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<span>Christian traditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systematic_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systematic_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Systematic theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systematic_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prolegomena:_Scripture_as_a_primary_basis_of_Christian_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prolegomena:_Scripture_as_a_primary_basis_of_Christian_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prolegomena: Scripture as a primary basis of Christian theology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prolegomena:_Scripture_as_a_primary_basis_of_Christian_theology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prolegomena: Scripture as a primary basis of Christian theology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prolegomena:_Scripture_as_a_primary_basis_of_Christian_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biblical_revelation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_revelation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Biblical revelation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_revelation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_inspiration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_inspiration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Biblical inspiration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_inspiration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Biblical authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_canon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_canon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Biblical canon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_canon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology_proper:_God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology_proper:_God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Theology proper: God</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theology_proper:_God-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theology proper: God subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theology_proper:_God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Attributes_of_God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attributes_of_God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Attributes of God</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attributes_of_God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enumeration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enumeration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Enumeration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enumeration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monotheism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monotheism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Monotheism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monotheism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Trinity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-God_the_Father" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#God_the_Father"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>God the Father</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-God_the_Father-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christology_and_Christ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christology_and_Christ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Christology and Christ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christology_and_Christ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Christ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trinitarian_ecumenical_councils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trinitarian_ecumenical_councils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Trinitarian ecumenical councils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trinitarian_ecumenical_councils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attributes_of_Christ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attributes_of_Christ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Attributes of Christ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attributes_of_Christ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-God_as_Son" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#God_as_Son"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3.1</span> <span>God as Son</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-God_as_Son-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Person_of_Christ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Person_of_Christ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3.2</span> <span>Person of Christ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Person_of_Christ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incarnation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incarnation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3.3</span> <span>Incarnation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incarnation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypostatic_union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypostatic_union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3.4</span> <span>Hypostatic union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypostatic_union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Christological_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Christological_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3.5</span> <span>Other Christological concerns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Christological_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Approaches_to_Christology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches_to_Christology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.4</span> <span>Approaches to Christology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Approaches_to_Christology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_of_Christ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_of_Christ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.5</span> <span>Works of Christ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_of_Christ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pneumatology:_Holy_Spirit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pneumatology:_Holy_Spirit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pneumatology: Holy Spirit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pneumatology:_Holy_Spirit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmology:_Things_created" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmology:_Things_created"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cosmology: Things created</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cosmology:_Things_created-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cosmology: Things created subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cosmology:_Things_created-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>World</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropology:_Humanity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology:_Humanity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Anthropology: Humanity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology:_Humanity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_humanity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_humanity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Origin of humanity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_humanity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_afterlife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_afterlife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Death and afterlife</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_afterlife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mariology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mariology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Mariology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mariology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Angelology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Angelology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Angelology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Angelology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Members_of_the_heavenly_host" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Members_of_the_heavenly_host"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Members of the heavenly host</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Members_of_the_heavenly_host-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonology:_Fallen_angels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonology:_Fallen_angels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>Demonology: Fallen angels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonology:_Fallen_angels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heaven" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heaven"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Heaven</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heaven-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Hell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theodicy:_Allowance_of_evil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodicy:_Allowance_of_evil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Theodicy: Allowance of evil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodicy:_Allowance_of_evil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hamartiology:_Sin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hamartiology:_Sin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Hamartiology: Sin</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hamartiology:_Sin-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hamartiology: Sin subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hamartiology:_Sin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Sin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_man" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_man"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Fall of man</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_man-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Original_sin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_sin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Original sin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_sin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Total_depravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Total_depravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Total depravity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Total_depravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_among_Protestants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_among_Protestants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Comparison among Protestants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_among_Protestants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soteriology:_Salvation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soteriology:_Salvation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Soteriology: Salvation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Soteriology:_Salvation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Soteriology: Salvation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Soteriology:_Salvation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Traditional_focus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_focus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Traditional focus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_focus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinct_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinct_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Distinct schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinct_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_soteriology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_soteriology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Catholic soteriology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_soteriology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_among_Protestants_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_among_Protestants_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Comparison among Protestants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_among_Protestants_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecclesiology:_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecclesiology:_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Ecclesiology: Church</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecclesiology:_Church-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecclesiology: Church subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecclesiology:_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecclesiastical_polity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecclesiastical_polity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Ecclesiastical polity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecclesiastical_polity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Priesthood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Priesthood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Priesthood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Priesthood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Church_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Church_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Church discipline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Church_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Missiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Missiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sacrament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sacrament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Sacrament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sacrament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eucharist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eucharist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5.1</span> <span>Eucharist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eucharist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baptism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baptism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5.2</span> <span>Baptism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baptism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eschatology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eschatology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Eschatology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eschatology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Eschatology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Eschatology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Approaches_to_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches_to_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Approaches to interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Approaches_to_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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<input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A" title="علم اللاهوت المسيحي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم اللاهوت المسيحي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A1%DC%A1%DC%A0%DC%A0%DC%98%DC%AC_%DC%90%DC%A0%DC%97%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90_%DC%A1%DC%AB%DC%9D%DC%9A%DC%9D%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܡܡܠܠܘܬ ܐܠܗܘܬܐ ܡܫܝܚܝܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܡܡܠܠܘܬ ܐܠܗܘܬܐ ܡܫܝܚܝܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="খ্রিস্টান ধর্মতত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খ্রিস্টান ধর্মতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Християнско богословие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Християнско богословие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teologia_cristiana" title="Teologia cristiana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teologia cristiana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%99es%C5%A5ansk%C3%A1_teologie" title="Křesťanská teologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Křesťanská teologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_teologi" title="Kristen teologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kristen teologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christliche_Theologie" title="Christliche Theologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Christliche Theologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Χριστιανική θεολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χριστιανική θεολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teolog%C3%ADa_cristiana" title="Teología cristiana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teología cristiana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristana_teologio" title="Kristana teologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kristana teologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C" title="الهیات مسیحی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الهیات مسیحی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9ologie_chr%C3%A9tienne" title="Théologie chrétienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théologie chrétienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90_%EC%8B%A0%ED%95%99" title="기독교 신학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기독교 신학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Քրիստոնեական աստվածաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քրիստոնեական աստվածաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="ईसाई धर्ममीमांसा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ईसाई धर्ममीमांसा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teologi_Kristen" title="Teologi Kristen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teologi Kristen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theologia_christian" title="Theologia christian – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Theologia christian" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teologia_cristiana" title="Teologia cristiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teologia cristiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="תאולוגיה נוצרית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תאולוגיה נוצרית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristie%C5%A1u_teolo%C4%A3ija" title="Kristiešu teoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kristiešu teoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chr%C3%ABschtlech_Theologie" title="Chrëschtlech Theologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Chrëschtlech Theologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%B4l%C3%B4jia_kristiana" title="Teôlôjia kristiana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Teôlôjia kristiana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AA" title="لاهوت – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لاهوت" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E6%95%99%E7%A5%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="キリスト教神学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="キリスト教神学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_teologi" title="Kristen teologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kristen teologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_teologi" title="Kristen teologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kristen teologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%B0%DB%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="مسیحی الٰہیات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مسیحی الٰہیات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teologia_crist%C3%A3" title="Teologia cristã – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teologia cristã" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teologie_cre%C8%99tin%C4%83" title="Teologie creștină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Teologie creștină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Христианское богословие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Христианское богословие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="ක්‍රිස්තියානි දේවධර්මය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්‍රිස්තියානි දේවධර්මය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Christian theology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kres%C5%A5ansk%C3%A1_teol%C3%B3gia" title="Kresťanská teológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kresťanská teológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%9B%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хришћанска теологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хришћанска теологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C5%A1%C4%87anska_teologija" title="Kršćanska teologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kršćanska teologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristillinen_teologia" title="Kristillinen teologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kristillinen teologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கிறித்தவ இறையியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிறித்தவ இறையியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="เทววิทยาศาสนาคริสต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เทววิทยาศาสนาคริสต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hristiyan_ilahiyat%C4%B1" title="Hristiyan ilahiyatı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hristiyan ilahiyatı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%27%D1%8F" 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For the United States court case known by that name, see <a href="/wiki/G._L._Christian_%26_Associates_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="G. L. Christian & Associates v. United States">G. L. Christian & Associates v. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #efefef">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #efefef"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size notpageimage skin-invert" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Principal symbol of Christianity"><img alt="Principal symbol of Christianity" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/50px-Christian_cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/75px-Christian_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/100px-Christian_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="564" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Ascension</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></li><li>Foundations</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="God the Father (Christianity)">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">(full list)</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedevacantism" title="Sedevacantism">Sedevacantism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodox</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Free Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian [Hussite]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Members_Church_of_God_International" title="Members Church of God International">Members Church of God International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">The New Church (Swedenborgian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Unitarian,_Universalist,_and_Unitarian_Universalist_churches" title="List of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist churches">Unitarians and Universalists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_prayer" title="Christian prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christian cross"><img alt="Christian cross" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/30px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, 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a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_sidebar" title="Template:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_sidebar" title="Template talk:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of<br />Christian theology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Malmesbury Abbey's 1407 Bible from Belgium"><img alt="Malmesbury Abbey's 1407 Bible from Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/220px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/330px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/440px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Background</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christian theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity in early Christian theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity">Template:History of Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Ecclesiastical polity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paterology" title="Paterology">Paterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatology" title="Pneumatology">Pneumatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics" title="Biblical hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_hermeneutics" title="Theological hermeneutics">Theological hermeneutics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_American_biblical_hermeneutics" title="African American biblical hermeneutics">African American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_biblical_hermeneutics" title="Asian American biblical hermeneutics">Asian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theology" title="Philosophical theology">Philosophical theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Christian apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_thought_on_persecution_and_tolerance" title="History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance">Persecution and tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_theology" title="Historical theology">Historical theology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_creeds" title="Ecumenical creeds">Ecumenical Creeds</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Definition" title="Chalcedonian Definition">Chalcedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed" title="Athanasian Creed">Athanasian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">Patristics</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Fathers" title="Cappadocian Fathers">Cappadocian Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Fathers" title="Desert Fathers">Desert Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Mothers" title="Desert Mothers">Desert Mothers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><br /> <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Post-Nicene development</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">Heresy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monothelitism" title="Monothelitism">Monothelitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Palamas" title="Gregory Palamas">Palamas</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">95 Theses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_theology" title="Evangelical theology">theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">From the Reformation to the World Wars</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_theology" title="Practical theology">Practical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakenings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restoration Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatic_theology" title="Dogmatic theology">Dogmatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theology" title="Fundamental theology">Fundamental/foundational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Catholic Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Anglo-Catholicism" title="Liberal Anglo-Catholicism">Anglo-Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_critical_realism" title="Theological critical realism">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Since the World Wars</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situational_ethics" title="Situational ethics">Situational ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_th%C3%A9ologie" title="Nouvelle théologie"><i>Nouvelle théologie</i> (<i>Ressourcement</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_God_theology" title="Death of God theology">Death of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postliberal_theology" title="Postliberal theology">Postliberal  •  Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theology" title="Postmodern theology">Continental philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_orthodoxy" title="Radical orthodoxy">Radical orthodoxy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodoxy" title="Neo-orthodoxy">Neo-orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-orthodoxy" title="Paleo-orthodoxy">Paleo-orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_theology" title="Reconciliation theology">Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">Open theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">in Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_atheism" title="Christian atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theopoetics" title="Theopoetics">Theopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_religions" title="Theology of religions">of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_theology" title="Digital theology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmodernism" title="Transmodernism">Transmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_theology" title="Constructive theology">Constructive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecotheology" title="Ecotheology">Eco-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_theology" title="Environmental theology">Environmental</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_theology" title="Public theology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotheology#Christianity" title="Exotheology">extraterrestrial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Christianity" title="Progressive Christianity">Progressive Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_Christianity" title="Moderate Christianity">Moderate Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Christianity" title="Conservative Christianity">Conservative Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_church" title="Emerging church">Emerging church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessing_Movement" title="Confessing Movement">Confessing Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_theology" title="Evangelical theology">Evangelical theology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Contextual_theology" title="Contextual theology">Contextualisation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inculturation" title="Inculturation">Inculturation</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_church_mission_theory" title="Indigenous church mission theory">Indigenous church mission theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Christian_theology" title="Sino-Christian theology">Sino-Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Feminist</a> in the broader movement of <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_theology" title="Queer theology">Queer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_theology" title="Dalit theology">Dalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_liberation_theology" title="Latin American liberation theology">Latin American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjung_theology" title="Minjung theology"><i>Minjung</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_liberation_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian liberation theology">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_theology" title="Postcolonial theology">Postcolonial</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christian_theology" title="Template:History of Christian theology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christian_theology" title="Template talk:History of Christian theology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christian_theology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christian theology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Christian theology</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> – the systematic study of the <a href="/wiki/Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine">divine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> – of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> belief and practice.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It concentrates primarily upon the texts of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, as well as on <a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a>. Christian theologians use biblical <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">exegesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> analysis and argument. Theologians may undertake the study of Christian theology for a variety of reasons, such as in order to: </p> <ul><li>help them better understand Christian tenets<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>make <a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">comparisons</a> between Christianity and other traditions<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">defend</a> Christianity against objections and criticism</li> <li>facilitate reforms in the Christian church<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>assist in the <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">propagation of Christianity</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or perceived need<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>education in <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonic</a> philosophy<sup id="cite_ref-Louth_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Louth-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Christian theology has permeated much of non-ecclesiastical <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Pre-modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-modern">pre-modern</a> Europe, although <a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">Christianity is a worldwide religion</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theological_spectrum">Theological spectrum</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theological spectrum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Christianity" title="Conservative Christianity">Conservative Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Liberal Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Christianity" title="Progressive Christianity">Progressive Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_Christianity" title="Moderate Christianity">Moderate Christianity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christian_traditions">Christian traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Christian traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_theology" title="Eastern Orthodox theology">Eastern Orthodox theology</a></div> <p>Christian theology varies significantly across the main branches of Christian tradition: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a>. Each of those traditions has its own unique approaches to <a href="/wiki/Seminary" title="Seminary">seminaries</a> and ministerial formation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systematic_theology">Systematic theology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Systematic theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Systematic_theology" title="Systematic theology">Systematic theology</a> as a discipline of Christian theology formulates an orderly, rational and coherent account of <a href="/wiki/Christian_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian faith">Christian faith</a> and beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systematic theology draws on the foundational <a href="/wiki/Sacred_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred texts">sacred texts</a> of Christianity, while simultaneously investigating the development of Christian doctrine throughout history, particularly through the ecumenical councils of the early church (such as the First <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Council of Nicea</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">philosophical</a> evolution. Inherent to a <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> of theological thought is the development of a method, one which can apply both broadly and particularly. Christian systematic theology will typically explore: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> (<a href="/wiki/Theology_proper" title="Theology proper">theology proper</a>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">attributes of God</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> as espoused by Trinitarian Christians</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics" title="Biblical hermeneutics">Biblical hermeneutics</a> – the interpretation of Biblical texts</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative" title="Genesis creation narrative">creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">Divine providence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a> – accounting for an omnibenevolent God's creation and tolerance of evil</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamartiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamartiology">Hamartiology</a> – the study of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paterology" title="Paterology">Paterology</a> - the study of <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">The Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a> – the study of the nature and person of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus Christ</a>/<a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">The Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatology_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatology (Christianity)">Pneumatology</a> – the study of <a href="/wiki/The_Holy_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holy Spirit">The Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> – the study of <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> – the study of the Christian church</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missiology" title="Missiology">Missiology</a> – the study of the Christian message and of missions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystical_theology" title="Mystical theology">Spirituality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacramental</a> theology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a> – the ultimate destiny of humankind</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral theology">Moral theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Christian anthropology</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Afterlife#Christianity" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prolegomena:_Scripture_as_a_primary_basis_of_Christian_theology">Prolegomena: Scripture as a primary basis of Christian theology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prolegomena: Scripture as a primary basis of Christian theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_revelation">Biblical revelation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biblical revelation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/170px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/255px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/340px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="963" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Valle_Romita_Polyptych" title="Valle Romita Polyptych">Valle Romita Polyptych</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Gentile_da_Fabriano" title="Gentile da Fabriano">Gentile da Fabriano</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Revelation#Christianity" title="Revelation">Revelation</a> is the revealing or disclosing, or making something obvious through active or passive communication with God, and can originate directly from <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> or through an agent, such as an <a href="/wiki/Angel#Christianity" title="Angel">angel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A person recognised as having experienced such contact is often called<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2020)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> a <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophet</a>. Christianity generally considers the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> as divinely or <a href="/wiki/Supernatural_revelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernatural revelation">supernaturally revealed</a> or inspired. Such revelation does not always require the presence of God or an angel. For instance, in the concept which <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholics</a> call <a href="/wiki/Interior_locution" title="Interior locution">interior locution</a>, supernatural revelation can include just an <a href="/wiki/Inner_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner voice">inner voice</a> heard by the recipient. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (1225–1274) first described two types of revelation in Christianity: <a href="/wiki/General_revelation" title="General revelation">general revelation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Special_revelation" title="Special revelation">special revelation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>General revelation occurs through observation of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">created order</a>. Such observations can logically lead to important conclusions, such as the existence of God and some of God's attributes. General revelation is also an element of <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Christian apologetics</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Certain specifics, such as the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a>, as revealed in the teachings of the Scriptures, can not otherwise be deduced except by special revelation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_inspiration">Biblical inspiration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Biblical inspiration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_inspiration" title="Biblical inspiration">Biblical inspiration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Evangelist_Matthew_Inspired_by_an_Angel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/The_Evangelist_Matthew_Inspired_by_an_Angel.jpg/170px-The_Evangelist_Matthew_Inspired_by_an_Angel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/The_Evangelist_Matthew_Inspired_by_an_Angel.jpg/255px-The_Evangelist_Matthew_Inspired_by_an_Angel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/The_Evangelist_Matthew_Inspired_by_an_Angel.jpg/340px-The_Evangelist_Matthew_Inspired_by_an_Angel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1210" data-file-height="1545" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>'s <i>The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel</i>, 1661</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> contains many passages in which the authors claim divine inspiration for their message or report the effects of such inspiration on others. Besides the direct accounts of written <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> receiving the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> inscribed on tablets of stone), the <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">Prophets</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> frequently claimed that their message was of divine origin by prefacing the revelation using the following phrase: "Thus says the LORD" (for example, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=IKings+12:22-24;IChronicles+17:3-4;Jeremiah+35:13;Ezekiel+2:4;Zechariah+7:9">1 Kgs 12:22–24;1 Chr 17:3–4; Jer 35:13; Ezek 2:4; Zech 7:9</a>; etc.). The <a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Peter" title="Second Epistle of Peter">Second Epistle of Peter</a> claims that "no prophecy of Scripture ... was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit"<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Second Epistle of Peter also implies that Paul's writings are inspired (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Peter+3:16">2 Pet 3:16</a>). </p><p>Many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (September 2020)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> Christians cite a verse in Paul's letter to Timothy, 2 Timothy 3:16–17, as evidence that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable ..." Here St. Paul is referring to the Old Testament, since the scriptures have been known by Timothy from "infancy" (verse 15). Others offer an alternative reading for the passage; for example, theologian <a href="/wiki/C._H._Dodd" title="C. H. Dodd">C. H. Dodd</a> suggests that it "is probably to be rendered" as: "Every inspired scripture is also useful..."