develop—the earliest date associated with the genre is 486 BC, when a competition for comedy became an official event at the <a href="/wiki/City_Dionysia" class="mw-redirect" title="City Dionysia">City Dionysia</a> in Athens, though the first preserved ancient comedy is <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Acharnians" class="mw-redirect" title="Acharnians">Acharnians</a>, produced in 425.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg/170px-Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="316" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2789"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 316px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg/170px-Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="316" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg/255px-Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg/340px-Hypnos_Thanatos_BM_Vase_D56_full.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A scene from the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hypnos" title="Hypnos">Hypnos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thanatos" title="Thanatos">Thanatos</a> carrying the body of <a href="/wiki/Sarpedon_(Trojan_War_hero)" title="Sarpedon (Trojan War hero)">Sarpedon</a> from the battlefield of <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a>; detail from an Attic <a href="/wiki/White-ground" class="mw-redirect" title="White-ground">white-ground</a> <a href="/wiki/Lekythos" title="Lekythos">lekythos</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 440 BC</figcaption></figure> Like poetry, Greek prose had its origins in the archaic period, and the earliest writers of Greek philosophy, history, and medical literature all date to the sixth century BC.<a href="#cite_note-mcglew79-103">[102]</a> Prose first emerged as the writing style adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Presocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Presocratic">presocratic</a> philosophers <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>—though <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a>, considered the first Greek philosopher, apparently wrote nothing.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> Prose as a genre reached maturity in the classical era,<a href="#cite_note-mcglew79-103">[102]</a> and the major Greek prose genres—philosophy, history, rhetoric, and dialogue—developed in this period.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> The Hellenistic period saw the literary centre of the Greek world move from Athens, where it had been in the classical period, to Alexandria. At the same time, other Hellenistic kings such as the <a href="/wiki/Antigonids" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonids">Antigonids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Attalids" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalids">Attalids</a> were patrons of scholarship and literature, turning <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> respectively into cultural centres.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> It was thanks to this cultural patronage by Hellenistic kings, and especially the Museum at Alexandria, that so much ancient Greek literature has survived.<a href="#cite_note-bulloch542-107">[106]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>, part of the Museum, had the previously unenvisaged aim of collecting together copies of all known authors in Greek. Almost all of the surviving non-technical Hellenistic literature is poetry,<a href="#cite_note-bulloch542-107">[106]</a> and Hellenistic poetry tended to be highly intellectual,<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> blending different genres and traditions, and avoiding linear narratives.<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> The Hellenistic period also saw a shift in the ways literature was consumed—while in the archaic and classical periods literature had typically been experienced in public performance, in the Hellenistic period it was more commonly read privately.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> At the same time, Hellenistic poets began to write for private, rather than public, consumption.<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> With Octavian's victory at Actium in 31 BC, Rome began to become a major centre of Greek literature, as important Greek authors such as <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> came to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> The period of greatest innovation in Greek literature under Rome was the "long second century" from approximately 80 AD to around 230 AD.<a href="#cite_note-konig113-113">[112]</a> This innovation was especially marked in prose, with the development of the novel and a revival of prominence for display oratory both dating to this period.<a href="#cite_note-konig113-113">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music_and_dance">Music and dance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music of ancient Greece</a></div> In Ancient Greek society, music was ever-present and considered a fundamental component of civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest19941,_13-114">[113]</a> It was an important part of public religious worship,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199414-115">[114]</a> private ceremonies such as weddings and funerals,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199421-116">[115]</a> and household entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199424-117">[116]</a> Men sang and played music at the <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposium</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199425-118">[117]</a> both men and women sang at work; and children's games involved song and dance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199427%E2%80%9328-119">[118]</a> Ancient Greek music was primarily vocal, sung either by a solo singer or a chorus, and usually accompanied by an instrument; purely instrumental music was less common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199439-120">[119]</a> The Greeks used stringed instruments, including lyres, harps, and lutes;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199448-121">[120]</a> and wind instruments, of which the most important was the aulos, a <a href="/wiki/Reed_aerophone" title="Reed aerophone">reed instrument</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest199481-122">[121]</a> Percussion instruments played a relatively unimportant role supporting stringed and wind instruments, and were used in certain religious cults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest1994122-123">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">List of Graeco-Roman geographers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Greek mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Ancient Greek medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Science in classical antiquity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0142_-_Archaeological_Museum,_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_Nov_11_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg/220px-0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2120" data-file-height="1864"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 193px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg/220px-0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="193" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg/330px-0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg/440px-0142_-_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Antikythera_mechanism_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_11_2009.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a> from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.</figcaption></figure> Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, including the basic rules of <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">formal mathematical proof</a>, and discoveries in <a href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">mathematical analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, and approached close to establishing <a href="/wiki/Integral_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral calculus">integral calculus</a>. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, are still used in mathematical teaching today. The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus of Cnidus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Callippus_of_Cyzicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Callippus of Cyzicus">Callippus of Cyzicus</a>. Their younger contemporary <a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a> proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC, <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> was the first to suggest a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> system. Archimedes in his treatise <a href="/wiki/The_Sand_Reckoner#Estimation_of_the_size_of_the_universe" title="The Sand Reckoner">The Sand Reckoner</a> revives Aristarchus' hypothesis that "the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle". Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus' idea survive.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a>, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the <a href="/wiki/Circumference_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumference of the Earth">circumference of the Earth</a> with great accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> In the 2nd century BC <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus of Nicea</a> made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a> and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of <a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">apparent magnitudes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>, a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC and was the first ancestor of the astronomical <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of <a href="/wiki/Antikythera" title="Antikythera">Antikythera</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Kythera" class="mw-redirect" title="Kythera">Kythera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>. The device became famous for its use of a <a href="/wiki/Differential_gear" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential gear">differential gear</a>, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Athens">National Archaeological Museum of Athens</a>, accompanied by a replica. The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">history of medicine</a>. He is referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/List_of_persons_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_field#Natural_and_social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="List of persons considered father or mother of a field">father of medicine</a>"<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in ancient Greece">medicine in ancient Greece</a>, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably <a href="/wiki/Theurgy" title="Theurgy">theurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>), thus making medicine a profession.<a href="#cite_note-garrison9293-128">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-nuland5-129">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_architecture">Art and architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Ancient Greek art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Ancient Greek architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_(Hera).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG/220px-Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG/220px-Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG/330px-Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG/440px-Sicily_Selinunte_Temple_E_%28Hera%29.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Temple of <a href="/wiki/Hera" title="Hera">Hera</a> at <a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinunte</a>, Sicily</figcaption></figure> The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day, particularly in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>. In the West, the art of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> cultures, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist art</a>, with ramifications as far as <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the Western world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Ancient Greek religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF!.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg/220px-%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg/220px-%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg/330px-%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg/440px-%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BC%CE%B5_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%21.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a>, home of the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></figcaption></figure> Religion was a central part of ancient Greek life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden20071-130">[129]</a> Though the Greeks of different cities and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek tribes">tribes</a> worshipped similar gods, religious practices were not uniform and the gods were thought of differently in different places. The Greeks were <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a>, worshipping many gods, but as early as the sixth century BC a pantheon of <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">twelve Olympians</a> began to develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowden200741-131">[130]</a> Greek religion was influenced by the practices of the Greeks' near eastern neighbours at least as early as the archaic period, and by the Hellenistic period this influence was seen in both directions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoegel200721%E2%80%9322-132">[131]</a> The most important religious act in ancient Greece was <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal sacrifice</a>, most commonly of sheep and goats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremmer2007132%E2%80%93134-133">[132]</a> Sacrifice was accompanied by public prayer,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurley2007121-134">[133]</a> and prayer and hymns were themselves a major part of ancient Greek religious life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurley2007117-135">[134]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a></div> The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, and the arts. It became the <a href="/wiki/Leitkultur" title="Leitkultur">Leitkultur</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> to the point of marginalizing native <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Italy">Italic</a> traditions. As <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> put it, <dl><dd>Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis / intulit agresti Latio (<a href="/wiki/Epistles_(Horace)" title="Epistles (Horace)">Epistulae</a> 2.1.156f.)</dd> <dd>Captive Greece took captive her uncivilised conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a>.</dd></dl> Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> in general. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> inherited Classical Greek-Hellenistic culture directly, without Latin intermediation, and the preservation of Classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted a strong influence on the <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> and later on the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> and the Western European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> movement in 18th- and 19th-century Europe and the Americas. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/32px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 24px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/32px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="32" data-height="24" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/48px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/64px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 24px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="32" data-height="24" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 31px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="31" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_writers" title="List of ancient Greek writers">List of ancient Greek writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_demography" title="Classical demography">Classical demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_adjectival_and_demonymic_forms_of_place_names#Regions_in_Greco-Roman_antiquity" title="List of adjectival and demonymic forms of place names">Regions in Greco-Roman antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Science in classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_influence_of_Ancient_Greece" title="Modern influence of Ancient Greece">Modern influence of Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region" title="List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region">List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> This excludes the Greek city-states free from Macedonian jurisdiction in the western Mediterranean, around the Black Sea, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes_2">Notes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 19em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Thomas1988-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas1988_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCarol_G._Thomas1988" class="citation book cs1">Carol G. Thomas (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAwVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27">Paths from ancient Greece</a>. Brill. pp. 27–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08846-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08846-7"><bdi>978-90-04-08846-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paths+from+ancient+Greece&rft.pages=27-50&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08846-7&rft.au=Carol+G.