<sup id="cite_ref-dodd_p25_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dodd_p25-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar translation appears in the <a href="/wiki/New_English_Bible" title="New English Bible">New English Bible</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Revised_English_Bible" title="Revised English Bible">Revised English Bible</a>, and (as a footnoted alternative) in the <a href="/wiki/New_Revised_Standard_Version" title="New Revised Standard Version">New Revised Standard Version</a>. The Latin <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a> can be so read.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet others defend the "traditional" interpretation; <a href="/wiki/Daniel_B._Wallace" title="Daniel B. Wallace">Daniel B. Wallace</a> calls the alternative "probably not the best translation."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some modern English versions of the Bible renders <i>theopneustos</i> with "God-breathed" (<a href="/wiki/NIV" class="mw-redirect" title="NIV">NIV</a>) or "breathed out by God" (<a href="/wiki/English_Standard_Version" title="English Standard Version">ESV</a>), avoiding the word <i>inspiration</i>, which has the Latin root <i>inspīrāre</i> - "to blow or breathe into".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_authority">Biblical authority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biblical authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> generally regards the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">agreed collections of books</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> as authoritative and as written by human authors under the inspiration of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>. Some Christians believe that the Bible is <a href="/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy" title="Biblical inerrancy">inerrant</a> (totally without error and free from contradiction, including the historical and scientific parts)<sup id="cite_ref-inerrancy_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inerrancy-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Biblical_infallibility" title="Biblical infallibility">infallible</a> (inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not necessarily on matters of history or science).<sup id="cite_ref-infallible_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infallible-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (September 2020)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Christians infer that the Bible cannot both refer to itself as being divinely inspired and also be errant or fallible. For if the Bible were divinely inspired, then the source of inspiration being divine, would not be subject to fallibility or error in that which is produced. For them, the doctrines of the divine inspiration, infallibility, and inerrancy, are inseparably tied together. The idea of biblical <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a> is a further concept of infallibility, by suggesting that current biblical text is complete and without error, and that the integrity of biblical text has never been corrupted or degraded.<sup id="cite_ref-inerrancy_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inerrancy-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2020)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> note, or claim, that the doctrine of the Bible's infallibility was adopted<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2020)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> hundreds of years after the books of the Bible were written.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement"><span title="This claim has reliable sources with contradicting facts (May 2024)">disputed</span></a> (for: Reference misattribution)  – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Christian_theology#Biblical_Authority" title="Talk:Christian theology">discuss</a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The authority of the Bible can also be linked to the principle of <a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">sola scriptura</a>, the claim that by scripture alone<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the authority of the Bible is more important than the authority of the Church. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_canon">Biblical canon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Biblical canon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canons" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canons">Christian biblical canons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Development of the Christian biblical canon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Development of the New Testament canon</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Development of the Hebrew Bible canon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Old_Testament_canon" title="Development of the Old Testament canon">Development of the Old Testament canon</a></div> <p>The content of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Bible" title="Protestant Bible">Protestant Old Testament</a> is the same as the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Hebrew Bible canon</a>, with changes in the division and order of books, but the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic Old Testament</a> contains additional texts, known as the <a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">deuterocanonical books</a>. Protestants recognize 39 books in their Old Testament canon, while Roman Catholic and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christians</a> recognize 46 books as canonical.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Catholics and Protestants use the same 27-book New Testament canon. </p><p>Early Christians used the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Koine" class="mw-redirect" title="Koine">Koine</a> Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures. Christianity subsequently endorsed various additional writings that would become the New Testament. In the 4th century a series of <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Hippo" title="Synod of Hippo">Synod of Hippo</a> in AD 393, produced a list of texts equal to the 46-book canon of the Old Testament that Catholics use today (and the 27-book canon of the New Testament that all use). A definitive list did not come from any <a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">early ecumenical council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 400, <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> produced the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, a definitive Latin edition of the Bible, the contents of which, at the insistence of the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Bishop of Rome</a>, accorded with the decisions of the earlier synods. This process effectively set the New Testament canon, although examples exist of other canonical lists in use after this time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> certain reformers proposed different canonical lists of the Old Testament. The texts which appear in the Septuagint but not in the Jewish canon fell out of favor, and eventually disappeared from Protestant canons. Catholic Bibles classify these texts as deuterocanonical books, whereas Protestant contexts label them as the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Apocrypha</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theology_proper:_God">Theology proper: God</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Theology proper: God"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God in Christianity</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, God is the <a href="/wiki/Creator_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Creator God">creator and preserver of the universe</a>. God is the <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">sole</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Ultimate_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ultimate (philosophy)">ultimate</a> power in the universe but is distinct from it. The <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> never speaks of God as impersonal. Instead, it refers to him in <a href="/wiki/Personal_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal God">personal terms</a>– who speaks, sees, hears, acts, and loves. God is understood to have a <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a> and personality and is an <a href="/wiki/Omnipotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnipotent">all powerful</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">benevolent</a> being. He is represented in <a href="/wiki/Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripture">Scripture</a> as being primarily concerned with people and their salvation.<sup id="cite_ref-Stagg_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stagg-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attributes_of_God">Attributes of God</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Attributes of God"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Attributes of God in Christianity</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classification">Classification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Reformed</a> theologians distinguish between the <i>communicable</i> attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the <i>incommunicable</i> attributes (those which belong to God alone).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enumeration">Enumeration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Enumeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some attributes ascribed to God in Christian theology<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aseity" title="Aseity">Aseity</a>—That "God is so independent that he does not need us."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is based on <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Acts">Acts</a> 17:25, where it says that God "is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything" (<a href="/wiki/NIV" class="mw-redirect" title="NIV">NIV</a>). This is often related to God's <i>self-existence</i> and his <i>self-sufficiency</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">Eternity</a>—That God exists beyond the <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">temporal</a> realm.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">Graciousness</a>—That God extends His favor and gifts to human beings unconditionally as well as conditionally.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">Holiness</a>—That God is separate from sin and incorruptible. Noting the refrain of "<a href="/wiki/Sanctus" title="Sanctus">Holy, holy, holy</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a> 6:3 and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a> 4:8,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">Immanence</a>—That although God is <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent</a> and holy, He is also accessible and can be dynamically experienced.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immutability_(theology)" title="Immutability (theology)">Immutability</a>—That God's essential nature is unchangeable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impassibility" title="Impassibility">Impassibility</a>—That God does not experience emotion or suffering (a more controversial doctrine, disputed especially by <a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">open theism</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeccability" title="Impeccability">Impeccability</a>—That God is incapable of error (<a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporeality" title="Incorporeality">Incorporeality</a>—That God is without physical composition. A related concept is the <i><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a></i> of God, which is derived from <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>' statement in <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">John</a> 4:24, "God is spirit."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a>—That God is care and compassion. <a href="/wiki/1_John" class="mw-redirect" title="1 John">1 John</a> 4:16 says "God is love."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christianity)">Mission</a>—That God is the supreme liberator. While the <a href="/wiki/Missio_dei" class="mw-redirect" title="Missio dei">Mission of God</a> is not traditionally included in this list, <a href="/wiki/David_Bosch" title="David Bosch">David Bosch</a> has argued that "<a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christianity)">mission</a> is not primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">Omnibenevolence</a>—That God is omnibenevolent. <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">Omnibenevolence</a> of God refers to him being "all good".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">Omnipotence</a>—That God is supremely or all-powerful.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipresence" title="Omnipresence">Omnipresence</a>—That God is the supreme being, existing everywhere and at all times; the all-perceiving or all-conceiving foundation of reality.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</a>—That God is supremely or all-knowing.</li> <li>Oneness—That God is without peer, also that every divine attribute is instantiated in its entirety (the qualitative <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinity</a> of God). See also <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">Providence</a>—That God watches over His creation with interest and dedication. While the <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">Providence</a> of God usually refers to his activity in the world, it also implies his care for the universe, and is thus an attribute. A distinction is usually made between "general providence" which refers to God's continuous upholding the existence and natural order of the universe, and "special providence" which refers to God's extraordinary intervention in the life of people.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteousness" title="Righteousness">Righteousness</a>—That God is the greatest or only measure of human conduct. The righteousness of God may refer to his holiness, to his <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, or to his saving activity through Christ.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">Transcendence</a>—That God exists beyond the natural realm of physical laws and thus is not bound by them;<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also wholly <a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">incomprehensible</a> apart from <a href="/wiki/General_revelation" title="General revelation">general</a> or <a href="/wiki/Special_revelation" title="Special revelation">special self-revelation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Triune</a>—The Christian God is understood (by trinitarian Christians) to be a "threeness" of <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">Son</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> that is fully consistent with His "oneness"; a single infinite being who is both within and beyond nature. Because the persons of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> represent a personal relation even on the level of God to Himself, He is personal both in His relation toward us and in His relation toward Himself.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veracity_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Veracity (ethics)">Veracity</a>—That God is the Truth all human beings strive for; He is also impeccably honest. <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Titus" title="Epistle to Titus">Titus</a> 1:2 refers to "God, who does not lie."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a>—That God fully comprehends <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a> and the world, and will see His will accomplished in heaven and on earth. <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> 16:27 speaks about the "only wise God".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monotheism">Monotheism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Monotheism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg/170px-Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg/255px-Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg/340px-Christ_in_Gethsemane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><i>Christ in Gethsemane</i>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hofmann_(painter)" title="Heinrich Hofmann (painter)">Heinrich Hofmann</a>, 1890</figcaption></figure> <p>Some Christians believe that the God worshiped by the Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era had always revealed himself as he did through <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>; but that this was never obvious until Jesus was born (see <a href="/wiki/John_1" title="John 1">John 1</a>). Also, though the <a href="/wiki/Angel_of_the_Lord" title="Angel of the Lord">Angel of the Lord</a> spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, some believe it has always been only through the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Spirit of God</a> granting them understanding, that men have been able to perceive later that God himself had visited them. </p><p>This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>, which is the doctrine that God is a single entity (<a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>), but that there is a trinity in God's single being, the meaning of which has always been debated. This mysterious "Trinity" has been described as <a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostasis (religion)">hypostases</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Consubstantial" class="mw-redirect" title="Consubstantial">subsistences</a> in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>), and "persons" in English. Nonetheless, Christians stress that they only believe in one God. </p><p>Most Christian churches teach the Trinity, as opposed to Unitarian monotheistic beliefs. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the nature of God is a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_mysteries" title="Sacred mysteries">mystery</a>, something that must be revealed by <a href="/wiki/Special_revelation" title="Special revelation">special revelation</a> rather than deduced through <a href="/wiki/General_revelation" title="General revelation">general revelation</a>. </p><p>Christian orthodox traditions (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) follow this idea, which was codified in 381 and reached its full development through the work of the <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Fathers" title="Cappadocian Fathers">Cappadocian Fathers</a>. They consider God to be a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/triune" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:triune">triune</a> entity, called the Trinity, comprising the three "Persons"; <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a>, and <a href="/wiki/God_the_Holy_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="God the Holy Spirit">God the Holy Spirit</a>, described as being "of the same substance" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ὁμοούσιος</a></span></span>). The true nature of an infinite God, however, is commonly described as beyond definition, and the word 'person' is an imperfect expression of the idea. </p><p>Some critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception of deity, Christianity is a form of <a href="/wiki/Tritheism" title="Tritheism">tritheism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a>. This concept dates from <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> teachings which claimed that Jesus, having appeared later in the Bible than his Father, had to be a secondary, lesser, and therefore distinct god. For <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, the idea of God as a trinity is <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a>– it is considered akin to <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a>. Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the very <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God". </p><p>In the 3rd century, <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> claimed that God exists as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—the three personae of one and the same substance.<sup id="cite_ref-UCP_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCP-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To trinitarian Christians God the Father is not at all a separate god from God the Son (of whom <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other <i><a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostasis (religion)">hypostases</a></i> (Persons) of the <a href="/wiki/Godhead_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Godhead (Christianity)">Christian Godhead</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UCP_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCP-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> of the Trinity states that God is one being who exists, simultaneously and <a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">eternally</a>, as a <a href="/wiki/Perichoresis" title="Perichoresis">mutual indwelling</a> of three Persons: the Father, the Son (incarnate as Jesus), and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost). Since earliest Christianity, one's salvation has been very closely related to the concept of a triune God, although the Trinitarian doctrine was not formalized until the 4th century. At that time, the <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I_and_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I and Christianity">Emperor Constantine</a> convoked the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a>, to which all bishops of the empire were invited to attend. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a> did not attend but sent his <a href="/wiki/Papal_legate" title="Papal legate">legate</a>. The council, among other things, decreed the original Nicene Creed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trinity">Trinity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Trinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rublevtrinit%C3%A4t_ubt.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Rublevtrinit%C3%A4t_ubt.gif/170px-Rublevtrinit%C3%A4t_ubt.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Rublevtrinit%C3%A4t_ubt.gif/255px-Rublevtrinit%C3%A4t_ubt.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Rublevtrinit%C3%A4t_ubt.gif/340px-Rublevtrinit%C3%A4t_ubt.gif 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="621" /></a><figcaption>"Holy Trinity" from the Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, by <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Rublev" title="Andrei Rublev">Andrei Rublev</a>, c. 1400, but more properly known as the "Hospitality of Abraham." The three angels <a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">symbolize</a> the Trinity.</figcaption></figure> <p>For most Christians, beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarianism">Trinitarianism</a>, which holds that the three persons of God together form a single God. The Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will and that <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a> has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict (see <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">Hypostatic union</a>). However, this point is disputed by Oriental Orthodox Christians, who hold that <i>God the Son</i> has only one will of unified divinity and humanity (see <a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a>). </p><p>The Christian doctrine of the Trinity teaches the unity of <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">Son</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> as three persons in <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">one Godhead</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-purgatory-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The doctrine states that <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> is the Triune God, existing as three <i>persons</i>, or in the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostasis (religion)">hypostases</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but one being.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personhood in the Trinity does not match the common Western understanding of "person" as used in the English language—it does not imply an "individual, self-actualized center of free will and conscious activity."<sup id="cite_ref-Olsen_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olsen-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 185–186.">: 185–186. </span></sup> To the ancients, personhood "was in some sense individual, but always in community as well."<sup id="cite_ref-Olsen_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olsen-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: p.186">: p.186 </span></sup> Each <i>person</i> is understood as having the one identical essence or nature, not merely similar natures. Since the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">3rd century</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the doctrine of the Trinity has been stated as "the one God exists in three Persons and <a href="/wiki/Homoousios" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoousios">one substance</a>, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit."<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trinitarianism, belief in the Trinity, is a mark of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a> as well as other prominent Christian sects arising from the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a>. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i> describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology".<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This doctrine contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nontrinitarian">Nontrinitarian</a> positions which include <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism_(doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)">Oneness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modalism">Modalism</a>. A small minority of Christians hold non-trinitarian views, largely coming under the heading of <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a>. </p><p>Most, if not all, Christians believe that God is spirit,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an uncreated, <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotent</a>, and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">divinity of Christ</a> and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which describes the single divine <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i> (substance) existing as three distinct and inseparable <i>hypostases</i> (persons): the <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a>, the Son (<a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus Christ</a> the <a href="/wiki/Logos_(Christianity)" title="Logos (Christianity)">Logos</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Trinitarian doctrine is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith. <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Nontrinitarians">Nontrinitarians</a> typically hold that God, the Father, is supreme; that Jesus, although still divine Lord and Saviour, is the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">Son of God</a>; and that the Holy Spirit is a phenomenon akin to God's will on Earth. The holy three are separate, yet the Son and the Holy Spirit are still seen as originating from God the Father. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> does not have the term "Trinity" and nowhere discusses the Trinity as such. Some emphasize, however, that the New Testament does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God."<sup id="cite_ref-Stagg-p38_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stagg-p38-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The doctrine developed from the biblical language used in New Testament passages such as the baptismal formula in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2028:19&version=nrsv">Matthew 28:19</a> and by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th century</a> it was widely held in its present form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="God_the_Father">God the Father</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: God the Father"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a></div> <p>In many <a href="/wiki/Monotheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotheist">monotheist</a> religions, God is addressed as the father, in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children who are dependent on him and as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Father is said to be in unique relationship with his only begotten (<i>monogenes</i>) son, <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus Christ</a>, which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Christianity, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children—in a previously unheard-of sense—and not just as the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children, his people. Thus, humans, in general, are sometimes called <i>children of God</i>. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thus God himself is the model of the family. </p><p>However, there is a deeper "legal" sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the special relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ as his spiritual <a href="/wiki/Bride_of_Christ" title="Bride of Christ">bride</a>. Christians call themselves <i>adopted</i> children of God.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is believed to be his Son and his heir.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. <i>See</i> <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a>. The Bible refers to Christ, called "<a href="/wiki/Logos_(Christianity)" title="Logos (Christianity)">The Word</a>" as present at the beginning of God's creation.,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not a creation himself, but equal in the personhood of the Trinity. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> theology, God the Father is the "principium" (<i>beginning</i>), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, which gives intuitive emphasis to the threeness of persons; by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin" of all three <i>hypostases</i> or persons as being in the divine nature, which gives intuitive emphasis to the <a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">oneness</a> of God's being.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="I think we need a reliable source for the contrasted "intuitive emphasises" in Eastern and Western theology (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christology_and_Christ">Christology and Christ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Christology and Christ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus in Christianity</a></div> <p>Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature, person, and works of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>, held by Christians to be the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">Son of God</a>. Christology is concerned with the meeting of the human (<a href="/wiki/Son_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Son of Man">Son of Man</a>) and divine (<a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a> or <a href="/wiki/Logos_(Christianity)" title="Logos (Christianity)">Word of God</a>) in the person of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>. </p><p>Primary considerations include the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">Incarnation</a>, the relationship of Jesus's nature and person with the nature and person of God, and the <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">salvific</a> work of Jesus. As such, Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus's life (what he did) or teaching than with who or what he is. There have been and are various perspectives by those who claim to be his followers since the church began after his ascension. The controversies ultimately focused on whether and how a <a href="/wiki/Theological_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Theological anthropology">human</a> nature and a <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a> nature can co-exist in one person. The study of the inter-relationship of these two natures is one of the preoccupations of the majority tradition. </p><p>Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>. Core biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus Christ was and forever is fully God (divine) and fully human in one sinless person at the same time,<sup id="cite_ref-Grudem_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grudem-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that through the death and <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection of Jesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">sinful</a> humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of <a href="/wiki/Heaven#Christianity" title="Heaven">eternal life</a> via his <a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a>. While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians believe that Jesus is <a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">God incarnate</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">true God and true man</a>" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. Scripture asserts that Jesus was conceived, by the Holy Spirit, and <a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">born</a> of his <a href="/wiki/Mary_(mother_of_Jesus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary (mother of Jesus)">virgin mother Mary</a> without a human father.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include <a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">miracles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">preaching, teaching, healing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Christ">Death</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection</a>. The apostle Peter, in what has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the 1st century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Christians now wait for the <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> of Christ when they believe he will fulfill the remaining <a href="/wiki/Messianic_prophecy" class="mw-redirect" title="Messianic prophecy">Messianic prophecies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christ">Christ</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Christ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christ is the English term for the <a href="/wiki/Greek_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek (language)">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Χριστός</span></span> (<i>Khristós</i>) meaning "<a href="/wiki/Anointing" title="Anointing">the anointed one</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a translation of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">מָשִׁיחַ</span>‎ (<i>Māšîaḥ</i>), usually <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliterated</a> into English as <i><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></i>. The word is often misunderstood to be the <a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">surname</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> due to the numerous mentions of <i>Jesus Christ</i> in the Christian <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. The word is in fact used as a <a href="/wiki/Title" title="Title">title</a>, hence its common reciprocal use <i>Christ Jesus</i>, meaning Jesus the Anointed One or Jesus the Messiah. Followers of Jesus became known as <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> because they believed that Jesus was the Christ, or Messiah, <a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophesied</a> about in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trinitarian_ecumenical_councils">Trinitarian ecumenical councils</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Trinitarian ecumenical councils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical council</a></div> <p>The Christological controversies came to a head over the persons of the <a href="/wiki/Godhead_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Godhead (Christianity)">Godhead</a> and their relationship with one another. Christology was a fundamental concern from the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (325) until the <a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a> (680). In this time period, the Christological views of various groups within the broader Christian community led to accusations of <a href="/wiki/Christian_heresy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian heresy">heresy</a>, and, infrequently, subsequent <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a>. In some cases, a sect's unique Christology is its chief distinctive feature, in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its Christology. </p><p>The decisions made at <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> and re-ratified at the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a>, after several decades of ongoing controversy during which the work of Athanasius and the <a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_Fathers" title="Cappadocian Fathers">Cappadocian Fathers</a> were influential. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular it was affirmed that the Son was <i><a href="/wiki/Homoousios" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoousios">homoousios</a></i> (of one substance) with the Father. The <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed of the Nicene Council</a> made statements about the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus, thus preparing the way for discussion about how exactly the divine and human come together in the person of Christ (Christology). </p><p>Nicaea insisted that Jesus was fully divine and also human. What it did not do was make clear how one person could be both divine and human, and how the divine and human were related within that one person. This led to the Christological controversies of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th centuries</a> of the Christian era. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Creed" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian Creed">Chalcedonian Creed</a> did not put an end to all Christological debate, but it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for all other Christologies. Most of the major branches of Christianity—<a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Reformed</a>—subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Eastern Christianity—<a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syrian Orthodoxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Orthodoxy">Coptic Orthodoxy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Orthodox">Ethiopian Orthodoxy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolicism</a>—reject it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attributes_of_Christ">Attributes of Christ</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Attributes of Christ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="God_as_Son">God as Son</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: God as Son"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a></div> <p>According to the Bible, the second Person of the Trinity, because of his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father), is the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">Son of God</a>. He is considered (by Trinitarians) to be coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit. He is <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">all God and all human</a>: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The core of Jesus's self-interpretation was his "filial consciousness", his relationship to God as child to parent in some unique sense<sup id="cite_ref-Stagg_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stagg-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">Filioque</a> controversy). His <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">mission on earth</a> proved to be that of enabling people to know God as their Father, which Christians believe is the essence of <a href="/wiki/Eternal_life_(Christianity)" title="Eternal life (Christianity)">eternal life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>God the Son is the second person of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> in Christian theology. The <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> of the Trinity identifies <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a> as <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> the Son, <i>united in essence but distinct in person</i> with regard to <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a> and God the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> (the first and third persons of the Trinity). God the Son is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after the End (see <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a>). So Jesus was always "God the Son", though not <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revealed</a> as such until he also became <i>the</i> "Son of God" through <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">incarnation</a>. "Son of God" draws attention to his humanity, whereas "God the Son" refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence. So, in Christian theology, Jesus was always God the Son,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though not <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revealed</a> as such until he also became the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">Son of God</a> through <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">incarnation</a>. </p><p>The exact phrase "God the Son" is not in the New Testament. Later theological use of this expression reflects what came to be standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus's divinity, but the distinction of his person from that of the one God he called his Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity than with the <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christological</a> debates. There are over 40 places in the New Testament where Jesus is given the title "the Son of God", but scholars don't consider this to be an equivalent expression. "God the Son" is rejected by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-trinitarians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anti-trinitarians (page does not exist)">anti-trinitarians</a>, who view this reversal of the most common term for Christ as a doctrinal perversion and as tending towards <a href="/wiki/Tritheism" title="Tritheism">tritheism</a>. </p><p>Matthew cites Jesus as saying, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God (5:9)." The <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">gospels</a> go on to document a great deal of controversy over Jesus being <i>the</i> Son of God, in a unique way. The book of the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a> and the letters of the New Testament, however, record the early teaching of the first Christians– those who believed Jesus to be <i>both</i> the Son of God, the Messiah, a man appointed by God, as well as God himself. This is evident in many places, however, the early part of the book of Hebrews addresses the issue in a deliberate, sustained argument, citing the scriptures of the Hebrew Bible as authorities. For example, the author quotes Psalm 45:6 as addressed by the God of Israel to Jesus. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Hebrews</a> 1:8. About the Son he says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever."</li></ul> <p>The author of Hebrews' description of Jesus as the exact representation of the divine Father has parallels in a passage in <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Colossians" title="Epistle to the Colossians">Colossians</a>. </p> <ul><li>Colossians 2:9–10. "in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form"</li></ul> <p>John's gospel quotes Jesus at length regarding his relationship with his heavenly Father. It also contains two famous attributions of divinity to Jesus. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">John</a> 1:1. "the Word was God" [in context, the <i>Word</i> is Jesus, see <a href="/wiki/Christ_the_Logos" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ the Logos">Christ the Logos</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">John</a> 20:28. "Thomas said to him, 'My Lord and my God!'"</li></ul> <p>The most direct references to Jesus as God are found in various letters. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> 9:5. "Christ, who is God over all"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Titus" title="Epistle to Titus">Titus</a> 2:13. "our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Peter" title="Second Epistle of Peter">2 Peter</a> 1:1. "our God and Savior Jesus Christ"</li></ul> <p>The biblical basis for later trinitarian statements in creeds is the early baptism formula found in Matthew 28. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Matthew</a> 28:19. Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name <i>[</i>note the singular<i>]</i> of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. See also <a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Person_of_Christ">Person of Christ</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Person of Christ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Person_of_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Person of Christ">Person of Christ</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christology_Flowchart.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Christology_Flowchart.PNG/500px-Christology_Flowchart.PNG" decoding="async" width="500" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Christology_Flowchart.PNG/750px-Christology_Flowchart.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Christology_Flowchart.PNG 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="449" /></a><figcaption>The various Christological positions, and their names</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Only divine?</dt></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a> (from the Greek verb <i>to seem</i>) taught that Jesus was fully divine, and his human body was only illusory. At a very early stage, various Docetic groups arose; in particular, the <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">gnostic</a> sects which flourished in the 2nd century AD tended to have Docetic theologies. Docetic teachings were attacked by <a href="/wiki/St._Ignatius_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Ignatius of Antioch">St. Ignatius of Antioch</a> (early 2nd century), and appear to be targeted in the canonical <a href="/wiki/Epistles_of_John" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistles of John">Epistles of John</a> (dates are disputed, but range from the late 1st century among traditionalist scholars to the late 2nd century among critical scholars). </p><p>The Council of Nicaea rejected theologies that entirely ruled out any humanity in Christ, affirming in the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a> as a part of the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>. That is, that the second person of the Trinity became incarnate in the person <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> and was fully human. </p> <dl><dt>Only human?</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">Jewish Christianity</a></div> <p>The early centuries of Christian history also had groups at the other end of the spectrum, arguing that Jesus was an ordinary mortal. The <a href="/wiki/Adoptionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Adoptionists">Adoptionists</a> taught that Jesus was born fully human, and was adopted as <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">God's Son</a> when <a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a> baptised him<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">life he lived</a>. Another group, known as the <a href="/wiki/Ebionites" title="Ebionites">Ebionites</a>, taught that Jesus was not God, but the human <a href="/wiki/Moshiach" class="mw-redirect" title="Moshiach">Moshiach</a> (messiah, anointed) prophet promised in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>. </p><p>Some of these views could be described as <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a> (although that is a modern term) in their insistence on the oneness of God. These views, which directly affected how one understood the Godhead, were declared <a href="/wiki/Heresies" class="mw-redirect" title="Heresies">heresies</a> by the Council of Nicaea. Throughout much of the rest of the ancient history of Christianity, Christologies that denied Christ's divinity ceased to have a major impact on the life of the church. </p> <dl><dt>How can he be both?</dt> <dd> <dl><dt>What sort of divinity?</dt></dl></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> affirmed that Jesus was divine, but taught that he was nevertheless a created being (<i>there was [a time] when he was not [in existence]</i>), and was therefore less divine than God the Father. The matter boiled down to one iota; Arianism taught <i><a href="/wiki/Homoiousia" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoiousia">Homo<b>i</b>ousia</a></i>—the belief that Jesus's divinity is <i>similar</i> to that of God the Father—as opposed to <i><a href="/wiki/Homoousia" class="mw-redirect" title="Homoousia">Homoousia</a></i>—the belief that Jesus's divinity is the <i>same</i> as that of God the Father. <a href="/wiki/Arius" title="Arius">Arius</a>' opponents additionally included in the term <i>Arianism</i> the belief that Jesus's divinity is <i>different</i> from that of God the Father (<i>Heteroousia</i>). </p><p>Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicea, but remained popular in the northern and western provinces of the empire, and continued to be the majority view of western Europe well into the 6th century. Indeed, even the Christian legend of Constantine's death-bed baptism involves a bishop who, in recorded history, was an Arian. </p><p>In the modern era, a number of denominations have rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity, including the <a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>What sort of amalgamation?</dt></dl> <p>The Christological debates following the Council of Nicaea sought to make sense of the interplay of the human and divine in the person of Christ while upholding the doctrine of the Trinity. <a href="/wiki/Apollinaris_of_Laodicea" title="Apollinaris of Laodicea">Apollinaris of Laodicea</a> (310–390) taught that in Jesus, the divine component took the place of the human <i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i> (<i>thinking</i>– not to be confused with <i><a href="/wiki/Thelis" class="mw-redirect" title="Thelis">thelis</a></i>, meaning <i>intent</i>). This however was seen as a denial of Jesus's true humanity, and the view was condemned at the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a>. </p><p>Subsequently, <a href="/wiki/Nestorius" title="Nestorius">Nestorius</a> of Constantinople (386–451) initiated a view that effectively separated Jesus into two persons—one divine and one human; the mechanism of this combination is known as <i>hypostas<b>e</b>s</i>, and contrasts with <i>hypostas<b>i</b>s</i>—the view that there is no separation. Nestorius' theology was deemed heretical at the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Ephesus">First Council of Ephesus</a> (431). Though, as seen by the writings of <a href="/wiki/Babai_the_Great" title="Babai the Great">Babai the Great</a>, the Christology of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> is highly similar to that of Chalcedon, many orthodox Christians (particularly in the West) consider this group to be the perpetuation of <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a>; the modern Assyrian Church of the East has at times shunned this term, as it implies acceptance of the entire theology of Nestorius. </p><p>Various forms of <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a> taught that Christ only had one nature: that the divine had either dissolved (<a href="/wiki/Eutychianism" title="Eutychianism">Eutychianism</a>), or that the divine joined with the human as one nature in the person of Christ (<a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a>). A notable monophysite theologian was <a href="/wiki/Eutyches" title="Eutyches">Eutyches</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 380</span>–456). <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a> was rejected as <a href="/wiki/Christian_heresy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian heresy">heresy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> in 451, which affirmed that Jesus Christ had two natures (divine and human) joined in one person, in <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">hypostatic union</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_creed" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian creed">Chalcedonian creed</a>). While Eutychianism was suppressed into oblivion by the Chalcedonians and Miaphysites, the Miaphysite groups who dissented from the Chalcedonian formula have persisted as the <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodox Church">Oriental Orthodox Church</a>. </p><p>As theologians continued to search for a compromise between the Chalcedonian definition and the <a href="/wiki/Monophysites" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophysites">Monophysites</a>, other Christologies developed that partially rejected the full humanity of Christ. <a href="/wiki/Monothelitism" title="Monothelitism">Monothelitism</a> taught that in the one person of Jesus there were two natures, but only a divine will. Closely related to this is <a href="/wiki/Monoenergism" title="Monoenergism">Monoenergism</a>, which held to the same doctrine as the Monothelites, but with different terminology. These positions were declared <a href="/wiki/Christian_heresy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian heresy">heresy</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a> (the Sixth <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical Council">Ecumenical Council</a>, 680–681). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Incarnation">Incarnation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Incarnation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">Incarnation (Christianity)</a></div> <p>The Incarnation is the belief in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> that the second person in the <a href="/wiki/Godhead_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Godhead (Christianity)">Christian Godhead</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Logos_(Christianity)" title="Logos (Christianity)">Logos</a> (Word), "became flesh" when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin Mary">Virgin Mary</a>. The word Incarnate derives from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> (in=in or into, caro, carnis=flesh) meaning "to make into flesh" or "to become flesh". The incarnation is a fundamental <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> teaching of <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">orthodox (Nicene) Christianity</a>, based on its understanding of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>. The incarnation represents the belief that Jesus, who is the non-created second <a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostasis (philosophy)">hypostasis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">triune God</a>, took on a human body and nature and became <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">both man and God</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> its clearest teaching is in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%201:14&version=nrsv">John 1:14</a>: "And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg/220px-Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg/330px-Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg/440px-Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="1545" /></a><figcaption>Jesus, believed to be both man and God, painting by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Heinrich_Bloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Heinrich Bloch">Carl Heinrich Bloch</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined, the divine nature of the Son was joined but not mixed with human nature<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in one divine Person, <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> Christ, who was both "truly God and truly man". The Incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a>, and also reference can be made to the Feast of the <a href="/wiki/Annunciation" title="Annunciation">Annunciation</a>; "different aspects of the mystery of the Incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (See <a href="/wiki/Ebionites" title="Ebionites">Ebionites</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_the_Hebrews" title="Gospel of the Hebrews">Gospel according to the Hebrews</a>) have been proposed throughout the centuries (see below), but all were rejected by <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainstream Christianity">mainstream Christian bodies</a>. </p><p>In recent decades, an alternative doctrine known as "<a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism_(doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)">Oneness</a>" has been espoused among various <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a> groups (see below), but has been rejected by the remainder of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Description and development of the traditional doctrine</dt></dl> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christian era</a>, there was considerable disagreement amongst Christians regarding the nature of Christ's Incarnation. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">Son of God</a>, the exact nature of his Sonship was contested, together with the precise relationship of the "<a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a>," "Son" and "<a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Ghost</a>" referred to in the New Testament. Though Jesus was clearly the "Son," what exactly did this mean? Debate on this subject raged most especially during the first four centuries of Christianity, involving <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christians">Jewish Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostics</a>, followers of the Presbyter <a href="/wiki/Arius" title="Arius">Arius</a> of Alexandra, and adherents of <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">St. Athanasius the Great</a>, among others. </p><p>Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St. Athanasius and his allies, that Christ was the incarnation of the eternal second person of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>, who was fully God and fully a man simultaneously. All divergent beliefs were defined as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresies</a>. This included <a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a>, which said that Jesus was a divine being that took on human appearance but not flesh; <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a>, which held that Christ was a created being; and <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a>, which maintained that the Son of God and the man, Jesus, shared the same body but retained <a href="/wiki/Two_Natures_of_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Natures of Christ">two separate natures</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness</a> belief held by certain modern <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a> churches is also seen as heretical by most mainstream Christian bodies. </p><p>The most widely accepted the early Christian Church made definitions of the Incarnation and the nature of Jesus at the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> in 325, the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a> in 431, and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God: begotten from, but not created by the Father; and fully man: taking his flesh and human nature from the <a href="/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Blessed Virgin Mary">Virgin Mary</a>. These two natures, human and divine, were <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">hypostatically</a> united into the one personhood of Jesus Christ.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Fortuitous and Necessary Incarnation</dt></dl> <p>The link between the Incarnation and the <a href="/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement in Christianity">Atonement</a> within systematic theological thought is complex. Within traditional models of the Atonement, such as <a href="/wiki/Penal_substitution" title="Penal substitution">Substitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satisfaction_theory_of_atonement" title="Satisfaction theory of atonement">Satisfaction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Christus_Victor" title="Christus Victor">Christus Victor</a>, Christ must be Divine in order for the Sacrifice of the Cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed" or "conquered". In his work <i>The Trinity and the Kingdom of God</i>, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Moltmann" title="Jürgen Moltmann">Jurgen Moltmann</a> differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" Incarnation. The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to the Incarnation: the Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on the other hand, speaks of the Incarnation as a fulfilment of the <a href="/wiki/Love_of_God" title="Love of God">Love of God</a>, of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us. </p><p>Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">life of Christ</a>. Moltmann's work, alongside other systematic theologians, opens up avenues of liberation <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hypostatic_union">Hypostatic union</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hypostatic union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">Hypostatic union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian">Chalcedonian</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimirskaya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Vladimirskaya.jpg/170px-Vladimirskaya.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Vladimirskaya.jpg/255px-Vladimirskaya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Vladimirskaya.jpg/340px-Vladimirskaya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of Jesus and Mary, the <a href="/wiki/Theotokos_of_Vladimir" class="mw-redirect" title="Theotokos of Vladimir">Theotokos of Vladimir</a> (12th century)</figcaption></figure> <p>In short, this doctrine states that two natures, one human and one divine, are united in the one person of Christ. The Council further taught that each of these natures, the human and the divine, was distinct and complete. This view is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Dyophysite" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyophysite">Dyophysite</a> (meaning two natures) by those who rejected it. </p><p>Hypostatic union (from the Greek for substance) is a technical term in Christian theology employed in mainstream <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a> to describe the union of two natures, humanity and divinity, in Jesus Christ. A brief definition of the doctrine of two natures can be given as: "Jesus Christ, who is identical with the Son, is one person and one hypostasis in two natures: a human and a divine."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Ephesus">First Council of Ephesus</a> recognised this doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating that the humanity and divinity of Christ are made one according to nature and hypostasis in the <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and are co-eternal. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Apollinaris_of_Laodicea" title="Apollinaris of Laodicea">Apollinaris of Laodicea</a> was the first to use the term hypostasis in trying to understand the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apollinaris described the union of the divine and human in Christ as being of a single nature and having a single essence– a single hypostasis. </p><p>The Nestorian <a href="/wiki/Theodore_of_Mopsuestia" title="Theodore of Mopsuestia">Theodore of Mopsuestia</a> went in the other direction, arguing that in Christ there were two natures (<a href="/wiki/Dyophysite" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyophysite">dyophysite</a>) (human and divine) and two hypostases (in the sense of "essence" or "person") that co-existed.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Creed" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian Creed">Chalcedonian Creed</a> agreed with Theodore that there were two natures in the <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a>. However, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> also insisted that hypostasis be used as it was in the Trinitarian definition: to indicate the person and not the nature as with Apollinarius. </p><p>Thus, the Council declared that in Christ there are two natures; each retaining its own properties, and together united in one subsistence and in one single person.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the precise nature of this union is held to defy finite human comprehension, the hypostatic union is also referred to by the alternative term "mystical union." </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodox Church">Oriental Orthodox Churches</a>, having rejected the Chalcedonian Creed, were known as <a href="/wiki/Monophysites" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophysites">Monophysites</a> because they would only accept a definition that characterized the incarnate Son as having one nature. The <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian">Chalcedonian</a> "in two natures" formula was seen as derived from and akin to a <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian doctrine">Nestorian</a> Christology.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrariwise, the Chalcedonians saw the Oriental Orthodox as tending towards <a href="/wiki/Eutychianism" title="Eutychianism">Eutychian</a> Monophysitism. However, the Oriental Orthodox have in modern ecumenical dialogue specified that they have never believed in the doctrines of Eutyches, that they have always affirmed that Christ's humanity is consubstantial with our own, and they thus prefer the term "Miaphysite" to refer to themselves (a reference to Cyrillian Christology, which used the phrase "mia physis tou theou logou sesarkomene"). </p><p>In recent times, leaders from the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodox">Oriental Orthodox</a> Churches have signed joint statements in an attempt to work towards reunification. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_Christological_concerns">Other Christological concerns</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other Christological concerns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>The sinlessness of Christ</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Impeccability" title="Impeccability">Impeccability</a></div> <p>Although Christian orthodoxy holds that Jesus was fully human, the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Epistle to the Hebrews</a>, for example, states that Christ was 'holy and without evil' (7:26). The question concerning the sinlessness of Jesus Christ focuses on this seeming paradox. Does being fully human require that one participate in <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">the "fall" of Adam</a>, or could Jesus exist in an "unfallen" status as <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> did before the "fall", according to Genesis 2–3? </p> <dl><dt>Kinds of sinlessness</dt></dl> <p>Evangelical writer <a href="/wiki/Donald_Macleod_(theologian)" title="Donald Macleod (theologian)">Donald Macleod</a> suggests that the sinless nature of Jesus Christ involves two elements. "First, Christ was free of actual sin."<sup id="cite_ref-macleod220_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macleod220-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studying the gospels there is no reference to Jesus praying for the forgiveness of sin, nor confessing sin. The assertion is that Jesus did not commit sin, nor could he be proven guilty of sin; he had no vices. In fact, he is quoted as asking, "Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?" in John 8:46. "Secondly, he was free from inherent sin ("<a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Ancestral_sin" title="Ancestral sin">ancestral sin</a>")."<sup id="cite_ref-macleod220_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macleod220-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Temptation of Christ</dt></dl> <p><b>The temptation of Christ</b> shown in the gospels affirms that he was tempted. Indeed, the temptations were genuine and of a greater intensity than normally experienced by human beings.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He experienced all the frail weaknesses of humanity. Jesus was tempted through hunger and thirst, pain and the love of his friends. Thus, the human weaknesses could engender temptation.<sup id="cite_ref-macleod226_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macleod226-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, MacLeod notes that "one crucial respect in which Christ was not like us is that he was not tempted by anything within himself."<sup id="cite_ref-macleod226_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macleod226-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The temptations Christ faced focused upon his person and identity as the incarnate Son of God. MacLeod writes, "Christ could be tempted through his sonship." The temptation in the wilderness and again in Gethsemane exemplifies this <b>arena of temptation</b>. Regarding the temptation of performing a sign that would affirm his sonship by throwing himself from the pinnacle of the temple, MacLeod observes, "The sign was for himself: a temptation to seek reassurance, as if to say, 'the real question is my own sonship. I must forget all else and all others and all further service until that is clear.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-macleod227_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macleod227-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MacLeod places this struggle in the context of the incarnation, "...he has become a man and must accept not only the appearance but the reality."<sup id="cite_ref-macleod227_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macleod227-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Communication of attributes</dt></dl> <p>The communion of attributes (<i><a href="/wiki/Communicatio_idiomatum" title="Communicatio idiomatum">Communicatio idiomatum</a></i>) of Christ's divine and human natures is understood according to Chalcedonian theology to mean that they exist together with neither overriding the other. That is, both are preserved and coexist in one person. Christ had <b>all</b> the properties of God and humanity. God did not stop being God and become man. Christ was not half-God and half-human. The two natures did not mix into a new third kind of nature. Although independent, they acted in complete accord; when one nature acted, so did the other. The natures did not commingle, merge, infuse each other, or replace each other. One was not converted into the other. They remained distinct (yet acted with one accord). </p> <dl><dt>Virgin Birth</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Birth_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin Birth of Jesus">Virgin Birth of Jesus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holy_Doors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Holy_Doors.jpg/170px-Holy_Doors.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Holy_Doors.jpg/255px-Holy_Doors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Holy_Doors.jpg/340px-Holy_Doors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Holy Doors from <a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a>, Mount Sinai, depicting the <a href="/wiki/Annunciation" title="Annunciation">Annunciation</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 12th century</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The Gospel according to Matthew and Gospel according to Luke suggest a virgin birth of Jesus Christ. Some now disregard or even argue against this "doctrine" to which most <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">denominations</a> of Christianity ascribe. This section looks at the Christological issues surrounding belief or disbelief in the virgin birth. </p><p>A non-virgin birth would seem to require some form of <a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">adoptionism</a>. This is because a human conception and birth would seem to yield a fully human Jesus, with some other mechanism required to make Jesus divine as well. </p><p>A non-virgin birth would seem to support the full humanity of Jesus. William Barclay: states, "The supreme problem of the virgin birth is that it does quite undeniably differentiate Jesus from all men; it does leave us with an incomplete incarnation."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign "which accompanies and indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Donald MacLeod<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth: </p> <ul><li>Highlights salvation as a <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> act of God rather than an act of human initiative.</li> <li>Avoids <a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">adoptionism</a> (which is virtually required if a normal birth).</li> <li>Reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam (<a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>).</li></ul> <dl><dt>Relationship of Persons</dt></dl> <p>The discussion of whether the three distinct persons in the Godhead of the Trinity were of greater, equal, or lesser by comparison was also, like many other areas of early Christology, a subject of debate. In <a href="/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Athens" title="Athenagoras of Athens">Athenagoras of Athens</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 133</span>–190) writings we find a very developed trinitarian doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-Kesich2007_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kesich2007-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the one end of the spectrum was <a href="/wiki/Modalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modalism">modalism</a>, a doctrine stating that the three persons of the Trinity were equal to the point of erasing their differences and distinctions. On the other end of the spectrum were <a href="/wiki/Tritheism" title="Tritheism">tritheism</a> as well as some radically <a href="/wiki/Subordinationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinationist">subordinationist</a> views, the latter of which emphasized the primacy of the Father of Creation to the deity of Christ and Jesus's authority over the Holy Spirit. During the Council of Nicea, the modalist bishops of Rome and Alexandria aligned politically with Athanasius; whereas the bishops of Constantinople (Nicomedia), Antioch, and Jerusalem sided with the subordinationists as middle ground between Arius and Athanasius. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Approaches_to_Christology">Approaches to Christology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Approaches to Christology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theologians like <a href="/wiki/Jurgen_Moltmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurgen Moltmann">Jurgen Moltmann</a> and Walter Kasper have characterized Christologies as anthropological or cosmological. These are also termed 'Christology from below' and 'Christology from above' respectively. An anthropological Christology starts with the human person of Jesus and works from his life and ministry toward what it means for him to be divine; whereas, a cosmological Christology works in the opposite direction. Starting from the eternal Logos, a cosmological Christology works toward his humanity. Theologians typically begin on one side or the other and their choice inevitably colors their resultant Christology. As a starting point, these options represent "diverse yet complementary" approaches; each poses its own difficulties. Both Christologies 'from above' and 'from below' must come to terms with the two natures of Christ: human and divine. Just as light can be perceived as a wave or as a particle, so Jesus must be thought in terms of both his divinity and humanity. You cannot talk about "either or" but must talk about "both and".<sup id="cite_ref-Greene_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greene-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Cosmological approaches</dt></dl> <p>Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic Sonship. Jesus's unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church—e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their properties (a concept termed <i><a href="/wiki/Communicatio_idiomatum" title="Communicatio idiomatum">communicatio idiomatum</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Anthropological approaches</dt></dl> <p>Christologies from below start with the human being Jesus as the representative of the new humanity, not with the pre-existent Logos. Jesus lives an exemplary life, one to which we aspire in religious experience. This form of Christology lends itself to mysticism, and some of its roots go back to emergence of Christ mysticism in the 6th century East, but in the West it flourished between the 11th and 14th centuries. A recent theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg contends that the resurrected Jesus is the "eschatological fulfillment of human destiny to live in nearness to God."<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Political approaches</dt></dl> <p>The Christian faith is inherently political because allegiance to Jesus as risen Lord relativises all earthly rule and authority. Jesus is called "Lord" over 230 times in Paul's epistles alone, and is thus the principal confession of faith in the Pauline epistles. Further, N.T. Wright argues that this Pauline confession is the core of the gospel of salvation. The Achilles' heel of this approach is the loss of eschatological tension between this present age and the future divine rule that is yet to come. This can happen when the state co-opts Christ's authority as was often the case in imperial Christology. Modern political Christologies seek to overcome imperialist ideologies.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Works_of_Christ">Works of Christ</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Works of Christ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Resurrection of Jesus</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion of Jesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection of Jesus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg/170px-TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg/255px-TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg/340px-TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>The Resurrection of Christ by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Heinrich_Bloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Heinrich Bloch">Carl Heinrich Bloch</a>, 1875.</figcaption></figure> <p>The resurrection is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of Jesus Christ. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a response to a particular history and as a confessional response.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Christians claim that because he was resurrected, the future of the world was forever altered. Most Christians believe that Jesus's resurrection brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death (I Corinthians 15:26), and forgiveness of sins for followers of Jesus Christ. </p><p>After Jesus had died, and was buried, the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> states that he appeared to others in bodily form. Some skeptics say his appearances were only perceived by his followers in mind or spirit. The gospels state that the disciples believed they witnessed Jesus's resurrected body and that led to the beginning of the faith. They had previously hid in fear of persecution after Jesus's death. After seeing Jesus they boldly proclaimed the message of Jesus Christ despite tremendous risk. They obeyed Jesus's mandate to be reconciled to God through repentance (Luke 24:47), baptism, and obedience (Matthew 28:19–20). </p> <dl><dt>Offices as Prophet, Priest, and King</dt></dl> <p>Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the <a href="/wiki/Threefold_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Threefold Office">three offices of Prophet, Priest, and King</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> of the early church worked out this threefold classification, which during the Reformation played a substantial role in <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_Lutheran_Christology" title="Scholastic Lutheran Christology">scholastic Lutheran Christology</a> and in <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>'s<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a>'s Christology.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pneumatology:_Holy_Spirit">Pneumatology: Holy Spirit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Pneumatology: Holy Spirit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pneumatology_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumatology (Christianity)">Pneumatology (Christianity)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></div> <p>Pneumatology is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>. <i>Pneuma</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%BD%CE%B5%E1%BF%A6%CE%BC%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:πνεῦμα">πνεῦμα</a>) is <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> for "<a href="/wiki/Breath" class="mw-redirect" title="Breath">breath</a>", which metaphorically describes a non-material being or influence. In Christian theology pneumatology refers to the study of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost) is the Spirit of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a>. Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christian beliefs he is the third person of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Godhead_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Godhead (Christianity)">Godhead</a>, the Holy Spirit is equal with <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a> and with <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a>. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully developed. </p><p>Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three <i>persons</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> who make up the single <a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">substance</a> of God. As such the Holy Spirit is personal, and as part of the <a href="/wiki/Godhead_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Godhead (Christianity)">Godhead</a>, he is fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a> and <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God" title="Son of God">Son of God</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson103_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson103-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hammond_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammond-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cathhs_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cathhs-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is different from the Father and the Son in that he <i>proceeds</i> from the Father (or <a href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">from the Father and the Son</a>) as described in the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammond_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammond-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">sacredness</a> is reflected in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament#The_Gospels" title="New Testament">New Testament gospels</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which proclaim <a href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemy</a> against the Holy Spirit as <a href="/wiki/Unforgivable_sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Unforgivable sin">unforgivable</a>. </p><p>The English word comes from two Greek words: πνευμα (<i>pneuma</i>, spirit) and λογος (<i>logos</i>, teaching about). Pneumatology would normally include study of the person of the Holy Spirit, and the works of the Holy Spirit. This latter category would normally include Christian teachings on <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(theology)" title="Regeneration (theology)">new birth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_gift" title="Spiritual gift">spiritual gifts</a> (charismata), <a href="/wiki/Baptism_with_the_Holy_Spirit" title="Baptism with the Holy Spirit">Spirit-baptism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanctification" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctification">sanctification</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_inspiration" title="Biblical inspiration">inspiration</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophets</a>, and the indwelling of the Holy Trinity (which in itself covers many different aspects). Different <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denominations</a> have different theological approaches. </p><p>Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to live a <a href="/wiki/Christianity#Worship_and_practices" title="Christianity">Christian lifestyle</a>. The Holy Spirit dwells inside every Christian, each one's body being his temple.