+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAwVAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EllynMcGinnis2004-3"><a href="#cite_ref-EllynMcGinnis2004_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaura_EllynMaura_McGinnis2004" class="citation book cs1">Maura Ellyn; Maura McGinnis (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N69iOTtVHGYC&pg=PT8">Greece: A Primary Source Cultural Guide</a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3999-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3999-2"><bdi>978-0-8239-3999-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greece%3A+A+Primary+Source+Cultural+Guide&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8239-3999-2&rft.au=Maura+Ellyn&rft.au=Maura+McGinnis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN69iOTtVHGYC%26pg%3DPT8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FindlingPelle2004-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FindlingPelle2004_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_E._FindlingKimberly_D._Pelle2004" class="citation book cs1">John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmXi_-Jujj0C&pg=PR23">Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement</a>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Homer&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Classical+Literature&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=G.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKönig2016" class="citation book cs1">König, Jason (2016). "Literature in the Roman World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literature+in+the+Roman+World&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Literature&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=K%C3%B6nig&rft.aufirst=Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarincola2001" class="citation book cs1">Marincola, John (2001). Greek Historians. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922501-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922501-9"><bdi>978-0-19-922501-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Historians&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-922501-9&rft.aulast=Marincola&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2013" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Thomas R. (2013). Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times (2 ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greece%3A+From+Prehistoric+to+Hellenistic+Times&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGlew2016" class="citation book cs1">McGlew, James (2016). "Literature in the Classical Age of Greece". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literature+in+the+Classical+Age+of+Greece&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Literature&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=McGlew&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMori2016" class="citation book cs1">Mori, Anatole (2016). "Literature in the Hellenistic World". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literature+in+the+Hellenistic+World&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Literature&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Mori&rft.aufirst=Anatole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoegel2007" class="citation book cs1">Noegel, Scott B. (2007). "Greek Religion and the Ancient Near East". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greek+Religion+and+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Religion&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Noegel&rft.aufirst=Scott+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgden2007" class="citation book cs1">Ogden, Daniel (2007). "Introduction". In Ogden, Daniel (ed.). A Companion to Greek Religion. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Religion&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Ogden&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower2016" class="citation book cs1">Power, Timothy (2016). "Literature in the Archaic Age". In Hose, Martin; Schenker, David (eds.). A Companion to Greek Literature. John Wiley & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literature+in+the+Archaic+Age&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Literature&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2011" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Jennifer T. (2011). Herodotus: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957599-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957599-2"><bdi>978-0-19-957599-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herodotus%3A+a+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957599-2&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro2007" class="citation book cs1">Shapiro, H.A. (2007). "Introduction". In Shapiro, H.A. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Archaic+Greece&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=H.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparks1998" class="citation book cs1">Sparks, Kenton L. (1998). Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and their Expression in the Hebrew Bible. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-033-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-033-0"><bdi>978-1-57506-033-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnicity+and+Identity+in+Ancient+Israel%3A+Prolegomena+to+the+Study+of+Ethnic+Sentiments+and+their+Expression+in+the+Hebrew+Bible&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+IN&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-033-0&rft.aulast=Sparks&rft.aufirst=Kenton+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest1994" class="citation book cs1">West, M. L. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreekmusi0000west">Ancient Greek Music</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greek+Music&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=M.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientgreekmusi0000west&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShanks1996" class="citation book cs1">Shanks, Michael (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4032788">Classical Archaeology of Greece</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-17197-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-17197-7"><bdi>0-203-17197-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Archaeology+of+Greece&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-203-17197-7&rft.aulast=Shanks&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4032788&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greece" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Brock, Roger, and Stephen Hodkinson, eds. 2000. Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of political organization and community in ancient Greece. Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.</li> <li>Cartledge, Paul, Edward E. Cohen, and Lin Foxhall. 2002. Money, labour and land: Approaches to the economies of ancient Greece. London and New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Cohen, Edward. 1992. Athenian economy and society: A banking perspective. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.</li> <li>Hurwit, Jeffrey. 1987. The art and culture of early Greece, 1100–480 B.C. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.</li> <li>Kinzl, Konrad, ed. 2006. A companion to the Classical Greek world. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.</li> <li>Morris, Ian, ed. 1994. Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_B._Pomeroy" title="Sarah B. Pomeroy">Pomeroy, Sarah</a>, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. 2008. Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history. 2d ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.</li> <li>Rhodes, Peter J. 2006. A history of the Classical Greek world: 478–323 BC. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Blackwell.</li> <li>Whitley, James. 2001. The archaeology of ancient Greece. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Greece">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Greece&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/greece/gr0000e.shtml">The Canadian Museum of Civilization—Greece Secrets of the Past</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientgreece.co.uk">Ancient Greece</a> website from the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060502201333/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/engen.greece">Economic history of ancient Greece</a> (archived 2 May 2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/currency/drachma-history">The Greek currency history</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090038/http://www.limenoscope.ntua.gr/index.cgi?lan=en">Limenoscope</a>, an ancient Greek ports database (archived 11 May 2011)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/home.htm">The Ancient Theatre Archive</a>, Greek and Roman theatre architecture</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.hsc.edu/drjclassics/lectures/history/history.shtm">Illustrated Greek History</a>, Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, <a href="/wiki/Hampden%E2%80%93Sydney_College" title="Hampden–Sydney College">Hampden–Sydney College</a>, Virginia</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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</section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greece&oldid=1259084453">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greece&oldid=1259084453</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greece&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 23 November 2024, at 07:38 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antieke_Griekeland" title="Antieke Griekeland – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Antieke Griekeland" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikes_Griechenland" title="Antikes Griechenland – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Antikes Griechenland" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="اليونان القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اليونان القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiga_Grecia" title="Antiga Grecia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Antiga Grecia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%9A" title="প্ৰাচীন গ্ৰীচ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰাচীন গ্ৰীচ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_Grecia" title="Antigua Grecia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Antigua Grecia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyr%C3%A9sia_Ymaguare" title="Gyrésia Ymaguare – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Gyrésia Ymaguare" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D3%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B1_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="НекӀсияб Грекия – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="НекӀсияб Грекия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_Yunan%C4%B1stan" title="Qədim Yunanıstan – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Yunanıstan" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="قدیم یونان – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم یونان" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8" title="প্রাচীন গ্রিস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন গ্রিস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-t%C4%81i_Hi-lia%CC%8Dp" title="Kó͘-tāi Hi-lia̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-tāi Hi-lia̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%93%D0%BE_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Боронғо Греция – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Боронғо Греция" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Старажытная Грэцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытная Грэцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Старажытная Грэцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытная Грэцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suanoy_na_Gresya" title="Suanoy na Gresya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Suanoy na Gresya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древна Гърция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древна Гърция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%A0%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8D" title="གནའ་རབས་ཀེ་རི་སི། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གནའ་རབས་ཀེ་རི་སི།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dka_Gr%C4%8Dka" title="Antička Grčka – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Antička Grčka" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henc%27hres" title="Henc'hres – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Henc'hres" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Эртын Греци – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Эртын Греци" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiga_Gr%C3%A8cia" title="Antiga Grècia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antiga Grècia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Авалхи Греци – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Авалхи Греци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk%C3%A9_%C5%98ecko" title="Starověké Řecko – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověké Řecko" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groeg_yr_Henfyd" title="Groeg yr Henfyd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Groeg yr Henfyd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtidens_Gr%C3%A6kenland" title="Oldtidens Grækenland – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oldtidens Grækenland" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikes_Griechenland" title="Antikes Griechenland – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Antikes Griechenland" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Kreeka" title="Vana-Kreeka – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Kreeka" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1" title="Αρχαία Ελλάδα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία Ελλάδα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_Grecia" title="Antigua Grecia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antigua Grecia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikva_Grekio" title="Antikva Grekio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antikva Grekio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_Grezia" title="Antzinako Grezia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako Grezia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="یونان باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یونان باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purana_Greece" title="Purana Greece – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Purana Greece" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forna_Grikkaland" title="Forna Grikkaland – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Forna Grikkaland" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A8ce_antique" title="Grèce antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grèce antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alde_Grikel%C3%A2n" title="Alde Grikelân – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Alde Grikelân" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antighe_Grecie" title="Antighe Grecie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Antighe Grecie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSean-Ghr%C3%A9ig" title="An tSean-Ghréig – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSean-Ghréig" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%27_Ghr%C3%A8ig_%C3%80rsaidh" title="A' Ghrèig Àrsaidh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="A' Ghrèig Àrsaidh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grecia_antiga" title="Grecia antiga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Grecia antiga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%AF%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%85%D1%8C%D0%B5" title="Шира Янехье – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Шира Янехье" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" title="古希臘 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="古希臘" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BA_H%C3%AE-lia%CC%8Dp" title="Kú Hî-lia̍p – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kú Hî-lia̍p" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EA%B7%B8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4" title="고대 그리스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 그리스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Հին Հունաստան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Հունաստան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="प्राचीन यूनान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राचीन यूनान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stara_Gr%C4%8Dka" title="Stara Grčka – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Stara Grčka" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiqua_Grekia" title="Antiqua Grekia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Antiqua Grekia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taga-ugma_a_Gresia" title="Taga-ugma a Gresia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Taga-ugma a Gresia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunani_Kuno" title="Yunani Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Yunani Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grecia_antique" title="Grecia antique – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Grecia antique" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Рагон Грекъ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Рагон Грекъ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grikkland_hi%C3%B0_forna" title="Grikkland hið forna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Grikkland hið forna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antica_Grecia" title="Antica Grecia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antica Grecia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="יוון העתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יוון העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griki_Kuna" title="Griki Kuna – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Griki Kuna" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%A9b%C9%A9njaaz%C9%A9_Kr%C9%9Bs%C9%A9" title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Krɛsɩ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kɩbɩnjaazɩ Krɛsɩ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AB%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ძველი საბერძნეთი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი საბერძნეთი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ежелгі Грекия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі Грекия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Res" title="Hen Res – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Hen Res" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugiriki_ya_Kale" title="Ugiriki ya Kale – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ugiriki ya Kale" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Важ Греция – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ Греция" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A8s_antik" title="Grès antik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Grès antik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A8s_antik" title="Grès antik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Grès antik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yewnanistana_kevnare" title="Yewnanistana kevnare – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Yewnanistana kevnare" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antica_Grecia" title="Antica Grecia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Antica Grecia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graecia_antiqua" title="Graecia antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Graecia antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81_Grie%C4%B7ija" title="Senā Grieķija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senā Grieķija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%8C_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Дегь Греция – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Дегь Греция" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Graikijos_istorija" title="Senovės Graikijos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Graikijos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elas_antica" title="Elas antica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Elas antica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kori_G%C3%B6r%C3%B6gorsz%C3%A1g" title="Ókori Görögország – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókori Görögország" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Стара Грција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стара Грција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grisia_Taloha" title="Grisia Taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Grisia Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A4" title="പ്രാചീന ഗ്രീക്ക് നാഗരികത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രാചീന ഗ്രീക്ക് നാഗരികത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="ग्रीक संस्कृती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ग्रीक संस्कृती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AB%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ჯვეში საბერძნეთი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯვეში საბერძნეთი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="اليونان القديمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اليونان القديمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="یونان باستان دوره – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="یونان باستان دوره" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunani_Purba" title="Yunani Purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Yunani Purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%84_%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%AD%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%81" title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯒ꯭ꯔꯤꯁ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯂꯤꯄ ꯒ꯭ꯔꯤꯁ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AB_H%C4%AD-l%C3%A9-n%C3%A0%CC%A4" title="Gū Hĭ-lé-nà̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gū Hĭ-lé-nà̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A9cia_Antiga" title="Grécia Antiga – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Grécia Antiga" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Эртний Грек – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эртний Грек" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD" title="ရှေးခေတ်ဂရိ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရှေးခေတ်ဂရိ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oude_Griekenland" title="Oude Griekenland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oude Griekenland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olde_Griekenlaand" title="Olde Griekenlaand – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Olde Griekenlaand" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8" title="प्राचीन यवन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्राचीन यवन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2" title="古代ギリシア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代ギリシア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grecia_antica" title="Grecia antica – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Grecia antica" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%87%D0%BE%D1%8C" title="Шира Желтойчоь – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Шира Желтойчоь" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ual_Grichenlun" title="Ual Grichenlun – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ual Grichenlun" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikkens_Hellas" title="Antikkens Hellas – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Antikkens Hellas" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_i_antikken" title="Hellas i antikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hellas i antikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A8cia_antica" title="Grècia antica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Grècia antica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Акрет Греций – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Акрет Греций" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadimgi_Yunoniston" title="Qadimgi Yunoniston – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qadimgi Yunoniston" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਪੁਰਾਤਨ ਯੂਨਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪੁਰਾਤਨ ਯੂਨਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پرانا یونان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پرانا یونان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="لرغونی یونان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونی یونان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ienshent_Griis" title="Ienshent Griis – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ienshent Griis" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Важ Эллада – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Важ Эллада" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grecia_antica" title="Grecia antica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Grecia antica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ool_Grekenland" title="Ool Grekenland – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ool Grekenland" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytna_Grecja" title="Starożytna Grecja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Starożytna Grecja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A9cia_Antiga" title="Grécia Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grécia Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81yyemgi_Greciya" title="Áyyemgi Greciya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Áyyemgi Greciya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grecia_Antic%C4%83" title="Grecia Antică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Grecia Antică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grezia_antica" title="Grezia antica – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Grezia antica" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91awpa_Qirisya" title="Ñawpa Qirisya – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñawpa Qirisya" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D2%90%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Старовіке Ґрецько – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Старовіке Ґрецько" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древняя Греция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древняя Греция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Былыргы Греция – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Былыргы Греция" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83" title="पौराणयवनसंस्कृतिः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="पौराणयवनसंस्कृतिः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A8tzia_Antiga" title="Grètzia Antiga – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Grètzia Antiga" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auncient_Greece" title="Auncient Greece – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Auncient Greece" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greqia_e_lasht%C3%AB" title="Greqia e lashtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Greqia e lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grecia_antica" title="Grecia antica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Grecia antica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="පුරාතන ග්‍රීසිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පුරාතන ග්‍රීසිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient Greece" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="قديم يونان – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="قديم يونان" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovek%C3%A9_Gr%C3%A9cko" title="Staroveké Grécko – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroveké Grécko" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dna_Gr%C4%8Dija" title="Antična Grčija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Antična Grčija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86" title="یۆنانی کۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یۆنانی کۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Стара Грчка – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стара Грчка" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dka_Gr%C4%8Dka" title="Antička Grčka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antička Grčka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiikin_Kreikka" title="Antiikin Kreikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Antiikin Kreikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikens_Grekland" title="Antikens Grekland – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Antikens Grekland" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_Gresya" title="Sinaunang Gresya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang Gresya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பண்டைக் கிரேக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைக் கிரேக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Борынгы Греция – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы Греция" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93" title="กรีซโบราณ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กรีซโบราณ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Юнони Бостон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Юнони Бостон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_Yunanistan" title="Antik Yunanistan – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Yunanistan" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadymy_Gresi%C3%BDa" title="Gadymy Gresiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Gadymy Gresiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Стародавня Греція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавня Греція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="قدیم یونان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم یونان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hihlaz_ciuhgeq" title="Hihlaz ciuhgeq – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Hihlaz ciuhgeq" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gresa_antiga" title="Gresa antiga – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Gresa antiga" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amuine_Grekanma" title="Amuine Grekanma – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Amuine Grekanma" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hy_L%E1%BA%A1p_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Hy Lạp cổ đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hy Lạp cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Kreeka" title="Vana-Kreeka – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vana-Kreeka" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" title="古希臘 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="古希臘" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadton_Gresya" title="Hadton Gresya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hadton Gresya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="古希腊" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%98_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93" title="אוראלט גריכנלאנד – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אוראלט גריכנלאנד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" title="古希臘 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古希臘" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunan%C4%B1stano_Antik" title="Yunanıstano Antik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Yunanıstano Antik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senuob%C4%97s_Graik%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Senuobės Graikėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Senuobės Graikėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古希腊" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-qvkwc","wgBackendResponseTime":245,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.528","walltime":"1.850","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11092,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":362910,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7674,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":47,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":291468,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1403.519 1 -total"," 27.46% 385.373 2 Template:Reflist"," 19.82% 278.184 42 Template:Cite_book"," 7.52% 105.515 23 Template:Sfn"," 7.45% 104.514 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.83% 95.891 1 Template:Langx"," 6.78% 95.172 3 Template:Side_box"," 6.71% 94.224 1 Template:History_of_Greece"," 6.66% 93.415 2 Template:Sister_project"," 6.10% 85.587 1 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