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jesus described the Holy Spirit<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as <i><a href="/wiki/Paraclete" title="Paraclete">paracletus</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, derived from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. The word is variously translated as <i>Comforter, Counselor, Teacher, Advocate,</i><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> guiding people in the way of the truth. The Holy Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the <a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_Holy_Spirit" title="Fruit of the Holy Spirit">Fruit of the Holy Spirit</a>. The Holy Spirit enables Christians, who still experience the effects of sin, to do things they never could do on their own. These spiritual gifts are not innate abilities "unlocked" by the Holy Spirit, but entirely new abilities, such as the ability to cast out <a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">demons</a> or simply bold speech. Through the influence of the Holy Spirit, a person sees more clearly the world around him or her and can use his or her mind and body in ways that exceed his or her previous capacity. A list of gifts that may be bestowed include the <a href="/wiki/Charism" class="mw-redirect" title="Charism">charismatic</a> gifts of <a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophecy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glossolalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossolalia">tongues</a>, healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as <a href="/wiki/Cessationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cessationism">cessationism</a> believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain "<a href="/wiki/Spiritual_gift" title="Spiritual gift">spiritual gifts</a>" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experience of the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as being <a href="/wiki/Anointing" title="Anointing">anointed</a>. </p><p>After his <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection</a>, Christ told his disciples that they would be "<a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptized</a> with the Holy Spirit" and would receive power from this event,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first <a href="/wiki/Pentecost" title="Pentecost">Pentecost</a>, Jesus's disciples were gathered in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Christianity" title="Jerusalem in Christianity">Jerusalem</a> when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. </p><p>The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. These include: </p> <ul><li><b>Conviction of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a></b>. The Holy Spirit acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Bringing to conversion</b>. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson265_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson265-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Enabling the Christian life</b>. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell in the individual believers and enable them to live a righteous and faithful life.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson265_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson265-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>As a <b>comforter</b> or <i><a href="/wiki/Paraclete" title="Paraclete">Paraclete</a></i>, one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial.</li> <li><b>Inspiration and interpretation of scripture.</b> The Holy Spirit both <i>inspires</i> the writing of the scriptures and <i>interprets</i> them to the Christian and church.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>, enabling him to fulfill his work on earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include: </p> <ul><li><b>Cause of his birth</b>. According to the gospel accounts of the birth of Jesus, the "beginning of His incarnate existence", was due to the Holy Spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson268_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson268-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Anointing him at his baptism</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson265_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson265-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Empowerment of his ministry</b>. The ministry of Jesus following his baptism (in which the Holy Spirit is described in the gospels as "descending on Him like a dove") is conducted in the power and at the direction of the Holy Spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson265_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson265-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dt>Fruit of the Spirit</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_Holy_Spirit" title="Fruit of the Holy Spirit">Fruit of the Holy Spirit</a></div> <p>Christians believe the "<a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_holy_spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit of the holy spirit">Fruit of the Spirit</a>" consists of virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. They are those listed in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Galatians%205:22–23">Galatians 5:22–23</a>: "But the fruit of the Spirit is <a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">love</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">joy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">patience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">goodness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">faithfulness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gentleness" title="Gentleness">gentleness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> adds to this list <a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">generosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">modesty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">chastity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Gifts of the Spirit</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_gift" title="Spiritual gift">Spiritual gift</a></div> <p>Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-Erickson265_97-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erickson265-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, <i>Charisma</i>, from which the term <a href="/wiki/Charismatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic">charismatic</a> derives. The New Testament provides three different lists of such gifts which range from the supernatural (healing, prophecy, <a href="/wiki/Glossolalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossolalia">tongues</a>) through those associated with specific callings (teaching) to those expected of all Christians in some degree (faith). Most consider these lists not to be exhaustive, and other have compiled their own lists. Saint <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a> wrote of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of <a href="/wiki/Fear_of_God_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fear of God (religion)">Holy Fear</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists. </p><p>One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time.<sup id="cite_ref-EricksonWorks_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EricksonWorks-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the view of some in the Catholic Church<sup id="cite_ref-cathhs_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cathhs-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly by Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement, is that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the church. Although some small groups, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Montanists" class="mw-redirect" title="Montanists">Montanists</a></i>, practiced the supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a> movement in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-EricksonWorks_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EricksonWorks-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a <i>Baptism of the Holy Spirit</i> or <i>Filling of the Holy Spirit</i> which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the <i>Baptism of the Holy Spirit</i> is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-EricksonWorks_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EricksonWorks-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cosmology:_Things_created">Cosmology: Things created</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Cosmology: Things created"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian cosmology">Christian cosmology</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;"><p>And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day. <small><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> 1: 3–5</small></p></blockquote> <p>The various <a href="/wiki/Authors_of_the_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Authors of the Bible">authors</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> provide glimpses of their insight regarding <a href="/wiki/Religious_cosmology" title="Religious cosmology">cosmology</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> was created by God by divine command, in the best-known and most complete account in the Bible, that of Genesis 1. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World">World</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">Creator deity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></div> <p>Within this broad understanding, however, there are a number of views regarding exactly how this doctrine ought to be interpreted. </p> <ul><li>Some Christians, particularly <a href="/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism" title="Young Earth creationism">Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Earth_creationism" title="Old Earth creationism">Old Earth creationists</a>, interpret Genesis as an accurate and literal account of creation.</li> <li>Others may understand these to be, instead, spiritual insights more vaguely defined.</li></ul> <p>It is a tenet of Christian faith (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) that God is the <a href="/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo" title="Creatio ex nihilo">creator of all things from nothing</a>, and has made human beings in the <a href="/wiki/Image_of_God" title="Image of God">Image of God</a>, who by direct inference is also the source of the human <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian">Chalcedonian</a> Christology, <a href="/wiki/Jesus_the_Logos" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus the Logos">Jesus is the Word of God</a>, which was in the beginning and, thus, is uncreated, and hence <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">is God</a>, and consequently identical with the Creator of the world <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> uses the phrase special creation to refer to the doctrine of immediate or special creation of each human soul. In 2004, the International Theological Commission, then under the presidency of Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ratzinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Ratzinger">Joseph Ratzinger</a>, published a paper in which it accepts the current scientific accounts of the history of the universe commencing in the Big Bang about 15 billion years ago and of the evolution of all life on earth including humans from the micro organisms commencing about 4 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> allows for both a <a href="/wiki/Literal_interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="Literal interpretation">literal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation_of_the_Bible" title="Allegorical interpretation of the Bible">allegorical interpretation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a>, so as to allow for the possibility of Creation by means of an <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary process</a> over great spans of time, otherwise known as <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (September 2010)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Christian_theology#Dubious" title="Talk:Christian theology">discuss</a></i>]</sup> It believes that the creation of the world is a work of God through the <i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i>, the Word (idea, intelligence, reason and logic): </p> <dl><dd>"In the beginning was the Word...and the Word was God...all things were made through him, and without him was not anything made that was made."</dd></dl> <p>The New Testament claims that God created everything by the eternal Word, Jesus Christ his beloved Son. In him </p> <dl><dd>"all things were created, in heaven and on earth.. . all things were created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together."<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology:_Humanity">Anthropology: Humanity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Anthropology: Humanity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Christian anthropology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Theology_of_the_body" title="Theology of the body">Theology of the body</a></div> <p>Christian anthropology is the study of <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">humanity</a>, especially as it relates to the divine. This <a href="/wiki/Theological_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Theological anthropology">theological anthropology</a> refers to the study of the human ("anthropology") as it relates to <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>. It differs from the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, which primarily deals with the comparative study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity across times and places. </p><p>One aspect studies the innate nature or constitution of the human, known as the <i>nature of mankind</i>. It is concerned with the relationship between notions such as <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a> and spirit which together form a person, based on their descriptions in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. There are three traditional views of the human constitution– <a href="/wiki/Trichotomism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichotomism">trichotomism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dichotomism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dichotomism">dichotomism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a> (in the sense of anthropology).<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Components">Components</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Soul</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nephesh" title="Nephesh">nephesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche (psychology)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">Spirit (animating force)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human body</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flesh" title="Flesh">Flesh</a></div> <p>The semantic domain of <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Biblical</a> soul is based on the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> word <i><a href="/wiki/Nephesh" title="Nephesh">nepes</a></i>, which presumably means "breath" or "breathing being".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This word never means an immortal soul<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or an incorporeal part of the human being<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that can survive death of the body as the spirit of dead.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This word usually designates the person as a whole<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or its physical life. In the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> <i>nepes</i> is mostly translated as <i>psyche</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%88%CF%85%CF%87%CE%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:ψυχή">ψυχή</a></span></span>) and, exceptionally, in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Book of Joshua</a> as <i>empneon</i> (ἔμπνεον), that is "breathing being".<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> follows the terminology of the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, and thus uses the word <i>psyche</i> with the Hebrew semantic domain and not the Greek,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is an invisible power (or ever more, for <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Platonists</a>, immortal and immaterial) that gives life and motion to the body and is responsible for its attributes. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Patristic" class="mw-redirect" title="Patristic">Patristic</a> thought, towards the end of the 2nd century <i>psyche</i> was understood in more a Greek than a Hebrew way, and it was contrasted with the body. In the 3rd century, with the influence of <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a>, there was the establishing of the doctrine of the inherent immortality of the soul and its divine nature.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Origen also taught the <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">transmigration</a> of the souls and their preexistence, but these views were officially rejected in 553 in the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Ecumenical Council">Fifth Ecumenical Council</a>. Inherent immortality of the soul was accepted among western and eastern theologians throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle ages">middle ages</a>, and after the Reformation, as evidenced by the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster Confession">Westminster Confession</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Spirit</dt></dl> <p>The spirit (Hebrew <i>ruach</i>, Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%BD%CE%B5%E1%BF%A6%CE%BC%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:πνεῦμα">πνεῦμα</a></span></span>, <i>pneuma</i>, which can also mean "breath") is likewise an immaterial component. It is often used interchangeably with "soul", <i>psyche</i>, although trichotomists believe that the spirit is distinct from the soul. </p> <dl><dd>"When Paul speaks of the <i>pneuma</i> of man he does not mean some higher principle within him or some special intellectual or spiritual faculty of his, but simply his self, and the only questions is whether the self is regarded in some particular aspect when it is called <i>pneuma</i>. In the first place, it apparently is regarded in the same way as when it is called <i>psyche</i>– viz. as the self that lives in man's attitude, in the orientation of his will."<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Body, Flesh</dt></dl> <p>The body (Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%E1%BF%B6%CE%BC%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:σῶμα">σῶμα</a></span></span> <i>soma</i>) is the corporeal or physical aspect of a human being. Christians have traditionally believed that the body will be <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Resurrection of the dead">resurrected</a> at the end of the age. </p><p>Flesh (Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:σάρξ">σάρξ</a></span></span>, <i>sarx</i>) is usually considered synonymous with "body", referring to the corporeal aspect of a human being. The <a href="/wiki/Apostle_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostle Paul">apostle Paul</a> contrasts flesh and spirit in <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> 7–8. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origin_of_humanity">Origin of humanity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Origin of humanity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Image_of_God" title="Image of God">Image of God</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> teaches in the book of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> the humans were created by God. Some Christians believe that this must have involved a miraculous creative act, while others are comfortable with the idea that God worked through the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> process. </p><p>The book of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> also teaches that human beings, male and female, were created in the image of God. The exact meaning of this has been debated throughout church history. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Death_and_afterlife">Death and afterlife</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Death and afterlife"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></div> <p>Christian anthropology has implications for beliefs about <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. The Christian church has traditionally taught that the soul of each individual separates from the body at death, to be reunited at the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Resurrection of the dead">resurrection</a>. This is closely related to the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Immortality_of_the_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortality of the soul">immortality of the soul</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster Confession">Westminster Confession</a> (chapter XXXII) states: </p> <dl><dd>"The bodies of men, after death, return to dust, and see corruption: but their souls, which neither die nor sleep, having an immortal subsistence, immediately return to God who gave them"</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Intermediate state</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_state_(Christianity)" title="Intermediate state (Christianity)">Intermediate state (Christianity)</a></div> <p>The question then arises: where exactly does the disembodied soul "go" at death? Theologians refer to this subject as the <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_state_(Christianity)" title="Intermediate state (Christianity)">intermediate state</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> speaks of a place called <i><a href="/wiki/Sheol" title="Sheol">sheol</a></i> where the spirits of the dead reside. In the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">hades</a></i>, the classical Greek realm of the dead, takes the place of <i>sheol</i>. In particular, Jesus teaches in Luke 16:19–31 (<a href="/wiki/Lazarus_and_Dives" class="mw-redirect" title="Lazarus and Dives">Lazarus and Dives</a>) that <i>hades</i> consists of two separate "sections", one for the righteous and one for the unrighteous. His teaching is consistent with <a href="/wiki/Intertestamental_period" title="Intertestamental period">intertestamental</a> Jewish thought on the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fully developed Christian theology goes a step further; on the basis of such texts as Luke 23:43 and Philippians 1:23, it has traditionally been taught that the souls of the dead are received immediately either into heaven or hell, where they will experience a foretaste of their eternal destiny prior to the resurrection. (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> teaches a third possible location, <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a>, though this is denied by <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a>.) </p> <dl><dd>"the souls of the righteous, being then made perfect in holiness, are received into the highest heavens, where they behold the face of God, in light and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their bodies. And the souls of the wicked are cast into hell, where they remain in torments and utter darkness, reserved to the judgment of the great day." (<i>Westminster Confession</i>)</dd></dl> <p>Some Christian groups which stress a monistic anthropology deny that the soul can exist consciously apart from the body. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist Church</a> teaches that the intermediate state is an <a href="/wiki/Unconsciousness" title="Unconsciousness">unconscious</a> sleep; this teaching is informally known as "<a href="/wiki/Soul_sleep" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul sleep">soul sleep</a>". </p> <dl><dt>Final state</dt></dl> <p>In Christian belief, both the righteous and the unrighteous will be resurrected at the <a href="/wiki/Last_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Last judgment">last judgment</a>. The righteous will receive incorruptible, immortal bodies (1 Corinthians 15), while the unrighteous will be sent to <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">hell</a>. Traditionally, Christians have believed that hell will be a place of eternal physical and psychological punishment. In the last two centuries, <a href="/wiki/Annihilationism" title="Annihilationism">annihilationism</a> has become popular. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mariology">Mariology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Mariology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a></div> <p>The study of the <a href="/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Blessed Virgin Mary">Blessed Virgin Mary</a>, doctrines about her, and how she relates to the Church, Christ, and the individual Christian is called Mariology. <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mariology" title="Catholic Mariology">Catholic Mariology</a> is the Marian study specifically in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. Examples of Mariology include the study of and doctrines regarding her <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_virginity_of_Mary" title="Perpetual virginity of Mary">Perpetual Virginity</a>, her <a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Motherhood of God</a> (and by extension her <a href="/wiki/Mother_of_the_Church" title="Mother of the Church">Motherhood/Intercession for all Christians</a>), her <a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Immaculate Conception</a>, and her <a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Assumption into heaven</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Angelology">Angelology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Angelology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Heavenly_host" title="Heavenly host">Heavenly host</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_angelic_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian angelic hierarchy">Christian angelic hierarchy</a></div> <p>Most descriptions of angels in the Bible describe them in military terms. For example, in terms such as encampment (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bible.org/netbible/gen32.htm">Gen.32:1–2</a>), command structure (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/psa91.htm">Ps.91:11–12</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/mat13.htm">Matt.13:41</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?rev7.htm">Rev.7:2</a>), and combat (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?jdg5.htm">Jdg.5:20</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?job19.htm">Job 19:12</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?rev12.htm">Rev.12:7</a>). </p><p>Its specific hierarchy differs slightly from the <a href="/wiki/Christian_angelic_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian angelic hierarchy">Hierarchy of Angels</a> as it surrounds more military services, whereas the Hierarchy of angels is a division of angels into non-military services to God. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Members_of_the_heavenly_host">Members of the heavenly host</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Members of the heavenly host"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cherub" title="Cherub">Cherub</a></div> <p>Cherubim are depicted as accompanying God's chariot-throne (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/psa80.htm">Ps.80:1</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus%2025:18–22&version=nrsv">Exodus 25:18–22</a> refers to two Cherub statues placed on top of the <a href="/wiki/Ark_of_the_Covenant" title="Ark of the Covenant">Ark of the Covenant</a>, the two cherubim are usually interpreted as guarding the throne of God. Other guard-like duties include being posted in locations such as the gates of Eden (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/gen3.htm">Gen.3:24</a>). Cherubim were mythological winged bulls or other beasts that were part of ancient Near Eastern traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archangel" title="Archangel">Archangel</a></div> <p>This angelic designation might be given to angels of various ranks. An example would be <a href="/wiki/Raphael_(archangel)" title="Raphael (archangel)">Raphael</a> who is ranked variously as a Seraph, Cherub, and Archangel .<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is usually a result of conflicting schemes of hierarchies of angels. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">Angel</a></div> <p>It is not known how many angels there are but one figure given in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.org/netbible/rev5.htm">Revelation 5:11</a> for the number of "many angels in a circle around the throne, as well as the living creatures and the elders" was "ten thousand times ten thousand", which would be 100 million. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonology:_Fallen_angels">Demonology: Fallen angels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Demonology: Fallen angels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AngelCaido.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/AngelCaido.jpg/170px-AngelCaido.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/AngelCaido.jpg/255px-AngelCaido.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/AngelCaido.jpg/340px-AngelCaido.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2345" data-file-height="3519" /></a><figcaption>Statue of the Fallen Angel, <a href="/wiki/Retiro_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Retiro Park">Retiro Park</a> (Madrid, Spain).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Christian_demonology" title="Christian demonology">Christian demonology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">Demon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fallen_angel" title="Fallen angel">Fallen angel</a></div> <p>In most of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, a fallen angel is an <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angel</a> who has been <a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">exiled</a> or banished from <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a>. Often such banishment is a punishment for disobeying or rebelling against <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> (see <a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a>). The best-known fallen angel is <a href="/wiki/Lucifer" title="Lucifer">Lucifer</a>. Lucifer is a name frequently given to <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> belief. This usage stems from a particular interpretation, as a reference to a fallen angel, of a passage in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/Isaiah+14:3">Isaiah 14:3–20</a>) that speaks of someone who is given the name of "Day Star" or "Morning Star" (in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <i>Lucifer</i>) as fallen from heaven. The <a href="/wiki/Greek_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Language">Greek</a> etymological synonym of Lucifer, Φωσφόρος (<i>Phosphoros</i>, "light-bearer").<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is used of the morning star in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/2+Peter+1:19">2 Peter 1:19</a> and elsewhere with no reference to Satan. But Satan is called Lucifer in many writings later than the Bible, notably in Milton's <i><a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a></i> (7.131–134, among others), because, according to Milton, Satan was "brighter once amidst the host of Angels, than that star the stars among." </p><p>Allegedly, fallen angels are those which have committed one of the seven deadly sins. Therefore, are banished from heaven and suffer in hell for all eternity. Demons from hell would punish the fallen angel by ripping out their wings as a sign of insignificance and low rank. <sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heaven">Heaven</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Heaven"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg/220px-Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg/330px-Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg/440px-Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2475" data-file-height="3223" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_Portinari" title="Beatrice Portinari">Beatrice</a> gaze upon the highest heavens; from <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</a>'s illustrations to the <i><a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heaven_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven (Christianity)">Heaven (Christianity)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> has taught Heaven as a place of <a href="/wiki/Eternal_life_(Christianity)" title="Eternal life (Christianity)">eternal life</a>, in that it is a shared plane to be attained by all the elect (rather than an abstract experience related to individual concepts of the ideal). The Christian Church has been divided over how people gain this eternal life. From the 16th to the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> was divided between the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> view, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> view, the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria">Coptic</a> view, the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Jacobite</a> view, the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Abyssinian</a> view and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> views. See also <a href="/wiki/Christian_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian denominations">Christian denominations</a>. </p><p>Heaven is the English name for a <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendental</a> realm wherein human beings who have transcended human living live in an <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. in the Bible and in English, the term "heaven" may refer to the physical heavens, the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">sky</a> or the seemingly endless expanse of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> beyond, the traditional literal meaning of the term in English. </p><p>Christianity maintains that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, "When the form of this world has passed away." (*<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_21071999_en.html">JPII</a>) One view expressed in the Bible is that on the day Christ returns the righteous dead are resurrected first, and then those who are alive and judged righteous will be brought up to join them, to be taken to heaven. (I Thess 4:13–18) </p><p>Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Resurrection of the dead">"resurrection of the body"</a>, which is exclusively of biblical origin, as contrasted with the "<a href="/wiki/Immortality_of_the_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortality of the soul">immortality of the soul</a>", which is also evident in the Greek tradition. In the first concept, the soul does not enter heaven until the <a href="/wiki/Last_judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last judgement">last judgement</a> or the "end of time" when it (along with the body) is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the <a href="/wiki/Soul#Christianity" title="Soul">soul</a> goes to a heaven on another plane such as the <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_state_(Christianity)" title="Intermediate state (Christianity)">intermediate state</a> immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final physical judgement at the <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">end of the world</a>.(*<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_21071999_en.html">" JPII</a>, also see <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">eschatology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>) </p><p>One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching over man. Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located far out into space, and that the stars were "lights shining through from heaven". </p><p>Many of today's biblical scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/N._T._Wright" title="N. T. Wright">N. T. Wright</a>, in tracing the concept of Heaven back to its Jewish roots, see Earth and Heaven as overlapping or interlocking. Heaven is known as God's space, his dimension, and is not a place that can be reached by human technology. This belief states that Heaven is where God lives and reigns whilst being active and working alongside people on Earth. One day when God restores all things, Heaven and Earth will be forever combined into the <a href="/wiki/New_Heavens_and_New_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="New Heavens and New Earth">New Heavens and New Earth</a><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/World_to_Come" class="mw-redirect" title="World to Come">World to Come</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a></div> <p>Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it, typically in the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. In most, entrance to Heaven is conditional on having lived a "good life" (within the terms of the spiritual system). A notable exception to this is the '<a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">sola fide</a>' belief of many mainstream Protestants, which teaches that one does not have to live a perfectly "good life," but that one must accept <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a> as one's Lord and Saviour, and then Jesus Christ will assume the guilt of one's <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sins</a>; believers are believed to be forgiven regardless of any good or bad "works" one has participated in.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven will go to a place "without the presence of God", <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a>, which is eternal (see <a href="/wiki/Annihilationism" title="Annihilationism">annihilationism</a>). Some religions believe that other afterlives exist in addition to Heaven and Hell, such as <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a>. One belief, <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalism</a>, believes that everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed on earth. Some forms of Christianity believe Hell to be the termination of the soul. </p><p>Various <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a> have had <a href="/wiki/Vision_(spirituality)" title="Vision (spirituality)">visions</a> of heaven (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/2_Corinthians#12:2" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/2 Corinthians">2 Corinthians 12:2–4</a>). The Eastern Orthodox concept of life in heaven is described in one of the <a href="/wiki/Prayer_for_the_dead" title="Prayer for the dead">prayers for the dead</a>: "...a place of light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose, whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are fled away."<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Church bases its belief in Heaven on some main biblical passages in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures (Old and New Testaments) and collected church wisdom. Heaven is the Realm of the Blessed <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Angels" class="mw-redirect" title="Angels">angels</a><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints">saints</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The essential joy of heaven is called the <a href="/wiki/Beatific_vision" title="Beatific vision">beatific vision</a>, which is derived from the vision of God's essence. The soul rests perfectly in God, and does not, or cannot desire anything else than God. After the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgment</a>, when the soul is reunited with its body, the body participates in the happiness of the soul. It becomes incorruptible, glorious and perfect. Any physical defects the body may have laboured under are erased. Heaven is also known as <a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">paradise</a> in some cases. <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Great_Gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Great Gulf (page does not exist)">The Great Gulf</a> separates heaven from <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">hell</a>. </p><p>Upon dying, each soul goes to what is called "the <a href="/wiki/Particular_judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Particular judgement">particular judgement</a>" where its own afterlife is decided (i.e. Heaven after Purgatory, straight to Heaven, or <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a>.) This is different from "the general judgement" also known as "the <a href="/wiki/Last_judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last judgement">Last judgement</a>" which will occur when <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Christ returns</a> to judge all the living and the dead. </p><p>The term Heaven (which differs from "The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">Kingdom of Heaven</a>" see note below) is applied by the biblical authors to the realm in which God currently resides. Eternal life, by contrast, occurs in a renewed, unspoilt and perfect creation, which can be termed Heaven since God will choose to dwell there permanently with his people, as seen in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Revelation%2021:3&version=nrsv">Revelation 21:3</a>. There will no longer be any separation between God and man. The believers themselves will exist in incorruptible, resurrected and new bodies; there will be no sickness, no death and no tears. Some teach that death itself is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> disobeyed <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>) so that mankind would not live forever in a state of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> and thus a state of separation from God. </p><p>Many evangelicals understand this future life to be divided into two distinct periods: first, the <a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennial Reign of Christ</a> (the one thousand years) on this earth, referred to in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Revelation%2020:1–10&version=nrsv">Revelation 20:1–10</a>; secondly, the <a href="/wiki/New_Heavens_and_New_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="New Heavens and New Earth">New Heavens and New Earth</a>, referred to in Revelation 21 and 22. This millennialism (or chiliasm) is a revival of a strong tradition in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Church">Early Church</a><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that was dismissed by Saint Augustine of Hippo and the Roman Catholic Church after him. </p><p>Not only will the believers spend eternity with God, they will also spend it with each other. John's vision recorded in Revelation describes a <a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a> which comes from Heaven to the New Earth, which is seen to be a symbolic reference to the people of God living in community with one another. 'Heaven' will be the place where life will be lived to the full, in the way that the designer planned, each believer 'loving the Lord their God with all their heart and with all their soul and with all their mind' and 'loving their neighbour as themselves' (adapted from Matthew 22:37–38, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a>)—a place of great joy, without the negative aspects of earthly life. See also <a href="/wiki/World_to_Come" class="mw-redirect" title="World to Come">World to Come</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Purgatory</dt></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a> is the condition or temporary punishment<sup id="cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-purgatory-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which, it is believed, the <a href="/wiki/Souls" class="mw-redirect" title="Souls">souls</a> of those who die in a state of grace are made ready for <a href="/wiki/Heaven_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven (Christianity)">Heaven</a>. This is a theological idea that has ancient roots and is well-attested in <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian">early Christian</a> literature, while the poetic conception of purgatory as a geographically situated place is largely the creation of medieval Christian piety and imagination.<sup id="cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-purgatory-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a> it is a doctrine, though often without using the name "Purgatory"); <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglicans</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Catholic">Anglo-Catholic</a> tradition generally also hold to the belief.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a>, believed in an <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_state_(Christianity)" title="Intermediate state (Christianity)">intermediate state</a> between death and the <a href="/wiki/Last_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Last judgment">final judgment</a> and in the possibility of "continuing to grow in holiness there."<sup id="cite_ref-Methodism_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Methodism-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wesley_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wesley-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Churches</a> believe in the possibility of a change of situation for the souls of the dead through the prayers of the living and the offering of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Liturgy" title="Divine Liturgy">Divine Liturgy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Orthodox_Confession_of_Faith_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orthodox_Confession_of_Faith-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many Eastern Orthodox, especially among ascetics, hope and pray for a general <a href="/wiki/Apocatastasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Apocatastasis">apocatastasis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar belief in at least the possibility of a final salvation for all is held by <a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> also believes in the possibility of after-death purification<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may even use the word "purgatory" to present its understanding of the meaning of <a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the concept of soul "purification" may be explicitly denied in these other faith traditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hell">Hell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Hell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg/170px-Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="413" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg/255px-Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg/340px-Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1778" data-file-height="4324" /></a><figcaption>Hell as depicted in <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Triptych" title="Triptych">triptych</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights" title="The Garden of Earthly Delights">The Garden of Earthly Delights</a></i> (c. 1504).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hell_in_Christian_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hell in Christian beliefs">Hell in Christian beliefs</a></div> <p>Hell in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> beliefs, is a place or a state in which the <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">souls</a> of the unsaved will suffer the consequences of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>. The Christian doctrine of Hell derives from the teaching of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, where Hell is typically described using the Greek words <i><a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Tartarus" title="Tartarus">Tartarus</a></i>. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Hades_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hades in Christianity">Hades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sheol" title="Sheol">Sheol</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a> it is eternal, and those damned to Hell are without hope. In the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, it is described as the place or state of <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">punishment</a> after death or <a href="/wiki/Last_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Last judgment">last judgment</a> for those who have rejected Jesus.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many classical and popular depictions it is also the abode of <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a> and of Demons.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such is not the case in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>, where Satan is thrown into Hell only at the end of Christ's millennium long reign on this Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hell is generally defined as the eternal fate of unrepentant sinners after this life.<sup id="cite_ref-Hell_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hell-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hell's character is inferred from biblical teaching, which has often been understood literally.<sup id="cite_ref-Hell_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hell-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Souls are said to pass into Hell by God's irrevocable judgment, either immediately after death (<a href="/wiki/Particular_judgment" title="Particular judgment">particular judgment</a>) or in the <a href="/wiki/General_judgment" title="General judgment">general judgment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hell_140-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hell-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern theologians generally describe Hell as the logical consequence of the soul using its free will to reject the will of God.<sup id="cite_ref-Hell_140-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hell-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is considered compatible with God's justice and mercy because God will not interfere with the soul's free choice.<sup id="cite_ref-Hell_140-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hell-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only in the King James Version of the bible is the word "Hell" used to translate certain words, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Sheol" title="Sheol">sheol</a></i> (Hebrew) and both <i><a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">hades</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a></i>(Greek). All other translations reserve Hell only for use when <a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a> is mentioned. It is generally agreed that both <a href="/wiki/Sheol" title="Sheol">sheol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">hades</a> do not typically refer to the place of eternal punishment, but to the <a href="/wiki/Underworld" title="Underworld">underworld</a> or temporary abode of the dead.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, the majority of Protestants have held that Hell will be a place of unending conscious torment, both physical and spiritual,<sup id="cite_ref-Acute_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acute-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some recent writers (such as <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/J.P._Moreland" class="mw-redirect" title="J.P. Moreland">J.P. Moreland</a><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) have cast Hell in terms of "eternal separation" from God. Certain biblical texts have led some theologians to the conclusion that punishment in Hell, though eternal and irrevocable, will be proportional to the deeds of each soul (e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Matthew%2010:15">Matthew 10:15</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Luke%2012:46–48">Luke 12:46–48</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another area of debate is the fate of the unevangelized (i.e. those who have never had an opportunity to hear the Christian gospel), those who die in infancy, and intellectually disabled people. Some Protestants agree with <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> that people in these categories will be damned to Hell for <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, while others believe that God will make an exception in these cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Acute_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acute-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A "significant minority" believe in the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Christian_conditionalism" title="Christian conditionalism">conditional immortality</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which teaches that those sent to Hell will not experience eternal conscious punishment, but instead will be extinguished or <a href="/wiki/Annihilationism" title="Annihilationism">annihilated</a> after a period of "limited conscious punishment".<sup id="cite_ref-NDBThell_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDBThell-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prominent evangelical theologians who have adopted conditionalist beliefs include <a href="/wiki/John_Wenham" title="John Wenham">John Wenham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Fudge" title="Edward Fudge">Edward Fudge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clark_Pinnock" title="Clark Pinnock">Clark Pinnock</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stott" title="John Stott">John Stott</a> (although the latter has described himself as an "agnostic" on the issue of annihilationism).<sup id="cite_ref-Acute_142-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acute-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conditionalists typically reject the traditional concept of the immortality of the soul. </p><p>Some Protestants (such as <a href="/wiki/George_MacDonald" title="George MacDonald">George MacDonald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Randall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Talbott" title="Thomas Talbott">Thomas Talbott</a>), also, however, in a minority, believe that after serving their sentence in <a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a>, all souls are reconciled to <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> and admitted to heaven, or ways are found at the time of death of drawing all souls to repentance so that no "hellish" suffering is experienced. This view is often called <a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a>—its conservative branch is more specifically called 'Biblical or <a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_Universalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarian Universalism">Trinitarian Universalism</a>'—and is not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a>. See <a href="/wiki/Universal_reconciliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal reconciliation">universal reconciliation</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Apocatastasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Apocatastasis">apocatastasis</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/The_problem_of_Hell" class="mw-redirect" title="The problem of Hell">the problem of Hell</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theodicy:_Allowance_of_evil">Theodicy: Allowance of evil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Theodicy: Allowance of evil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Theodicy_and_the_Bible" title="Theodicy and the Bible">Theodicy and the Bible</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a> can be said to be defense of God's goodness and omnipotence in view of the existence of evil. Specifically, Theodicy is a specific branch of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> which attempts to reconcile belief in <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> with the perceived existence of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, theodicy can be said to attempt to justify the behaviour of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> (at least insofar as God allows evil). </p><p>Responses to the problem of evil have sometimes been classified as <i>defenses</i> or <i>theodicies</i>. However, authors disagree on the exact definitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IepEvidential_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, a <i>defense</i> attempts to show that there is no logical incompatibility between the existence of evil and the existence of God. A defense need not argue that this is a probable or plausible explanation, only that the defense is logically possible. A defense attempts to answer the <i>logical</i> problem of evil. </p><p>A theodicy, on the other hand, is a more ambitious attempt to provide a plausible justification for the existence of evil. A theodicy attempts to answer the <i>evidential</i> problem of evil.<sup id="cite_ref-IepEvidential_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a> maintains that it does not make sense to assume there are greater goods, unless we know what they are, i.e., we have a successful theodicy.<sup id="cite_ref-swinburne05_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swinburne05-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As an example, some authors see arguments including <a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">demons</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a> as not logically impossible but not very plausible considering our knowledge about the world. Thus they are seen as defenses but not good theodicies.<sup id="cite_ref-IepEvidential_150-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IepEvidential-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> writes in his book <a href="/wiki/The_Problem_of_Pain" title="The Problem of Pain">The Problem of Pain</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We can, perhaps, conceive of a world in which God corrected the results of this abuse of free will by His creatures at every moment: so that a wooden beam became soft as grass when it was used as a weapon, and the air refused to obey me if I attempted to set up in it the sound waves that carry lies or insults. But such a world would be one in which wrong actions were impossible, and in which, therefore, freedom of the will would be void; nay, if the principle were carried out to its logical conclusion, evil thoughts would be impossible, for the cerebral matter which we use in thinking would refuse its task when we attempted to frame them.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Another possible answer is that the world is corrupted due to the sin of mankind. Some answer that because of sin, the world has fallen from the grace of God, and is not perfect. Therefore, evils and imperfections persist because the world is fallen.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/William_A._Dembski" title="William A. Dembski">William A. Dembski</a> argues that the effects of Adam's sin recorded in the Book of Genesis were 'back-dated' by God, and hence applied to the earlier history of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evil is sometimes seen as a test or trial for humans. <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus of Lyons</a> and more recently <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a> have argued that evil and suffering are necessary for spiritual growth. This is often combined with the free will argument by arguing that such spiritual growth requires free will decisions. A problem with this is that many evils do not seem to cause any kind of spiritual growth, or even permit it, as when a child is abused from birth and becomes, seemingly inevitably, a brutal adult. </p><p>The problem of evil is often phrased in the form: <i>Why do bad things happen to good people?</i>. <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> teach that all people are inherently sinful due to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a> and <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>; for example, <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> theology follows a doctrine called <a href="/wiki/Federal_headship" title="Federal headship">federal headship</a>, which argues that the first man, <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam</a>, was the legal representative of the entire human race. A counterargument to the basic version of this principle is that an omniscient God would have predicted this, when he created the world, and an omnipotent God could have prevented it. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Book of Isaiah</a> clearly claims that God is the source of at least some natural disasters, but Isaiah doesn't attempt to explain the motivation behind the creation of evil.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a> is one of the most widely known formulations of the problem of evil in Western thought. In it, Satan challenges God regarding his servant Job, claiming that Job only serves God for the blessings and protection that he receives from him. God allows Satan to plague Job and his family in a number of ways, with the limitation that Satan may not take Job's life (but his children are killed). Job discusses this with three friends and questions God regarding his suffering which he finds to be unjust. God responds in a speech and then more than restores Job's prior health, wealth, and gives him new children. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Bart D. Ehrman</a> argues that different parts of the Bible give different answers. One example is evil as punishment for sin or as a consequence of sin. Ehrman writes that this seems to be based on some notion of free will although this argument is never explicitly mentioned in the Bible. Another argument is that suffering ultimately achieves a greater good, possibly for persons other than the sufferer, that would not have been possible otherwise. The Book of Job offers two different answers: suffering is a test, and you will be rewarded later for passing it; another that God in his might chooses not to reveal his reasons. <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a> sees suffering as beyond human abilities to comprehend. <a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic</a> parts, including the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, see suffering as due to cosmic evil forces, that God for mysterious reasons has given power over the world, but which will soon be defeated and things will be set right.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hamartiology:_Sin">Hamartiology: Sin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Hamartiology: Sin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hamartiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamartiology">Hamartiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Christian views on sin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Christian anthropology</a></div> <p>The Greek word in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> that is translated in English as "sin" is <i><a href="/wiki/Hamartia" title="Hamartia">hamartia</a></i>, which literally means <i>missing the target</i>. <a href="/wiki/1_John" class="mw-redirect" title="1 John">1 John</a> 3:4 states: "Everyone who sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is <a href="/wiki/Antinomianism" title="Antinomianism">lawlessness</a>". Jesus <a href="/wiki/Expounding_of_the_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Expounding of the Law">clarified the law</a> by defining its foundation: "Jesus replied: 'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' This is the first and <a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">greatest commandment</a>. And the second is like it: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' All the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Law</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neviim" class="mw-redirect" title="Neviim">Prophets</a> hang on these two commandments." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Matthew%2022:36–40">Matthew 22:36–40</a>) </p><p>Hamartiology (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">ἁμαρτία</span>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hamartia" title="Hamartia">hamartia</a></i>, "missing the mark," "sin," + -λογια, <i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">-logia</a></i>, "sayings" or "discourse") is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> theology, more specifically, <a href="/wiki/Systematic_theology" title="Systematic theology">systematic theology</a>, which is the study of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> with a view to articulating a doctrine of it. </p><p>Substantial branches of hamartiological understanding subscribe to the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, which was taught by the Apostle Paul in Romans 5:12–19 and popularized by <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a>. Augustine taught that all the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> are guilty of Adam's sin without their own personal choice.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Pelagius_(British_monk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagius (British monk)">Pelagius</a> argued that humans enter life as essentially <i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabulae rasae</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">The fall</a> that occurred when Adam and Eve disobeyed <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> was held by his group to have affected humankind only minimally. But few theologians continue to hold this hamartiological viewpoint. </p><p>A third branch of thinking takes an intermediate position, arguing that after the fall of Adam and Eve, humans are born impacted by sin such that they have very decided tendencies toward sinning (which by personal choice all accountable humans but <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> soon choose to indulge). </p><p>The degree to which a Christian believes humanity is impacted by either a literal or metaphorical "fall" determines their understanding of related theological concepts like <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)" title="Justification (theology)">justification</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sanctification" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctification">sanctification</a>. </p><p>Christian views on sin are mostly understood as legal infraction or contract violation, and so salvation tends to be viewed in legal terms, similar to Jewish thinking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sin">Sin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Sin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forbidden_fruit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Forbidden_fruit.jpg/220px-Forbidden_fruit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Forbidden_fruit.jpg/330px-Forbidden_fruit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Forbidden_fruit.jpg/440px-Forbidden_fruit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1758" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel" title="Sistine Chapel">Sistine Chapel</a> fresco depicts the expulsion of <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> from the garden of Eden for their sin of eating from the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, sin is the concept of acts that violate a <a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">rule of God</a>. The term sin may also refer to the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> of having committed such a violation. Commonly, the moral <a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">code of conduct</a> is decreed by a divine entity, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a>. </p><p>Sin is often used to mean an action that is prohibited or considered wrong; in some religions (notably some sects of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>), sin can refer not only to physical actions taken, but also to thoughts and internalized motivations and feelings. Colloquially, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, <a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">shameful</a>, harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful". </p><p>An elementary concept of "sin" regards such acts and elements of Earthly living that one cannot take with them into <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">transcendental living</a>. Food, for example is not of transcendental living and therefore its excessive savoring is considered a sin. A more developed concept of "sin" deals with a distinction between sins of <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin" title="Mortal sin">mortal sin</a>) and the sins of human living (<a href="/wiki/Venial_sin" title="Venial sin">venial sin</a>). In that context, mortal sins are said to have the dire consequence of <a href="/wiki/Divine_punishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine punishment">mortal penalty</a>, while sins of living (<a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, casual or informal <a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">sexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">play</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inebriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inebriation">inebriation</a>) may be regarded as essential spice for transcendental living, even though these may be destructive in the context of human living (obesity, <a href="/wiki/Infidelity" title="Infidelity">infidelity</a>). </p><p>Common ideas surrounding sin in various religions include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> for sins, from other people, from <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> either in life or in <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>, or from the Universe in general.</li> <li>The question of whether an act must be intentional to be sinful.</li> <li>The idea that one's <a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a> should produce <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a> for a conscious act of sin.</li> <li>A scheme for determining the seriousness of the sin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">Repentance</a> from (expressing regret for and determining not to commit) sin, and <a href="/wiki/Restitution_(theology)" title="Restitution (theology)">atonement</a> (repayment) for past deeds.</li> <li>The possibility of <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">forgiveness</a> of sins, often through communication with a deity or intermediary; in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> are related <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> concepts.</li></ul> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a>, "sin is <a href="/wiki/Antinomianism" title="Antinomianism">lawlessness</a>" (1 John 3:4) and so salvation tends to be understood in legal terms, similar to Jewish law. Sin alienates the sinner from God. It has damaged, and completely severed, the relationship of humanity to God. That relationship can only be restored through acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Jesus Christ</a> and his death on the cross as a sacrifice for mankind's sin (see <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Substitutionary_atonement" title="Substitutionary atonement">Substitutionary atonement</a>). </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a>, sin is viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both among people and between people and God. Sin is seen as the refusal to follow God's plan, and the desire to be like God and thus in direct opposition to him (see the account of <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>). To sin is to want control of one's destiny in opposition to the will of God, to do some rigid beliefs. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Orthodox">Russian</a> variant of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Christianity">Eastern Orthodox Christianity</a>, sin sometimes is regarded as any mistake made by people in their life. From this point of view every person is sinful because every person makes mistakes during his life. When person accuses others in sins he always must remember that he is also sinner and so he must have mercy for others remembering that God is also merciful to him and to all humanity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_man">Fall of man</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Fall of man"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">Fall of man</a></div> <p>The fall of man or simply the fall refers in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> doctrine to the transition of the first humans from a state of innocent obedience to <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, to a state of guilty disobedience to God. In the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a> chapter 2, <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> live at first with God in a <a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">paradise</a>, but are then deceived or tempted by the <a href="/wiki/Serpent_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpent (Bible)">serpent</a> to eat <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">fruit</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_Knowledge_of_Good_and_Evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil">Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil</a>, which had been forbidden to them by God. After doing so they become ashamed of their nakedness, and God consequently expelled them from <a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">paradise</a>. The fall is not mentioned by name in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, but the story of disobedience and expulsion is recounted in both Testaments in different ways. The Fall can refer to the wider theological inferences for all humankind as a consequence of Eve and Adam's <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>. Examples include the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul</a> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%205:12–19&version=nrsv">Romans 5:12–19</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2015:21–22&version=nrsv">1 Cor. 15:21–22</a>. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Christian_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian denominations">Christian denominations</a> believe the fall corrupted the entire natural world, including human nature, causing people to be born into <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, a state from which they cannot attain <a href="/wiki/Eternal_life_(Christianity)" title="Eternal life (Christianity)">eternal life</a> without the <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">gracious intervention of God</a>. <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> hold that <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>' death was a <a href="/wiki/Atonement_(ransom_view)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement (ransom view)">"ransom"</a> by which humanity was offered freedom from the sin acquired at the fall. In other religions, such as <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a>, the term "the fall" is not recognized and varying interpretations of the Eden narrative are presented. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> interprets the fall in a number of ways. Traditional Christian theology accepts the teaching of <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">St Paul</a> in his letter to the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Theology is a synthesis on the bible, and so needs theological sources (March 2010)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> "For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" and of <a href="/wiki/John_the_Evangelist" title="John the Evangelist">St John</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a> that "God so loved the world that he sent his only son (Jesus Christ) that whoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life".<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Theology is a synthesis on the bible, and so needs theological sources (March 2010)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>, as articulated by <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo's</a> interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">Paul of Tarsus</a>, provides that the fall caused a fundamental change in human nature, so that all descendants of Adam are born in <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>, and can only be redeemed by <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">divine grace</a>. Sacrifice was the only means by which humanity could be redeemed after the fall. Jesus, who was without sin, died on the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">cross</a> as the ultimate redemption for the sin of humankind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_sin">Original sin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Original sin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></div> <p>Thus, the moment Adam and Eve ate the fruit from the tree—which God had commanded them not to do—sinful death was born; <i>it was an act of disobedience, thinking they could become like gods, that was the sin</i>. Since Adam was the head of the human race, he is held responsible for the evil that took place, for which reason the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a> is referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Sin_of_Adam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin of Adam">sin of Adam</a>". This sin caused Adam and his descendants to lose unrestricted access to God Himself. The years of life were limited. "Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned" (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Romans#5:12" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Romans">Romans 5:12</a>). In Christian theology, the <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Jesus">death of Jesus</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">cross</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement in Christianity">atonement</a> to the sin of Adam. "For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive." (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Corinthians#15:22" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Corinthians">1 Corinthians 15:22</a>). As a result of that act of Christ, all who put their trust in <a href="/wiki/Solus_Christus" title="Solus Christus">Christ alone</a> now have unrestricted access to God through prayer and in presence. </p><p>Original sin, which Eastern Christians usually refer to as <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_sin" title="Ancestral sin">ancestral sin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is, according to a doctrine proposed in Christian theology, humanity's state of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> resulting from the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-OS_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-OS-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature," to something as drastic as <a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">total depravity</a> or automatic guilt by all humans through collective guilt.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who uphold the doctrine look to the teaching of <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%205:12–21&version=nrsv">Romans 5:12–21</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2015:22&version=nrsv">1 Corinthians 15:22</a> for its <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">scriptural</a> base,<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and see it as perhaps implied in Old Testament passages such as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%2051:5&version=nrsv">Psalm 51:5</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Psalms%2058:3&version=nrsv">Psalm 58:3</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sandro_Botticelli_050.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sandro_Botticelli_050.jpg/170px-Sandro_Botticelli_050.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sandro_Botticelli_050.jpg/255px-Sandro_Botticelli_050.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sandro_Botticelli_050.jpg/340px-Sandro_Botticelli_050.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2423" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> wrote that original sin is transmitted by concupiscence and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Father" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Father">Apostolic Fathers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Apologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Apologist">Apologists</a> mostly dealt with topics other than original sin.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The doctrine of original sin was first developed in 2nd-century Bishop of Lyon <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a>'s struggle against <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek Fathers emphasized the cosmic dimension of the fall, namely that since Adam human beings are born into a fallen world, but held fast to belief that man, though fallen, is free.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was in the West that precise definition of the doctrine arose.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> taught that original sin was both an act of foolishness (<i>insipientia</i>) and of pride and disobedience to the God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sin would not have taken place, if satan hadn't sown into their senses <i>"the root of evil"</i> (<i>radix Mali</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sin of Adam and Eve wounded their nature, affecting human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. The consequences of the fall were transmitted to their descendants in the form of <i>concupiscence</i>, which is a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> term, and not a <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychological</a> one. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the <i>libido</i> (<i>concupiscence</i>), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a <i>libido actualis</i>, i.e. sexual lust, but <i>libido habitualis</i>, i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not <i>a being</i> but <i>bad quality</i>, the privation of good or a wound.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bishop of Hippo admitted that sexual concupiscence (<i>libido</i>) might have been present in the perfect human nature in the paradise, and that only later it had become disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original sin have made humanity a <i>massa damnata</i><sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (mass of perdition, condemned crowd). In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. As sinners, humans are utterly depraved in nature, lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will of God without <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">divine grace</a>. Grace is <a href="/wiki/Irresistible_grace" title="Irresistible grace">irresistible</a>, results in conversion, and leads to <a href="/wiki/Perseverance_of_the_saints" title="Perseverance of the saints">perseverance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Augustine's formulation of original sin was popular among Protestant reformers, such as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, and also, within Roman Catholicism, in the <a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenist</a> movement, but this movement was declared heretical by the Catholic Church.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness affecting all humans, even children, with some Christian groups denying it altogether. </p><p>The notion of original sin as interpreted by <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> was affirmed by the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformer</a> John Calvin. <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a> believed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinistic</a> doctrine of "<a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">total depravity</a>") results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation. </p> <dl><dt>New Testament</dt></dl> <p>The scriptural basis for the doctrine is found in two New Testament books by <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans%205:12-21&version=NIV">Romans 5:12–21</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%2015:22&version=NIV">1 Corinthians 15:22</a>, in which he identifies Adam as the one man through whom death came into the world.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Total_depravity">Total depravity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Total depravity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a></div> <p>Total depravity (also called absolute inability and total corruption) is a theological <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> that derives from the <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustinian</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>. It is the teaching that, as a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a>, every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> and, apart from the <a href="/wiki/Irresistible_grace" title="Irresistible grace">efficacious</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prevenient_grace" title="Prevenient grace">prevenient grace</a> of God, is utterly unable to choose to follow <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> or choose to accept <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a> as it is freely offered. </p><p>It is also advocated to various degrees by many Protestant confessions of faith and catechisms, including those of <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Total depravity is the fallen state of man as a result of original sin. The doctrine of total depravity asserts that people are by nature not inclined or even able to love God wholly with heart, mind, and strength, but rather all are inclined by nature to serve their own will and desires and to reject the rule of God. Even religion and <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a> are wicked to God to the extent that these originate from a human imagination, passion, and will and are not done to the glory of God. Therefore, in <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Reformed theology</a>, if God is to save anyone He must <a href="/wiki/Predestination_(Calvinism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Predestination (Calvinism)">predestine</a>, call, elect individuals to salvation since fallen man does not want to, indeed is incapable of choosing God.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Total depravity does not mean, however, that people are as evil as possible. Rather, it means that even the good which a person may intend is faulty in its premise, false in its motive, and weak in its implementation; and there is no mere refinement of natural capacities that can correct this condition. Thus, even acts of generosity and altruism are in fact <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">egoist</a> acts in disguise. All good, consequently, is derived from God alone, and in no way through man.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_among_Protestants">Comparison among Protestants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Comparison among Protestants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This table summarizes three Protestant beliefs on depravity. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><b>Topic</b></th> <th><b>Calvinism</b></th> <th><b>Lutheranism</b></th> <th><b>Arminianism</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Depravity and human will</b></td> <td>For <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a>, in Total Depravity<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> humanity possesses "free will,"<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is in bondage to sin,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until it is "transformed."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>For <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a>, in Total Depravity<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-Compare-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> humanity possesses free-will/free choice in regard to "goods and possessions," but regarding "salvation or damnation" people are in bondage either to God or Satan."<sup id="cite_ref-Henry_Cole_1823_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henry_Cole_1823-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>For <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Arminius" title="Jacobus Arminius">Arminius</a>, in Depravity<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> humanity possesses freedom from necessity, but not "freedom from sin" unless enabled by "<a href="/wiki/Prevenient_grace" title="Prevenient grace">prevenient grace</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Keith_D_2012_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keith_D_2012-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soteriology:_Salvation">Soteriology: Salvation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Soteriology: Salvation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation in Christianity</a></div> <p>Christian <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriology</a> is the branch of Christian theology that deals with one's <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i>sōtērion</i> (salvation) (from <i>sōtēr</i> savior, preserver) + English <a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atonement is a doctrine that describes how human beings can be reconciled to <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>. In Christian theology the atonement refers to the forgiving or pardoning of one's <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> through the death of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a> by <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">crucifixion</a>, which made possible the reconciliation between God and creation. Within Christianity there are three main theories for how such atonement might work: the <a href="/wiki/Atonement_(ransom_view)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement (ransom view)">ransom theory</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atonement_(satisfaction_view)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement (satisfaction view)">satisfaction theory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atonement_(moral_influence_view)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement (moral influence view)">moral influence theory</a>. Christian soteriology is unlike and not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Collective_salvation" title="Collective salvation">collective salvation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_focus">Traditional focus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Traditional focus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christian soteriology traditionally focuses on how God ends the separation people have from him due to <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> by reconciling them with himself. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%205:10-11;&version=9;">Rom. 5:10–11</a>). Many Christians believe they receive the forgiveness of sins (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=51&chapter=2&verse=38&version=31&context=verse">Acts 2:38</a>), life (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=52&chapter=8&verse=11&version=31&context=verse">Rom. 8:11</a>), and salvation (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=59&chapter=5&verse=9&version=31&context=verse">1 Thess. 5:9</a>) bought by <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> through his innocent suffering, death, and resurrection from the dead three days later (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=47&chapter=28&version=47&context=chapter">Matt. 28</a>). </p><p>Christ's death, resurrection, ascension, and sending of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>, is called <i>The Paschal Mystery</i>. Christ's human birth is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a></i>. Either or both are considered in different versions of soteriology. </p><p>While not neglecting the <i>Paschal Mystery</i>, many Christians believe salvation is brought through the <i>Incarnation</i> itself, in which God took on human nature so that humans could partake in the divine nature (2 Peter 1.4). As <a href="/wiki/St._Athanasius" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Athanasius">St. Athanasius</a> put it, God became human so that we might become divine (St. Athanasius, De inc. 54, 3: PG 25, 192B.). This <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">grace</a> in Christ (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=53&chapter=1&verse=4&version=31&context=verse">1 Cor. 1:4</a>) is received as a gift of God that cannot be merited by works done prior to one's conversion to Christianity (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ephesians%202:8-9;&version=31;">Eph. 2:8–9</a>), which is brought about by hearing God's Word (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=52&chapter=10&verse=17&version=50&context=verse">Rom. 10:17</a>) and harkening to it. This involves accepting Jesus Christ as the personal saviour and Lord over one's life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinct_schools">Distinct schools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Distinct schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Protestant teaching, originating with <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, teaches that salvation is received by <a href="/wiki/Sola_gratia" title="Sola gratia">grace alone</a> and that one's sole necessary response to this grace is <a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">faith alone</a>. Older Christian teaching, as found in Catholic and Orthodox theology, is that salvation is received by <a href="/wiki/Sola_gratia" title="Sola gratia">grace alone</a>, but that one's necessary response to this grace comprises both faith and works (James 2:24, 26; Rom 2:6–7; Gal 5:6). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catholic_soteriology">Catholic soteriology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Catholic soteriology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human beings exists because God wanted to share His life with them. In this sense, every human being is God's child. In a fuller sense, to come to salvation is to be reconciled to God through Christ and to be united with His divine Essence via <a href="/wiki/Divinization_(Christian)" title="Divinization (Christian)">Theosis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Beatific_vision" title="Beatific vision">beatific vision</a> of the Godhead. The graces of Christ's passion, death, and resurrection are found in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_sacraments" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic sacraments">seven sacraments</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_among_Protestants_2">Comparison among Protestants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Comparison among Protestants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible floatright" style="text-align:left; border:1px solid #444;"> <tbody><tr style="background-color:#CEDFF9; text-align:center"> <td colspan="4"><b>Protestant beliefs about salvation</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" align="center">This table summarizes the classical views of three <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity#Protestantism" title="Salvation in Christianity">Protestant beliefs about salvation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>Topic</b></th> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></b></th> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></b></th> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></b> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#eee;"> <td><b>Human will</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-Compare-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humanity possesses "free will",<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is in bondage to sin,<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until it is "transformed".<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Augsburg_Confession#Article_II:_Of_Original_Sin." class="extiw" title="s:Augsburg Confession">Total depravity</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-Compare-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humanity possesses free will in regard to "goods and possessions", but is sinful by nature and unable to contribute to its own salvation.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a>: Humanity possesses freedom from <a href="/wiki/Necessitarianism" title="Necessitarianism">necessity</a>, but not "freedom from sin" unless enabled by "<a href="/wiki/Prevenient_grace" title="Prevenient grace">prevenient grace</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#eee;"> <td><b>Election</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Unconditional_election" title="Unconditional election">Unconditional election</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Predestination#Lutheranism" title="Predestination">Unconditional election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-Compare-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conditional_election" title="Conditional election">Conditional election</a> in view of foreseen faith or unbelief.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#eee;"> <td><b>Justification and atonement</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Justification_by_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Justification by faith">Justification by faith</a> alone. Various views regarding the extent of the atonement.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Justification for all men</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-ROM_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-ROM-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> completed at Christ's death and effective through <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Augsburg_Confession#Article_IV:_Of_Justification." class="extiw" title="s:Augsburg Confession">faith alone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-TWB_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-TWB-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WELS-Justification_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-Justification-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WELS-UnivJus_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-UnivJus-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Justification made <a href="/wiki/Atonement_(unlimited_view)#The_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement (unlimited view)">possible for all</a> through Christ's death, but only completed upon <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(theology)#Arminian" title="Regeneration (theology)">choosing faith</a> in Jesus.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#eee;"> <td><b>Conversion</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monergism" title="Monergism">Monergistic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through the means of grace, <a href="/wiki/Irresistible_grace" title="Irresistible grace">irresistible</a>. </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monergism" title="Monergism">Monergistic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-Diehl_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-Diehl-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through the <a href="/wiki/Means_of_grace" title="Means of grace">means of grace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irresistible_grace#Lutheran" title="Irresistible grace">resistible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-TULIP_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-TULIP-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Synergism_(theology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Synergism (theology)">Synergistic</a>, resistible due to the common grace of free will.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr style="background:#eee;"> <td><b>Perseverance and apostasy</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Perseverance_of_the_saints" title="Perseverance of the saints">Perseverance of the saints</a>: the eternally elect in Christ will certainly persevere in faith.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Christianity#Martin_Luther_(1483–1546)" title="Apostasy in Christianity">Falling away</a> is possible,<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-OSAS_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-OSAS-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but God gives gospel <a href="/wiki/Assurance_(theology)#Lutheranism" title="Assurance (theology)">assurance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WELS-Pers_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WELS-Pers-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conditional_preservation_of_the_saints" title="Conditional preservation of the saints">Preservation is conditional</a> upon continued faith in Christ; with the possibility of a final <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Christianity" title="Apostasy in Christianity">apostasy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecclesiology:_Church">Ecclesiology: Church</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Ecclesiology: Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></div><p><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐκκλησίᾱ</span></span>, <i>ekklēsiā</i>, "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/congregation" class="extiw" title="wikt:congregation">congregation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">church</a>"; and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-λογία</span></span>, <i><a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logia</a></i>) is the study of the theological understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian church">Christian church</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutional structure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacraments</a> and practices (especially the <a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">worship</a> of God) thereof. Specific areas of concern include the church's role in <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a>, its origin, its relationship to the historical <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Christ</a>, its discipline, its <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">destiny</a>, and its <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">leadership</a>. Ecclesiology is, therefore, the study of the church as a thing in, and of, itself. </p><p>Different ecclesiologies give shape to very different institutions. Thus, in addition to describing a broad discipline of theology, ecclesiology may be used in the specific sense of a particular church or denomination's character, self-described or otherwise. This is the sense of the word in such phrases as <i>Roman Catholic ecclesiology</i>, <i>Lutheran ecclesiology</i>, and <i>ecumenical ecclesiology</i>. </p> <dl><dt>Issues addressed by ecclesiology</dt></dl> <p>Ecclesiology asks the questions: </p> <ul><li><b>Who is the Church?</b> Is it a visible or earthly <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporation</a> or a unified, visible society—a "church" in the sense of a specific denomination or institution, for instance? Or is it the body of all believing <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christians</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Invisible_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Invisible church">invisible church</a>) regardless of their <a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">denominational</a> differences and disunity? What is the relationship between living Christians and <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">departed</a> Christians (the "<a href="/wiki/Cloud_of_witnesses" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud of witnesses">cloud of witnesses</a>")– do they (those on Earth and those in Heaven) constitute together the Church?</li> <li><b>Must one join a church?</b> That is, what is the role of corporate <a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">worship</a> in the spiritual lives of believers? Is it in fact necessary? Can salvation be found outside of formal membership in a given faith community, and what constitutes "membership?" (<a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a>? Formal acceptance of a <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creed</a>? Regular participation?)</li> <li><b>What is the <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a> of <i>the</i> Church?</b> Who gets to interpret the doctrines of the Church? Is the organizational structure itself, either in a single corporate body, or generally within the range of formal church structures, an <i>independent vehicle</i> of <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a> or of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">grace</a>? Or is the Church's authority instead dependent on and derivative of a <i>separate and prior divine revelation external to the organization</i>, with individual institutions being "the Church" only to the extent that they teach this message? For example, is the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> a written part of a wider revelation entrusted to the Church as faith community, and therefore to be interpreted within that context? Or is the Bible the revelation itself, and the Church is to be defined as a group of people who claim adherence to it?</li> <li><b>What does the Church do?</b> What are the <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacraments</a>, divine ordinances, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">liturgies</a>, in the context of the Church, and are they part of the Church's mission to preach the <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a>? What is the comparative emphasis and relationship between <a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">worship</a> service, <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_formation" title="Spiritual formation">spiritual formation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christian)">mission</a>, and is the Church's role to create <a href="/wiki/Disciple_(Christianity)" title="Disciple (Christianity)">disciples</a> of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> or some other function? Is the Eucharist the defining element of the rest of the sacramental system and the Church itself, or is it secondary to the act of preaching? Is the Church to be understood as the vehicle for salvation, or the salvific presence in the world, or as a community of those already "saved?"</li> <li><b>How should the Church be governed?</b> What was the mission and authority of the Apostles, and is this handed down through the sacraments today? What are the proper methods of choosing <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a>, and what is their role within the context of the Church? Is an <a href="/wiki/Holy_Orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Orders">ordained</a> clergy necessary? * Who are the leaders of a church? Must there be a policy-making board of "leaders" within a church and what are the qualifications for this position, and by what process do these members become <a href="/wiki/Holy_Orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Orders">official, ordained</a> "leaders"? Must leaders and clergy be "ordained," and is this possible <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">only by those who have been ordained by others</a>?</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecclesiastical_polity">Ecclesiastical polity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Ecclesiastical polity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Ecclesiastical polity</a></div> <p>Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a <a href="/wiki/Church_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Church body">church</a> or <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denomination</a>. It also denotes the <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of religion">ministerial</a> structure of the church and the authority relationships between churches. Polity is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a>, the study of doctrine and theology relating to church organization. </p><p>Issues of church governance appear in the first chapters of the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a>; the first act recorded after the <a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascension of Jesus Christ">ascension</a> is the election of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Matthias" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Matthias">Matthias</a> to replace <a href="/wiki/Judas_Iscariot" title="Judas Iscariot">Judas Iscariot</a>. Over the years a system of episcopal polity developed. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, arguments were made that the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> prescribed structures quite different from that of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> of the day, and different Protestant bodies used different types of polity. It was during this period that <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hooker_(theologian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Hooker (theologian)">Richard Hooker</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Of_the_Laws_of_Ecclesiastical_Polity" class="mw-redirect" title="Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity">Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity</a></i> to defend the polity of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a>. </p><p>Episcopal polity is used in several closely related senses. Most commonly it refers to the field of church governance in the abstract, but it also can refer to the governance of a particular Christian body. In this sense it is used as a term in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>. "Polity" is sometimes used as a shorthand for the church governance structure itself. </p><p>Though each church or denomination has its own characteristic structure, there are three general types of polity. </p> <dl><dt>Episcopal polity</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_polity" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal polity</a></div> <p>Churches having episcopal polity are governed by <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a>. The title bishop comes from the Greek word <i>episkopos</i>, which literally translates into <i>overseer</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regard to <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>, bishops have authority over the <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">diocese</a>, which is both sacramental and political; as well as performing <a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">ordinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">confirmations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Consecration" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecration">consecrations</a>, the bishop supervises the <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a> of the diocese and represents the diocese both secularly and in the hierarchy of church governance. </p><p>Bishops in this system may be subject to higher ranking bishops (variously called <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">archbishops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">metropolitans</a> or <a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">patriarchs</a>, depending upon the tradition; <i>see also <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishop</a> for further explanation of the varieties of bishops</i>.) They also meet in councils or <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a>. These synods, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, may govern the dioceses which are represented in the council, though the <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synod</a> may also be purely advisory. </p><p>Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not proof of episcopal polity. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a>, the "bishop" occupies the office that in an <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> church would be occupied by a <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priest</a>. </p><p>Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command. Instead, some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of bishops, but by <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">lay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clerical</a> councils. Further, patterns of authority are subject to a wide variety of historical rights and honors which may cut across simple lines of authority. </p><p>Episcopal polity is the predominant pattern in <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodox">Oriental Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> churches. It is also common in <a href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> churches. Among churches with episcopal polity, different theories of autonomy are expressed. So in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> the church is viewed as a single polity headed by the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">pope</a>, but in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> the various churches retain formal <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> but are held to be unified by shared doctrine and <a href="/wiki/Conciliarity" title="Conciliarity">conciliarity</a>—that is, the authority of councils, such as <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">ecumenical councils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Synod" title="Holy Synod">Holy Synods</a> and the former standing council, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Endemusa_Synod&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Endemusa Synod (page does not exist)">Endemusa Synod</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Presbyterian polity</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_polity" title="Presbyterian polity">Presbyterian polity</a></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed church">Reformed</a> churches, notably those in the <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> and Continental Reformed traditions, are governed by a hierarchy of councils. The lowest level council governs a single local church and is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Kirk_Session" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirk Session">session</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Consistory_(Protestantism)#Reformed_usage" title="Consistory (Protestantism)">consistory</a></i>; its members are called <i><a href="/wiki/Elder_(religious)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elder (religious)">elders</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of religion">minister</a> of the church (sometimes referred to as a <i>teaching elder</i>) is a member of and presides over the session; lay representatives (<i>ruling elders</i> or, informally, just elders) are elected by the congregation. The session sends representatives to the next level higher council, called the <i><a href="/wiki/Presbytery_(church_polity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbytery (church polity)">presbytery</a></i> or <i>classis</i>. In some Presbyterian churches there are higher level councils (<a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a> or <a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_(presbyterian_church)" class="mw-redirect" title="General Assembly (presbyterian church)">general assemblies</a>). Each council has authority over its constituents, and the representatives at each level are expected to use their own judgment. Hence higher level councils act as courts of appeal for church trials and disputes, and it is not uncommon to see rulings and decisions overturned. </p><p>Presbyterian polity is, of course, the characteristic governance of <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> churches, and also of churches in the Continental <a href="/wiki/Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed church">Reformed</a> tradition. Elements of presbyterian polity are also found in other churches. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopal Church in the United States of America">Episcopal Church in the United States of America</a> governance by bishops is paralleled by a system of deputies, who are lay and clerical representatives elected by parishes and, at the national level, by the dioceses. Legislation in the <a href="/wiki/General_Convention_of_the_Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" title="General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America">general convention</a> requires the separate consent of the bishops and of the deputies. </p><p>Note that, in episcopal polity, a <a href="/wiki/Presbyter" title="Presbyter">presbyter</a> refers to a <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priest</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Congregational polity</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congregational_polity" title="Congregational polity">Congregational polity</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Congregationalist_polity" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregationalist polity">Congregationalist polity</a> dispenses with titled positions such as <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishop</a> as a requirement of church structure. The local congregation rules itself, though local leaders and councils may be appointed. </p><p>Members may be sent from the congregation to associations that are sometimes identified with the church bodies formed by <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutherans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglicans</a>, and other non-congregational <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a>. The similarity is deceptive, however, because the congregationalist associations do not exercise control over their members (other than ending their membership in the association). Many congregationalist churches are completely independent in principle. One major exception is <a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a>, where even congregationalist churches often invite members of the <a href="/wiki/Vicinage" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicinage">vicinage</a> or association to ordain their called pastor. </p><p>It is a principle of congregationalism that ministers do not govern congregations by themselves. They may preside over the congregation, but it is the congregation which exerts its authority in the end. </p><p>Congregational polity is sometimes called "Baptist polity", as it is the characteristic polity of <a href="/wiki/Baptist_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist church">Baptist churches</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Priesthood">Priesthood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Priesthood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Priesthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Priesthood">Priesthood</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">Priesthood of all believers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor">Pastor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elder_(Christianity)" title="Elder (Christianity)">Elder</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Church_discipline">Church discipline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Church discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Church_discipline" title="Church discipline">Church discipline</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missiology">Missiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Missiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Missiology" title="Missiology">Missiology</a></div> <p>Missiology is the interdisciplinary study of Christian mission history and methodology, emerging as an academic discipline in the 19th century. It examines the missionary work of various Christian denominations, focusing on themes like <a href="/wiki/Inculturation" title="Inculturation">inculturation</a>, contextualization, and <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Interfaith relations">interfaith relations</a>, while engaging with social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-OHMS_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OHMS-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable figures include <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Duff_(missionary)" title="Alexander Duff (missionary)">Alexander Duff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Warneck" title="Gustav Warneck">Gustav Warneck</a>, who were pivotal in establishing missiology as a formal field of study. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sacrament">Sacrament</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Sacrament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacrament</a></div> <p>A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's <i>Concise Dictionary of Religion</i>, is what <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholics</a> believe to be "a <a href="/wiki/Rite_(Christianity)" title="Rite (Christianity)">rite</a> in which <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> is uniquely active". <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> defined a <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> sacrament as "a visible sign of an invisible reality". The Anglican <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a> speaks of them as "an outward and visible sign of an inward and invisible <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">Grace</a>." Examples of sacraments would be <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore a sacrament is a <a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">religious symbol</a> or often a rite which conveys <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">divine grace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blessing" title="Blessing">blessing</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Sanctity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctity">sanctity</a> upon the believer who participates in it, or a tangible symbol which represents an intangible reality. As defined above, an example would be <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a> in water, representing (and conveying) the <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">grace</a> of the gift of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness_of_Sins" class="mw-redirect" title="Forgiveness of Sins">Forgiveness of Sins</a>, and membership into the <a href="/wiki/Christian_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian church">Church</a>. Anointing with <a href="/wiki/Holy_anointing_oil" title="Holy anointing oil">holy anointing oil</a> is another example which is often synonymous with receiving the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> and salvation. Another way of looking at Sacraments is that they are an external and physical sign of the conferral of <a href="/wiki/Sanctifying_Grace" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctifying Grace">Sanctifying Grace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the Christian faith, views concerning which rites are sacramental, that is conferring <a href="/wiki/Sanctifying_grace" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctifying grace">sanctifying grace</a>, and what it means for an external act to be sacramental vary widely. Other religious traditions also have what might be called "sacraments" in a sense, though not necessarily according to the Christian meaning of the term. </p> <dl><dt>General definitions and terms</dt></dl> <p>In the majority of Western Christianity, the generally accepted definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign that conveys spiritual <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">grace</a> through Christ. Christian <a href="/wiki/Church_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Church body">churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">denominations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">sects</a> are divided regarding the number and operation of the sacraments. Sacraments are generally held to have been instituted by <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>, although in some cases this point is debated. They are usually administered by the <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a> to a recipient or recipients, and are generally understood to involve visible and invisible components. The invisible component (manifested inwardly) is understood to be brought about by the action of the Holy Spirit, <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>'s grace working in the sacrament's participants, while the visible (or outward) component entails the use of such things as water, oil, and bread and wine that is blessed or <a href="/wiki/Consecration" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecration">consecrated</a>; the laying-on-of-hands; or a particularly significant covenant that is marked by a public benediction (such as with marriage or absolution of sin in the reconciliation of a penitent). </p><p>As defined by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, recognised by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodox">Oriental Orthodox</a>, (though these two do not categorically define the number), and <a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholic_Churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Catholic Churches">Independent Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic Church</a>. </p><p>The Orthodox Churches (Eastern and Oriental) typically do not limit the number of sacraments, viewing all encounters with reality in life as sacramental in some sense, and their acknowledgement of the number of sacraments at seven as an innovation of convenience not found in the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>. It came into use, although infrequently, later on from later encounters with the West and its Sacramental Theology.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other denominations and traditions, both in eastern and western Christianity may affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, these include many of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> denominations and some of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Believers" title="Old Believers">Old Believers</a> in the Orthodox communion, some of whom reject all sacraments except Baptism. </p><p>Since some post-Reformation denominations do not regard clergy as having a classically <a href="/wiki/Sacerdotalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacerdotalism">sacerdotal</a> or priestly function, they avoid the term "sacrament," preferring the terms "sacerdotal function," "ordinance," or "tradition." This belief invests the efficacy of the <i>ordinance</i> in the obedience and participation of the believer and the witness of the presiding minister and the congregation. This view stems from a highly developed concept of the <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">priesthood of all believers</a>. In this sense, the believer himself or herself performs the sacerdotal role <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eucharist">Eucharist</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Eucharist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transsubstantiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transsubstantiation">Transsubstantiation</a> (Roman Catholicism)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_Eucharistic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican Eucharistic theology">Anglican Eucharistic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacramental Union">Sacramental Union</a> (Lutheran)</li></ul> <p>Eucharist, also called Communion, or the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacrament</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinance (Christian)">ordinance</a>, generally considered to be a re-enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Last_Supper" title="Last Supper">Last Supper</a>, the final meal that Jesus <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> shared with his disciples before his arrest and eventual <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">crucifixion</a>. The consecration of bread and a cup within the <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">rite</a> recalls the moment at the Last Supper when <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and wine, saying, "This is my <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-purgatory-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are different interpretations of the significance of the Eucharist, but "there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated."<sup id="cite_ref-EB-Eucharist_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-Eucharist-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the consecrated <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a> (leavened or unleavened) and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> (or, in some <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> denominations, unfermented <a href="/wiki/Grape_juice" title="Grape juice">grape juice</a>) used in the rite,<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, in this sense, communicants may speak of "receiving the Eucharist", as well as "celebrating the Eucharist". </p><p><i>Eucharist</i> is from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> εὐχαριστία (<i>eucharistia</i>), meaning thanksgiving. The verb εὐχαριστῶ, the usual word for "to thank" in the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, is found in the major texts concerning the Lord's Supper, including the earliest: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had <i>given thanks</i>, he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esv.org/1+Corinthians+11:23">1 Corinthians 11:23–24</a>)</p></blockquote> <p><b>The Lord's Supper</b> (Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον) derives from 1 Corinthians 11:20–21. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk. </p> </blockquote> <p><b>Communion</b> is a translation; other translations are "participation", "sharing", "fellowship"<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the Greek κοινωνία (<i>koinōnía</i>) in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2010:16&version=nrsv">1 Corinthians 10:16</a>. The <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a> has <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the <i>communion</i> of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the <i>communion</i> of the body of Christ?<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Eucharist" title="Origin of the Eucharist">Origin of the Eucharist</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg/170px-Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg/255px-Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg/340px-Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="2026" /></a><figcaption><i>Christ with the Eucharist</i> by <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Juan_Masip" title="Vicente Juan Masip">Vicente Juan Masip</a>, 16th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Last_Supper" title="Last Supper">Last Supper</a> appears in all three <a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptic Gospels</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gospel_according_to_Matthew" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospel according to Matthew">Matthew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gospel_according_to_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospel according to Mark">Mark</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gospel_according_to_Luke" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospel according to Luke">Luke</a>; and in the <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="First Epistle to the Corinthians">First Epistle to the Corinthians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-purgatory-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the last-named of these also indicates something of how early Christians celebrated what <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> called the Lord's Supper. As well as the Eucharistic dialogue in <a href="/wiki/Gospel_according_to_John" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospel according to John">John</a> chapter 6. </p><p>In his <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="First Epistle to the Corinthians">First Epistle to the Corinthians</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 54</span>–55), <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus's <a href="/wiki/Last_Supper" title="Last Supper">Last Supper</a>: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.' In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, 'This cup is the <a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">new covenant</a> in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me'."<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The synoptic gospels, first Mark,<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then Matthew<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Luke,<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper. References to Jesus's body and blood foreshadow his crucifixion, and he identifies them as a new covenant.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the gospel of John, the account of the Last Supper has no mention of Jesus taking bread and wine and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead it recounts his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him and each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_234-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expression <i>The Lord's Supper</i>, derived from <a href="/wiki/St._Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Paul">St. Paul</a>'s usage in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2011:17–34&version=nrsv">1 Corinthians 11:17–34</a>, may have originally referred to the <a href="/wiki/Agape_feast" title="Agape feast">Agape feast</a>, the shared <a href="/wiki/Communal_meal" title="Communal meal">communal meal</a> with which the Eucharist was originally associated.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Agape feast is mentioned in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:Jude%201:12">Jude 12</a>. But <i>The Lord's Supper</i> is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Didache" title="Didache">Didache</a> (Greek: teaching) is an early Church order, including, among other features, instructions for <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a> and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the early 2nd century,<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14. </p><p>Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers and a direct disciple of the <a href="/wiki/Apostle_John" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostle John">Apostle John</a>, mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ",<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Justin Martyr speaks of it as more than a meal: "the food over which the prayer of thanksgiving, the word received from Christ, has been said ... is the flesh and blood of this Jesus who became flesh ... and the deacons carry some to those who are absent."<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Eucharistic theology</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharistic theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theologies_contrasted" class="mw-redirect" title="Eucharistic theologies contrasted">Eucharistic theologies contrasted</a></div> <p>Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacrament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> prefer to call it an <i><a href="/wiki/Ordinance_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinance (Christian)">ordinance</a></i>, viewing it not as a specific channel of <a href="/wiki/Grace_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (Christianity)">divine grace</a> but as an expression of faith and of obedience to <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>. </p><p>Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> teach that the consecrated elements truly become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">Transubstantiation</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> explanation given by Roman Catholics as to how this transformation occurs. <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutherans</a> believe that the body and blood of Jesus are present "in, with and under" the forms of bread and wine, a concept known as the <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">sacramental union</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed church">Reformed</a> churches, following the teachings of <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, believe in a spiritual (or "pneumatic") <a href="/wiki/Real_presence" class="mw-redirect" title="Real presence">real presence</a> of Christ by the power of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> and received by faith. <a href="/wiki/Anglicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicans">Anglicans</a> adhere to <a href="/wiki/Anglican_eucharistic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican eucharistic theology">a range of views</a> although the Anglican church officially teaches the real presence. Some Christians reject the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a <a href="/wiki/Memorialism" title="Memorialism">memorial</a> of the death of Christ. </p><p>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080709031256/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html#c10499"><i>Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry</i> document</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a>, attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his <a href="/wiki/Real_presence" class="mw-redirect" title="Real presence">real presence</a>", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baptism">Baptism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Baptism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">Infant baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Believer%27s_baptism" title="Believer's baptism">Believer's baptism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eschatology">Eschatology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Eschatology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christian_theology" title="Special:EditPage/Christian theology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg/220px-Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg/330px-Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg/440px-Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2353" data-file-height="1246" /></a><figcaption>Detail from the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last Judgement">Last Judgement</a> by <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian eschatology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a> (derived from the Greek roots ἔσχατος "last" and λογία "discourse," "study") is the study of the end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world. Broadly speaking, it is the study of the destiny of man as revealed in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. </p><p>Eschatology is concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> and the personal <a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgment</a> which follows the death of the individual, and which is followed by the destination of <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">heaven</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">hell</a>. (In Catholic theology, heaven is sometimes preceded by <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">purgatory</a>.) Eschatology also concerns itself with events which are said to happen at the end of this age: the <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">return of Jesus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Resurrection of the dead">resurrection of the dead</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tribulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribulation">Tribulation</a>, and following these things, the Millennium, or thousand years of peace, which has been interpreted both literally and symbolically. Finally, eschatology concerns itself with the <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">end of the world</a> and its associated events: the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgment</a>; the banishment of Death, Hades, and Satan and his followers to the Lake of Fire; and the creation of a new heaven and earth. <a href="/wiki/Millennarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennarianism">Millenarianists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Seventh Day Adventists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>, and other recently founded sects have been influential in the modern development of these doctrines, though their roots are biblical. </p><p>Eschatology is an ancient branch of study in Christian theology, with study of the "last things" and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming_of_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Coming of Christ">Second Coming of Christ</a> first touched on by <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 35</span>–107 AD), then given more consideration by the Christian apologist in Rome, <a href="/wiki/St_Justin_Martyr" class="mw-redirect" title="St Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100</span>–165).<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of the influential theologian of Roman North Africa, <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 160</span>–225), and was given fuller reflection and speculation soon after in the East by the master theologian, <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 185</span>–254).<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, and other 16th-century reformers wrote long tracts about the End Times, but interest in eschatology dwindled after the Reformation until the late 19th century, when it became popular in the Reformed, Pentecostal, and Evangelical sects. It was increasingly recognized as a formal division of theological study during the 20th century. </p><p>The second coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology. Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until Christ's return. Others believe that suffering will gradually be eliminated prior to his coming, and that the elimination of injustice is our part in preparing for that event. Needless to say, there are a variety of viewpoints concerning the order and significance of eschatological events. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approaches_to_interpretation">Approaches to interpretation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Approaches to interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Christian_theology" title="Special:EditPage/Christian theology">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterist</a></i> approach (from the Latin <i>praeteritus</i> "gone by") seeks parallels between <i>Revelation</i> and the events of the 1st century, such as <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a>'s attempt to <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents" title="Massacre of the Innocents">kill the infant Christ</a>, the struggle of Christianity to survive the persecutions of Judaism and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(AD_70)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)">fall of Jerusalem</a> in 70 AD, the <a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_Desolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Abomination of Desolation">desecration of the temple</a> in the same year, and the growth of Christianity from a sect within Judaism to an independent religion.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christian_eschatology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicism (Christian eschatology)">Historicist</a></i> method takes a broader historical approach and seeks parallels between <i>Revelation</i> and the major people and events of history, especially those which have had a direct effect on <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the Church.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christian_eschatology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Futurism (Christian eschatology)">Futurist</a></i> method approaches <i>Revelation</i> as chiefly referring to events that have not yet come to pass but will take place at the end of this age and at the end of the world. The main focus is the return of Christ.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)">Idealist</a></i> model, also known as <i>Spiritualist</i> or <i>Symbolic</i> model, approaches the images of <i>Revelation</i> as symbols representing larger themes and concepts, rather than actual people and events. It sees in Revelation an allegorical representation of the ongoing struggle of the forces of light and darkness, and the ultimate <a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_good_over_evil" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumph of good over evil">triumph of good over evil</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/31px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/47px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/62px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_law_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical law in Christianity">Biblical law in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_%E2%80%93_Roman_Catholic_theological_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox – Roman Catholic theological differences">Eastern Orthodox – Roman Catholic theological differences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christian_theologians" title="Lists of Christian theologians">Lists of Christian theologians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_theology" title="New Testament theology">New Testament theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament_theology" title="Old Testament theology">Old Testament theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_theology" title="Outline of theology">Outline of theology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEntwistle2015" class="citation book cs1">Entwistle, David N. (30 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0U8-CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"><i>Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity</i></a>. Cascade Books. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498223485" title="Special:BookSources/9781498223485"><bdi>9781498223485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Integrative+Approaches+to+Psychology+and+Christianity&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Cascade+Books&rft.date=2015-06-30&rft.isbn=9781498223485&rft.aulast=Entwistle&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0U8-CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, <i>Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology</i> (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., David Burrell, <i>Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions</i> (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example John Shelby Spong, <i>Why Christianity Must Change or Die</i> (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al. (eds), <i>Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity</i> (London: Continuum, 2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, see Timothy Gorringe, <i>Crime</i>, Changing Society and the Churches Series (London: SPCK, 2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Louth-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Louth_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louth, Andrew. The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition: From Plato to Denys. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karen_Armstrong" title="Karen Armstrong">Armstrong, Karen</a> (1993). <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_God" title="A History of God">A History of God</a></i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0345384560" title="Special:BookSources/978-0345384560"><bdi>978-0345384560</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+God&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0345384560&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenson1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jenson" title="Robert Jenson">Jenson, Robert W.</a> (1997). "1: What Systematic Theology Is About". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=71L6nWIcpo4C"><i>Systematic Theology</i></a>. Vol. 1: The Triune God (revised ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2001). p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195145984" title="Special:BookSources/9780195145984"><bdi>9780195145984</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2019</span>. <q>Systematic theology is so called because it takes up questions posed not only by current urgency but also by perceived inherent connections of the faith. Thus systematic theology may raise problems that have not yet emerged in the church's life, and maintain discussions whose immediate ecclesial-pastoral challenge is in abeyance. [...] 'Systematic' theology is [...] concerned with the truth of the gospel, whether dogmatically defined or not.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+What+Systematic+Theology+Is+About&rft.btitle=Systematic+Theology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=22&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780195145984&rft.aulast=Jenson&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D71L6nWIcpo4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr2012" class="citation book cs1">Dr, STEVE ESOMBA (6 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gaDFBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA148"><i>THE BOOK OF LIFE, KNOWLEDGE AND CONFIDENCE</i></a>. Lulu.com. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4717-3463-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4717-3463-2"><bdi>978-1-4717-3463-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THE+BOOK+OF+LIFE%2C+KNOWLEDGE+AND+CONFIDENCE&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2012-06-06&rft.isbn=978-1-4717-3463-2&rft.aulast=Dr&rft.aufirst=STEVE+ESOMBA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgaDFBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas/">"Thomas Aquinas (1224/6—1274)"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thomas+Aquinas+%281224%2F6%E2%80%941274%29&rft.pub=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fthomas-aquinas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Peter+1:20-21">2 Pet 1:20–21</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210411011340/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Peter+1:20-21">Archived</a> 11 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dodd_p25-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dodd_p25_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodd1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._H._Dodd" title="C. H. Dodd">Dodd, Charles Harold</a> (1978). <i>The Authority of the Bible</i>. London: Collins. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-625195-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-625195-1"><bdi>0-00-625195-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authority+of+the+Bible&rft.place=London&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-00-625195-1&rft.aulast=Dodd&rft.aufirst=Charles+Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Douay%E2%80%93Rheims_Bible" title="Douay–Rheims Bible">Douay–Rheims Bible</a>, relying on the Vulgate, has "All scripture, inspired of God, is profitable to teach ...". See the comment in the <a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem_Bible" title="New Jerusalem Bible">New Jerusalem Bible</a> study edition - footnote 'e', page 1967, Darton Longman Todd, 1985. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-232-52077-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-232-52077-1">0-232-52077-1</a>, but with the caution "less probably".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_B._Wallace1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_B._Wallace" title="Daniel B. Wallace">Daniel B. Wallace</a> (1996). <i>Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament</i>. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. pp. 313–314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-310-21895-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-310-21895-0"><bdi>0-310-21895-0</bdi></a>. <q>Many scholars feel that the translation should be: 'Every inspired scripture is also profitable.' This is probably not the best translation, however, for the following reasons: (1) Contextually [...] (2) Grammatically [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Grammar+Beyond+the+Basics%3A+An+Exegetical+Syntax+of+the+New+Testament&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=313-314&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-310-21895-0&rft.au=Daniel+B.+Wallace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_inspire" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=inspire">"inspire"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=inspire&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dinspire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inerrancy-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inerrancy_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-inerrancy_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeisler_&_Nix1986" class="citation book cs1">Geisler & Nix (1986). <i>A General Introduction to the Bible</i>. <a href="/wiki/Moody_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Moody Press">Moody Press</a>, Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8024-2916-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8024-2916-5"><bdi>0-8024-2916-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+General+Introduction+to+the+Bible&rft.pub=Moody+Press%2C+Chicago&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-8024-2916-5&rft.au=Geisler+%26+Nix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-infallible-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-infallible_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman1975" class="citation journal cs1">Coleman (1975). "Biblical Inerrancy: Are We Going Anywhere?". <i>Theology Today</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 295–303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F004057367503100404">10.1177/004057367503100404</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170389190">170389190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theology+Today&rft.atitle=Biblical+Inerrancy%3A+Are+We+Going+Anywhere%3F&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=295-303&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F004057367503100404&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170389190%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Coleman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Catechism of the Catholic Church, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#II"><i>Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture</i> (§105–108)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100909213651/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#II">Archived</a> 9 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Second_Helvetic_Confession" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Helvetic Confession">Second Helvetic Confession</a> (1566), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060203091510/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c01.htm"><i>Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God</i></a> - "We believe and confess the canonical Scriptures of the holy prophets and apostles of both Testaments to be the true Word of God, and to have sufficient authority of themselves, not of men. [...] And in this Holy Scripture, the universal Church of Christ has the most complete exposition of all that pertains to a saving faith, and also to the framing of a life acceptable to God [...]."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Statement_on_Biblical_Inerrancy" title="Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy">Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy</a> (1978), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.dts.edu/Pages/TL/Special/ICBI_1.pdf">Online text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220117191615/https://library.dts.edu/Pages/TL/Special/ICBI_1.pdf">Archived</a> 17 January 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "Article XI <br /> We affirm that Scripture, having been given by divine inspiration, is infallible, so that, far from misleading us, it is true and reliable in all the matters it addresses."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Catechism of the Catholic Church: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100609220852/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm">"Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sacred Scripture"</a>. Archived from the original on 9 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catechism+of+the+Catholic+Church+-+Sacred+Scripture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Farchive%2Fcatechism%2Fp1s1c2a3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span> - "107 The inspired books teach the truth. 'Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.'"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GngeAQAAMAAJ">"Bible Infallibility - 'Evangelical' Defenders of the Faith"</a>. <i>The Westminster Review</i>. <b>75</b>. Leonard Scott Publication: 49. January 1861<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2020</span>. <q>[...] the doctrine of the infallibility of the Bible, a doctrine which, according to Mr. Ayre and his school, the apostles held and Christ sanctioned; which from the earliest times the Church has adopted, and which the plenary as well as the verbal inspirationists still maintain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Westminster+Review&rft.atitle=Bible+Infallibility+-+%27Evangelical%27+Defenders+of+the+Faith&rft.volume=75&rft.pages=49&rft.date=1861-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGngeAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathison2001" class="citation book cs1">Mathison, Keith A. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Shape_of_Sola_Scriptura/w_PHAGr2TfgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=definition+of+sola+scriptura&printsec=frontcover"><i>The Shape of Sola Scriptura</i></a>. Canon Press & Book Service. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885767-74-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885767-74-5"><bdi>978-1-885767-74-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shape+of+Sola+Scriptura&rft.pub=Canon+Press+%26amp%3B+Book+Service&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-885767-74-5&rft.aulast=Mathison&rft.aufirst=Keith+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.uk%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FThe_Shape_of_Sola_Scriptura%2Fw_PHAGr2TfgC%3Fhl%3Den%26gbpv%3D1%26dq%3Ddefinition%2Bof%2Bsola%2Bscriptura%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeade2021" class="citation web cs1">Meade, John D. (7 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://textandcanon.org/why-the-catholic-bible-has-more-books-than-the-protestant-bible/#:~:text=The%20Differences,-Catholics%20and%20Protestants&text=In%20short,%20Catholics%20have%2046,additions%20to%20Daniel%20and%20Esther.">"Why Are Protestant and Catholic Bibles Different? by John Meade"</a>. <i>Text & Canon Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Text+%26+Canon+Institute&rft.atitle=Why+Are+Protestant+and+Catholic+Bibles+Different%3F+by+John+Meade&rft.date=2021-11-07&rft.aulast=Meade&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftextandcanon.org%2Fwhy-the-catholic-bible-has-more-books-than-the-protestant-bible%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520Differences%2C-Catholics%2520and%2520Protestants%26text%3DIn%2520short%2C%2520Catholics%2520have%252046%2Cadditions%2520to%2520Daniel%2520and%2520Esther.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190118034449/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm">Archived</a> 18 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stagg-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stagg_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stagg_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stagg, Frank. <i>New Testament Theology</i>, Nashville: Broadman, 1962.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Herman_Bavinck" title="Herman Bavinck">Herman Bavinck</a>, <i>The Doctrine of God</i>. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Shorter_Catechism" title="Westminster Shorter Catechism">Westminster Shorter Catechism</a>'s definition of God is merely an enumeration of his attributes: "God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and truth."<a href="/wiki/Westminster_Shorter_Catechism" title="Westminster Shorter Catechism">Westminster Shorter Catechism</a>, Question and Answer 4. The <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Larger_Catechism" title="Westminster Larger Catechism">Westminster Larger Catechism</a> adds certain attributes to this description, such as "all-sufficient", "incomprehensible", "every where present" and "knowing all things". <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Larger_Catechism" title="Westminster Larger Catechism">Westminster Larger Catechism</a>, Question and Answer 7. This answer has been criticised, however, as having "nothing specifically Christian about it."<a href="/wiki/James_B._Jordan" title="James B. Jordan">James B. Jordan</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-82-what-is-god/">What is God?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222000602/http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-82-what-is-god/">Archived</a> 22 December 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>," <i>Biblical Horizons Newsletter</i>, No. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/D._A._Carson" title="D. A. Carson">D. A. Carson</a>, <i>The Gagging of God</i> (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Bosch" title="David Bosch">David J. Bosch</a>, <i>Transforming Mission</i> (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), 390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Providence.aspx#1O101-Providence">Providence</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110417135306/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Providence.aspx#1O101-Providence">Archived</a> 17 April 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in <i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGresham1998" class="citation book cs1">Gresham, Machen, J. (1998). <i>God Transcendent</i>. Banner of Truth publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85151-355-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85151-355-7"><bdi>0-85151-355-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+Transcendent&rft.pub=Banner+of+Truth+publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-85151-355-7&rft.aulast=Gresham&rft.aufirst=Machen%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UCP-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UCP_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UCP_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Critical Terms for Religious Studies.</i> Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998. <i>Credo Reference</i>. 27 July 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-purgatory-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-purgatory_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061946/purgatory">Encyclopædia Britannica: Purgatory in world religions:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080820181124/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061946/purgatory">Archived</a> 20 August 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "The idea of purification or temporary punishment after death has ancient roots and is well-attested in early Christian literature. The conception of purgatory as a geographically situated place is largely the achievement of medieval Christian piety and imagination."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See discussion in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Person"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Person">"Person" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Person&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grudem, Wayne A. 1994. <i>Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine.</i> Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Grand Rapids, MI: <a href="/wiki/Zondervan" title="Zondervan">Zondervan</a>. p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olsen-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Olsen_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olsen_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson1999" class="citation book cs1">Olson, Roger E. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian00olso"><i>The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform</i></a>. InterVarsity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-1505-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-1505-0"><bdi>978-0-8308-1505-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Christian+Theology%3A+Twenty+Centuries+of+Tradition+%26+Reform.&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofchristian00olso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.ix.ii.html">"Tertullian, Against Praxeas, chapter II"</a>. Ccel.org. 1 June 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tertullian%2C+Against+Praxeas%2C+chapter+II&rft.pub=Ccel.org&rft.date=2005-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fanf03.v.ix.ii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCC-Doctrine-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-Doctrine_40-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Trinity, doctrine of the". <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. Oxford University Press. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3"><bdi>978-0-19-280290-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trinity%2C+doctrine+of+the&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280290-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%204:24&version=nrsv">John 4:24</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.N.D. Kelly, <i>Early Christian Doctrines</i> pp. 87–90; T. Desmond Alexander, <i>New Dictionary of Biblical Theology</i> pp. 514–515; Alister E. McGrath, <i>Historical Theology</i> p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20John%205:7&version=nrsv">1 Jn 5:7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stagg-p38-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stagg-p38_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStagg1962" class="citation book cs1">Stagg, Frank (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtestamenttheo0000stag/page/38"><i>New Testament Theology</i></a>. Broadman Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtestamenttheo0000stag/page/38">38 ff</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8054-1613-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8054-1613-8"><bdi>978-0-8054-1613-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Testament+Theology&rft.pages=38+ff&rft.pub=Broadman+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8054-1613-8&rft.aulast=Stagg&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewtestamenttheo0000stag%2Fpage%2F38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Hebrews%201:2–5&version=nrsv">Heb 1:2–5</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%204:1–7&version=nrsv">Gal 4:1–7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2011:27&version=nrsv">Mt. 11:27</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ephesians%203:15&version=nrsv">Eph 3:15</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"God sent forth His Son... that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ."; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%204:4–7&version=nrsv">Galatians 4:4–7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Hebrews%201:2–5&version=nrsv">Heb. 1:2–5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%201:1&version=nrsv">John 1:1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grudem-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grudem_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrudem1994" class="citation book cs1">Grudem, Wayne A. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0"><i>Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine</i></a>. Zondervan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-310-28670-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-310-28670-0"><bdi>0-310-28670-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systematic+Theology%3A+An+Introduction+to+Biblical+Doctrine&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-310-28670-0&rft.aulast=Grudem&rft.aufirst=Wayne+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsystematictheolo00grud_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%201:18–25&version=nrsv">Matthew 1:18–25</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke%201:35&version=nrsv">Luke 1:35</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke%203:23&version=nrsv">Luke 3:23</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2016:16&version=nrsv">Matt 16:16</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Christ">"Etymology Online: <i>Christ</i>"</a>. Etymonline.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymology+Online%3A+Christ&rft.pub=Etymonline.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3DChrist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%201:3–4&version=nrsv">Rom 1:3–4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%204:4&version=nrsv">Galatians 4:4</a>;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%201:1–14&version=nrsv">Jn 1:1–14</a>;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%205:18–25&version=nrsv">5:18–25</a>;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2010:30–38&version=nrsv">10:30–38</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2017:3&version=nrsv">Jn 17:3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A brief account of the early Church councils and the Church fathers shows that they adopted the doctrine of the eternal subordination of the Son, and that this doctrine continues in the Church as orthodoxy to this day." Stephen D. Kovach and Peter R. Schemm Jr., "A Defense of the Doctrine of the Eternal Subordination of the Son", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Evangelical_Theological_Society" title="Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society">Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society</a></i> <b>42</b> (1999): 461–476.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Mark%201:10&version=nrsv">Mark 1:10</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce_Milne1999" class="citation book cs1">Bruce Milne (1999). <i>Know the Truth</i>. Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 181–182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8308-1793-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8308-1793-X"><bdi>0-8308-1793-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Know+the+Truth&rft.pages=181-182&rft.pub=Inter-Varsity+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8308-1793-X&rft.au=Bruce+Milne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKim, Donald K. 1996. <i>Westminster dictionary of theological terms</i>. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150622164244/http://www3.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/gc4_54.htm">"Jacques Maritain Center: GC 4.54"</a>. .nd.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/gc4_54.htm">the original</a> on 22 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jacques+Maritain+Center%3A+GC+4.54&rft.pub=.nd.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.nd.edu%2FDepartments%2FMaritain%2Fetext%2Fgc4_54.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/Liturgy/zlitur109.htm">"Advent Prayer and the Incarnation"</a>. Ewtn.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Advent+Prayer+and+the+Incarnation&rft.pub=Ewtn.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ewtn.com%2Flibrary%2FLiturgy%2Fzlitur109.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.toc.html">The Seven Ecumenical Councils</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190429154903/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.toc.html">Archived</a> 29 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, from the <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, vols. 2–14 (CCEL.org) Contains detailed statements from each of these councils. The First Council of Nicaea, Council of Ephesus and Council of Chalcedon are the "First," "Third" and "Fourth" Ecumenical Councils, respectively.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Lembke, lecture in the course "Meetings with the World's Religions", Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, Lund University, Spring Term 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory of Nyssa, <i>Antirrheticus adversus Apollinarem</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Theodore" in <i>The Westminster Dictionary of Christian History</i>, ed. J. Brauer. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Enchiridion_symbolorum,_definitionum_et_declarationum_de_rebus_fidei_et_morum" title="Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum">Denzinger</a>, ed. Bannwart, 148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080619122112/http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php">"The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php">the original</a> on 19 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Oriental+Orthodox+Rejection+of+Chalcedon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishorthodox.org%2F113e.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-macleod220-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-macleod220_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-macleod220_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Macleod_(theologian)" title="Donald Macleod (theologian)">Donald Macleod</a>, <i>The Person of Christ</i> (<a href="/wiki/InterVarsity_Press" title="InterVarsity Press">InterVarsity Press</a>, 1998), 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NRSV; Matthew 4.1–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-macleod226-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-macleod226_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-macleod226_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Macleod 1998, p. 226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-macleod227-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-macleod227_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-macleod227_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Macleod 1998, p. 227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barclay 1967, p. 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barth 1956, p. 207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacLeod 1998, pp. 37–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kesich2007-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kesich2007_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKesich2007" class="citation book cs1">Kesich, Veselin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vc0wBCU70NwC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=RA1-PA154"><i>Formation and struggles : the church, A.D. 33–450</i></a>. Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-319-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-319-9"><bdi>978-0-88141-319-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formation+and+struggles+%3A+the+church%2C+A.D.+33%E2%80%93450&rft.place=Crestwood%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=St.+Vladimir%27s+Seminary+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-88141-319-9&rft.aulast=Kesich&rft.aufirst=Veselin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvc0wBCU70NwC%26q%3DJustin%2BMartyr%2Bchristology%26pg%3DRA1-PA154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/athenagoras-plea.html">"Athenagoras of Athens: A Plea for the Christians"</a>. Earlychristianwritings.com. 2 February 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Athenagoras+of+Athens%3A+A+Plea+for+the+Christians&rft.pub=Earlychristianwritings.com&rft.date=2006-02-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlychristianwritings.com%2Ftext%2Fathenagoras-plea.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greene-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Greene_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2003" class="citation book cs1">Greene, Colin J. D. (2003). <i>Christology in Cultural Perspective: Marking Out the Horizons</i>. London: Paternoster Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1842270158" title="Special:BookSources/978-1842270158"><bdi>978-1842270158</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christology+in+Cultural+Perspective%3A+Marking+Out+the+Horizons&rft.place=London&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Paternoster+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1842270158&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Colin+J.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene2003">Greene</a>, pp. 31–43, 324</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene2003">Greene</a>, pp. 43–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene2003">Greene</a>, pp. 51–71, 325</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Reginald_H._Fuller#The_Foundations_of_New_Testament_Christology" title="Reginald H. Fuller">Fuller 1965, p. 15</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Calvin, Calvins Calvinism BOOK II Chapter 15 Centers for Reformed Theology and Apologetics [resource online] (1996–2002, accessed 3 June 2006);available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm">http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612235524/http://reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm">Archived</a> 12 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Orton Wiley, Christian Theology Chapter 22 [resource online] (Nampa, Idaho: 1993–2005, accessed 3 June 2006); available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm">http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090518055901/http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness%5Ftradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm">Archived</a> 18 May 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Erickson103-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Erickson103_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillard_J._Erickson1992" class="citation book cs1">Millard J. Erickson (1992). <i>Introducing Christian Doctrine</i>. Baker Book House. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6"><bdi>0-8010-3215-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Christian+Doctrine.&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Baker+Book+House&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8010-3215-6&rft.au=Millard+J.+Erickson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hammond-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hammond_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hammond_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT_C_Hammond1968" class="citation book cs1">T C Hammond (1968). David F Wright (ed.). <i>In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine</i> (sixth ed.). <a href="/wiki/Inter-Varsity_Press" title="Inter-Varsity Press">Inter-Varsity Press</a>. pp. 54–56, 128–131.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Understanding+be+Men%3AA+Handbook+of+Christian+Doctrine.&rft.pages=54-56%2C+128-131&rft.edition=sixth&rft.pub=Inter-Varsity+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.au=T+C+Hammond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cathhs-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cathhs_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cathhs_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia:Holy Spirit"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia%3AHoly+Spirit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F07409a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Mark%203:28–30&version=nrsv">Mark 3:28–30</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2012:30–32&version=nrsv">Matthew 12:30–32</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke%2012:8–10&version=nrsv">Luke 12:8–10</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%203:16&version=nrsv">1 Cor 3:16</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2014:26&version=nrsv">Jn 14:26</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spurgeon, Charles H. "The Comforter", 1855. Online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm">http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100627022922/http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm">Archived</a> 27 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 29 April 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%2012:6–8&version=nrsv">Rom 12:6–8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%201:4–8&version=nrsv">Acts 1:4–8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Holy Spirit and His Gifts</i>. <a href="/wiki/J._Oswald_Sanders" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Oswald Sanders">J. Oswald Sanders</a>. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Erickson265-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Erickson265_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erickson265_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erickson265_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erickson265_97-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erickson265_97-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillard_J._Erickson1992" class="citation book cs1">Millard J. Erickson (1992). <i>Introducing Christian Doctrine</i>. Baker Book House. pp. 265–270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6"><bdi>0-8010-3215-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Christian+Doctrine.&rft.pages=265-270&rft.pub=Baker+Book+House&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8010-3215-6&rft.au=Millard+J.+Erickson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Though the term "<a href="/wiki/Born_again_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Born again (Christianity)">born again</a>" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090228172517/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm">Archived</a> 28 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT_C_Hammond1968" class="citation book cs1">T C Hammond (1968). David F Wright (ed.). <i>In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine</i> (sixth ed.). <a href="/wiki/Inter-Varsity_Press" title="Inter-Varsity Press">Inter-Varsity Press</a>. p. 134.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Understanding+be+Men%3AA+Handbook+of+Christian+Doctrine.&rft.pages=134&rft.edition=sixth&rft.pub=Inter-Varsity+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.au=T+C+Hammond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Erickson268-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Erickson268_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillard_J._Erickson1992" class="citation book cs1">Millard J. Erickson (1992). <i>Introducing Christian Doctrine</i>. Baker Book House. pp. 267–268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6"><bdi>0-8010-3215-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Christian+Doctrine.&rft.pages=267-268&rft.pub=Baker+Book+House&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8010-3215-6&rft.au=Millard+J.+Erickson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_Barth1949" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a> (1949). <i>Dogmatics in Outline</i>. New York Philosophical Library. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-334-02838-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-334-02838-8"><bdi>0-334-02838-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dogmatics+in+Outline&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=New+York+Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1949&rft.isbn=0-334-02838-8&rft.au=Karl+Barth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_F._Winward1981" class="citation book cs1">Stephen F. Winward (1981). <i>Fruit of the Spirit</i>. <a href="/wiki/Inter-Varsity_Press" title="Inter-Varsity Press">Inter-Varsity Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85110-430-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-85110-430-4"><bdi>0-85110-430-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fruit+of+the+Spirit&rft.pub=Inter-Varsity+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-85110-430-4&rft.au=Stephen+F.+Winward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Catechism of the Catholic Church</i>, Section 1832.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Sacramentis 3.8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EricksonWorks-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EricksonWorks_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EricksonWorks_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EricksonWorks_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillard_J._Erickson1992" class="citation book cs1">Millard J. Erickson (1992). <i>Introducing Christian Doctrine</i>. Baker Book House. pp. 265–275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8010-3215-6"><bdi>0-8010-3215-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Christian+Doctrine.&rft.pages=265-275&rft.pub=Baker+Book+House&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8010-3215-6&rft.au=Millard+J.+Erickson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20040723_communion-stewardship_en.html">Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140621050711/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20040723_communion-stewardship_en.html">Archived</a> 21 June 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>,(23 July 2004), International Theological Commission, La Civiltà Cattolica 2004, IV, 254–286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/para/291.htm">"CCC Search Result– Paragraph # 291"</a>. Scborromeo.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CCC+Search+Result%E2%80%93+Paragraph+%23+291&rft.pub=Scborromeo.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scborromeo.org%2Fccc%2Fpara%2F291.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Millard_Erickson" title="Millard Erickson">Millard Erickson</a>, <i>Christian Theology</i> 2nd edn, 537</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Hebrew–English Lexicon,</i> Brown, Driver & Briggs, Hendrickson Publishers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dictionary of Biblical Theology,</i> Father Xavier Leon Dufour, 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>New International Dictionary</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">New Dictionary of Biblical Theology</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A careful examination of the biblical material, particularly the words nefesh, neshama, and ruaḥ, which are often too broadly translated as "soul" and "spirit," indicates that these must not be understood as referring to the psychical side of a psychophysical pair. A man did not possess a nefesh but rather was a nefesh, as Gen. 2:7 says: "wayehi ha-adam le-nefesh ḥayya" (". . . and the man became a living being"). Man was, for most of the biblical writers, what has been called "a unit of vital power," not a dual creature separable into two distinct parts of unequal importance and value. While this understanding of the nature of man dominated biblical thought, in apocalyptic literature (2nd century BC–2nd century AD) the term nefesh began to be viewed as a separable psychical entity with existence apart from body.... The biblical view of man as an inseparable psychosomatic unit meant that death was understood to be his dissolution."—Britannica, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The early Hebrews apparently had a concept of the soul but did not separate it from the body, although later Jewish writers developed the idea of the soul further. Old Testament references to the soul are related to the concept of breath and establish no distinction between the ethereal soul and the corporeal body. Christian concepts of a body-soul dichotomy originated with the ancient Greeks andwere introduced into Christian theology at an early date by St. Gregory of Nyssa and by St. Augustine.—<i>Britannica,</i> 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bultmann, I:206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. K. Innes, "Sheol" in <i>New Bible Dictionary</i>, IVP 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreedmanMyersBeck2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C.; Beck, Astrid B. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC">"Cherubim"</a>. <i>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2400-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2400-4"><bdi>978-0-8028-2400-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cherubim&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4&rft.aulast=Freedman&rft.aufirst=David+Noel&rft.au=Myers%2C+Allen+C.&rft.au=Beck%2C+Astrid+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP9sYIRXZZ2MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1994" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Gustav (1994) [1967]. <i>A Dictionary of Fallen Angels, Including the Fallen Angels</i>. New York, NY: Macmillan, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907052-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-907052-9"><bdi>978-0-02-907052-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Fallen+Angels%2C+Including+the+Fallen+Angels&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Macmillan%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-02-907052-9&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Gustav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scripturetext.com/2_peter/1-19.htm">"ScriptureText.com"</a>. ScriptureText.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ScriptureText.com&rft.pub=ScriptureText.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscripturetext.com%2F2_peter%2F1-19.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=phosphorous">"Etymonline.com"</a>. Etymonline.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymonline.com&rft.pub=Etymonline.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dphosphorous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.online-literature.com/view.php/paradiselost/7?term=lucifer">"Online-Literature.com"</a>. Online-Literature.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online-Literature.com&rft.pub=Online-Literature.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.online-literature.com%2Fview.php%2Fparadiselost%2F7%3Fterm%3Dlucifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2021%3A1-4&version=NIV">"Bible Gateway passage: Revelation 21:1-4 - New International Version"</a>. <i>Bible Gateway</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Revelation+21%3A1-4+-+New+International+Version&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DRevelation%252021%253A1-4%26version%3DNIV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org/">"What do you think?"</a>. AllAboutJesusChrist.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+do+you+think%3F&rft.pub=AllAboutJesusChrist.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allaboutjesuschrist.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Book for Commemoration of the Living and the Dead</i>, trans. Father Lawrence (Holy Trinity Monastery, Jordanville NY), p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treated extensively in <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a>, <i>The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature</i> (1964).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See discussion at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510">http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110509060655/http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510">Archived</a> 9 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, where a.o. Hebrews 12:22–24 is quoted.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, with Justin Martyr. See: Philippe Bobichon, "Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr" in <i>Mélanges sur la question millénariste de l'Antiquité à nos jours</i>, Martin Dumont (dir.) [Bibliothèque d'étude des mondes chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, pp. 61-82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Methodism-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Methodism_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=4746355&content_id={94F6F768-0EA6-4C1B-B6B6-0C88EC04E8A2}&notoc=1">"What happens after a person dies?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_United_Methodist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="The United Methodist Church">The United Methodist Church</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2011</span>. <q>Purgatory is believed to be a place where the souls of the faithful dead endure a period of purification and cleansing, aided by the prayers of the living, prior to their entrance into heaven. Although John Wesley believed in an intermediate state between death and the final judgment, that idea is not formally affirmed in Methodist doctrine, which "reject the idea of purgatory but beyond that maintain silence on what lies between death and the last judgment." (Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials by Ted A. Campbell)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+happens+after+a+person+dies%3F&rft.pub=The+United+Methodist+Church&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.umc.org%2Fsite%2Fapps%2Fnlnet%2Fcontent3.aspx%3Fc%3DlwL4KnN1LtH%26b%3D4746355%26content_id%3D%7B94F6F768-0EA6-4C1B-B6B6-0C88EC04E8A2%7D%26notoc%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wesley-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wesley_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobin_Russell" class="citation web cs1">Robin Russell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722154244/http://www.umportal.org/article.asp?id=5101">"Heavenly minded: It's time to get our eschatology right, say scholars, authors"</a>. UM Portal. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umportal.org/article.asp?id=5101">the original</a> on 22 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2011</span>. <q>John Wesley believed in the intermediate state between death and the final judgment "where believers would share in the 'bosom of Abraham' or 'paradise,' even continuing to grow in holiness there," writes Ted Campbell, a professor at Perkins School of Theology, in his 1999 book Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials (Abingdon). That view has not been officially affirmed by the Church.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Heavenly+minded%3A+It%27s+time+to+get+our+eschatology+right%2C+say+scholars%2C+authors&rft.pub=UM+Portal&rft.au=Robin+Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.umportal.org%2Farticle.asp%3Fid%3D5101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Orthodox_Confession_of_Faith-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Orthodox_Confession_of_Faith_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esoptron.umd.edu/ugc/ocf1c.html">Orthodox Confession of Faith</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990421091223/http://esoptron.umd.edu/ugc/ocf1c.html">Archived</a> 21 April 1999 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, questions 64–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olivier Clément, L'Église orthodoxe. Presses Universitaires de France, 2006, Section 3, IV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for instance, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mormon.org/mormonorg/eng/basic-beliefs/heavenly-father-s-plan-of-salvation/life-after-death">LDS Life After Death</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090714104559/http://www.mormon.org/mormonorg/eng/basic-beliefs/heavenly-father-s-plan-of-salvation/life-after-death">Archived</a> 14 July 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6558-gehenna">"GEHENNA - JewishEncyclopedia.com"</a>. <i>jewishencyclopedia.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jewishencyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=GEHENNA+-+JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F6558-gehenna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chabad.org/search/keyword_cdo/kid/10797/jewish/Gehinnom.htm">"Browse by Subject"</a>. <i>www.chabad.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.chabad.org&rft.atitle=Browse+by+Subject&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Fsearch%2Fkeyword_cdo%2Fkid%2F10797%2Fjewish%2FGehinnom.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120804200948/http://www.ibs.org/bible/verse/?q=John3:18&niv=yes">"Biblical Reference: John 3:18"</a>. Ibs.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibs.org/bible/verse/?q=John3:18&niv=yes">the original</a> on 4 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biblical+Reference%3A+John+3%3A18&rft.pub=Ibs.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibs.org%2Fbible%2Fverse%2F%3Fq%3DJohn3%3A18%26niv%3Dyes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hell">"hell– Definitions from Dictionary.com"</a>. Dictionary.reference.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=hell%E2%80%93+Definitions+from+Dictionary.com&rft.pub=Dictionary.reference.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fhell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2020%3A7-10&version=NIV">"Bible Gateway passage: Revelation 20:7-10 - New International Version"</a>. <i>Bible Gateway</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Revelation+20%3A7-10+-+New+International+Version&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DRevelation%252020%253A7-10%26version%3DNIV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hell-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hell_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hell_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hell_140-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hell_140-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hell_140-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Hell." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>New Bible Dictionary</i> third edition, IVP 1996. Articles on "Hell", "Sheol".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Acute-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Acute_142-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acute_142-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acute_142-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvangelical_Alliance_Commission_on_Unity_and_Truth_among_Evangelicals2000" class="citation book cs1">Evangelical Alliance Commission on Unity and Truth among Evangelicals (2000). <i>The Nature of Hell</i>. Acute, Paternoster (London). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9532992-2-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-9532992-2-8"><bdi>0-9532992-2-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Hell&rft.pub=Acute%2C+Paternoster+%28London%29&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-9532992-2-8&rft.au=Evangelical+Alliance+Commission+on+Unity+and+Truth+among+Evangelicals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. S. Lewis, <i>The Great Divorce</i>, 1946</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee Strobel, <i>The Case for Faith</i>, 2000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillard_Erickson2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Millard_Erickson" title="Millard Erickson">Millard Erickson</a> (2001). <i>Introducing Christian Doctrine, 2nd ed</i>. Baker Academic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Christian+Doctrine%2C+2nd+ed&rft.pub=Baker+Academic&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Millard+Erickson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120222053151/http://www.eauk.org/theology/acute/loader.cfm?csModule=security%2Fgetfile&pageid=9164">"The Nature of Hell. Conclusions and Recommendations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Alliance" title="Evangelical Alliance">Evangelical Alliance</a>. 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eauk.org/theology/acute/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=9164">the original</a> on 22 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Hell.+Conclusions+and+Recommendations&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eauk.org%2Ftheology%2Facute%2Floader.cfm%3FcsModule%3Dsecurity%2Fgetfile%26pageid%3D9164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDBThell-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDBThell_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>New Dictionary of Biblical Theology</i>; IVP Leicester 2000, "Hell"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopædia Britannica: Theodicy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil">The Problem of Evil</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180906123231/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil/">Archived</a> 6 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/Michael_Tooley" title="Michael Tooley">Michael Tooley</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IepEvidential-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IepEvidential_150-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm">The Evidential Problem of Evil</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090410032149/http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm">Archived</a> 10 April 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Nick Trakakis</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonderich2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich, Ted</a> (2005). "theodicy". <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1"><bdi>0-19-926479-1</bdi></a>. <q><a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a>, for example, proposes a theodicy, while <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> formulates a defense. The idea of human free will often appears in both of these strategies, but in different ways.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=theodicy&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-926479-1&rft.aulast=Honderich&rft.aufirst=Ted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-swinburne05-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-swinburne05_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwinburne2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Swinburne, Richard</a> (2005). "evil, the problem of". In <a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Ted Honderich</a> (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1"><bdi>0-19-926479-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=evil%2C+the+problem+of&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-926479-1&rft.aulast=Swinburne&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, C. S., <i>The Problem of Pain</i> HarperCollins:New York, 1996 pp. 24–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William A. Dembski, The End of Christianity: Finding a Good God in an Evil World. (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+45%3A7&version=KJV">"Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 45:7 – King James Version"</a>. <i>Bible Gateway</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Gateway&rft.atitle=Bible+Gateway+passage%3A+Isaiah+45%3A7+%E2%80%93+King+James+Version&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DIsaiah%2B45%253A7%26version%3DKJV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehrman, Bart D., <i>God's Problem: How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most Important Question – Why We Suffer</i>. HarperOne, 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Herman_Bavinck" title="Herman Bavinck">Bavinck, Herman</a>. <i>Reformed Dogmatics</i> Vol. 3. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004) pp. 75–125 detail the historical development of Hamartiology, including Pelagius's position and the mediating positions)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul's Epistle to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+3%3A23&version=NIV">Romans, chapter 3 verse 23</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%203:16&version=nrsv">John 3:16</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term "<a href="/wiki/Ancestral_sin" title="Ancestral sin">ancestral sin</a>" is also used, as in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> προπατορικὴ ἁμαρτία (e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parembasis.gr/2003/03_10_16.htm">Πόλεμος και φτώχεια– η ορθόδοξη άποψη</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721082731/http://www.parembasis.gr/2003/03_10_16.htm">Archived</a> 21 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monipetraki.gr/sarakosti.html">Η νηστεία της Σαρακοστής</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617130930/http://www.monipetraki.gr/sarakosti.html">Archived</a> 17 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oodegr.com/oode/protestant/luther_antimonaxismos1.htm">Πώς στράφηκε ο Λούθηρος κατά του Μοναχισμού– του Γεωργίου Φλωρόφσκυ</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215084126/http://www.oodegr.com/oode/protestant/luther_antimonaxismos1.htm">Archived</a> 15 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) or προπατορικὸ ἁμάρτημα (e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apostoliki-diakonia.gr/GR_MAIN/catehism/theologia_zoi/themata.asp?contents=selides_katixisis/contents_TaIeraMistiria.asp&main=kat010&file=4.4.1.htm">Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα δογματικά– Ανδρέα Θεοδώρου, εκδ. Αποστολικής Διακονίας, 1997, σελ. 156–161</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200921182150/http://www.apostoliki-diakonia.gr/GR_MAIN/catehism/theologia_zoi/themata.asp?contents=selides_katixisis%2Fcontents_TaIeraMistiria.asp&main=kat010&file=4.4.1.htm">Archived</a> 21 September 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pelagia.org/htm/b26.e.i_despotikes_eortes.01.htm">Θεοτόκος και προπατορικό αμάρτημα</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100427075227/http://www.pelagia.org/htm/b26.e.i_despotikes_eortes.01.htm">Archived</a> 27 April 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCC-OS-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODCC-OS_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Original Sin". <i>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. Oxford University Press. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3"><bdi>978-0-19-280290-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Original+Sin&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280290-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodd2003" class="citation book cs1">Brodd, Jeffrey (2003). <i>World Religions</i>. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-725-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-725-5"><bdi>978-0-88489-725-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions&rft.place=Winona%2C+MN&rft.pub=Saint+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-725-5&rft.aulast=Brodd&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augustine wrote to <a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Eclanum" title="Julian of Eclanum">Julian of Eclanum</a>: <i>Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit</i>. (<i>Contra Julianum</i>, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus</i> ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non-est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non-continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis</i> (STh Iª-IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor</i>. (<i>De nuptiis et concupiscentia</i>, I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. <i>Contra Julianum</i>, VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; <i>Contra Secundinum Manichaeum</i>, 15; PL 42, 590.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Augustine wrote to <a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Eclanum" title="Julian of Eclanum">Julian of Eclanum</a>: <i>Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non-praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non-libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine– ut non-vos de illa nimium contristemus– non-qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente</i> (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: <i>Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus</i>, II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt1983" class="citation book cs1">Schmitt, É. (1983). <i>Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale</i>. Études Augustiniennes. Paris. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+mariage+chr%C3%A9tien+dans+l%27oeuvre+de+Saint+Augustin.+Une+th%C3%A9ologie+baptismale+de+la+vie+conjugale&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=%C3%89tudes+Augustiniennes&rft.pages=104&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=%C3%89.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gonzalez-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gonzalez_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJusto_L._Gonzalez1970–1975" class="citation book cs1">Justo L. Gonzalez (1970–1975). <i>A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation)</i>. Abingdon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christian+Thought%3A+Volume+2+%28From+Augustine+to+the+eve+of+the+Reformation%29&rft.pub=Abingdon+Press&rft.date=1970%2F1975&rft.au=Justo+L.+Gonzalez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForget1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Forget, Jacques (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08285a.htm">"Jansenius and Jansenism"</a>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jansenius+and+Jansenism&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Forget&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F08285a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned</i>—for sin indeed was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not counted where there is no law. Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sinning was not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who was to come.—<a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> 5:12–14, <a href="/wiki/English_Standard_Version" title="English Standard Version">ESV</a> "Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For <i>as by the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous</i>. Now the law came in to increase the trespass, but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that, as sin reigned in death, grace also might reign through righteousness leading to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord."—Rom. 5:18–21, ESV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i>, "The Thorough Declaration of the Formula of Concord," <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bookofconcord.org/fc-sd/originalsin.html">chapter II, sections 11 and 12</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516222600/http://bookofconcord.org/fc-sd/originalsin.html">Archived</a> 16 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; The <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Confession" title="Augsburg Confession">Augsburg Confession</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformed.org/documents/augsburg.html">Article 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612222415/http://reformed.org/documents/augsburg.html">Archived</a> 12 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arminius, James <i>The Writings of James Arminius</i> (three vols.), tr. <a href="/wiki/James_Nichols_(printer)" title="James Nichols (printer)">James Nichols</a> and William R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Canons_of_Dordrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Canons of Dordrecht">Canons of Dordrecht</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_dordt.html">"The Third and Fourth Main Points of Doctrine"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130729015115/http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_dordt.html">Archived</a> 29 July 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession_of_Faith" title="Westminster Confession of Faith">Westminster Confession of Faith</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_VI.html">chapter 6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613003712/http://reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_VI.html">Archived</a> 13 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Larger_Catechism" title="Westminster Larger Catechism">Westminster Larger Catechism</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformed.org/documents/wlc_w_proofs/WLC_001-050.html">Question 25</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613061952/http://reformed.org/documents/wlc_w_proofs/WLC_001-050.html">Archived</a> 13 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Catechism" title="Heidelberg Catechism">Heidelberg Catechism</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformed.org/documents/heidelberg.html">question 8</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200903084031/https://reformed.org/documents/heidelberg.html">Archived</a> 3 September 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession_of_Faith" title="Westminster Confession of Faith">Westminster Confession of Faith</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_IX.html">9.3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100613003851/http://reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_IX.html">Archived</a> 13 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRa_McLaughlin" class="citation journal cs1">Ra McLaughlin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/ra_mclaughlin/TH.McLaughlin.Total_Depravity.1.html">"Total Depravity, part 1"</a>. <i>Reformed Perspectives</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2008</span>. <q>[Any person] can do outwardly good works, but these works come from a heart that hates God, and therefore fail to meet God's righteous standards.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reformed+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Total+Depravity%2C+part+1&rft.au=Ra+McLaughlin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthirdmill.org%2Fnewfiles%2Fra_mclaughlin%2FTH.McLaughlin.Total_Depravity.1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Partee, <i>The Theology of John Calvin</i> (Westminster John Knox, 2008), 129. "By total depravity Calvin means totally susceptible to sin."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Calvin, <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Calvin, <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Calvin, <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-Compare-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WELS-Compare_180-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090927073128/http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=15094">"Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared"</a>. <i>WELS Topical Q&A</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod" title="Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod">Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=15094">the original</a> on 27 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2015</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Total Depravity – Lutherans and Calvinists agree." Yes this is correct. Both agree on the devastating nature of the fall and that man by nature has no power to aid in his conversions...and that election to salvation is by grace. In Lutheranism the German term for election is <i>Gnadenwahl</i>, election by grace--there is no other kind.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WELS+Topical+Q%26A&rft.atitle=Calvinism+and+Lutheranism+Compared&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsite.pl%3F1518%26cuTopic_topicID%3D10%26cuItem_itemID%3D15094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert L. Browning and Roy A. Reed, <i>Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Moral Courage</i> (Eerdmans, 2004), 113. "Luther did not mean by 'total depravity' that everything a person did was depraved. He meant that depravity, sin and wickedness can invade any and every part of life."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Henry_Cole_1823-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Henry_Cole_1823_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Cole, trans, <i>Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will</i> (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term <i>liberum arbitrium</i> was translated "free-will" by Cole. However <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gordon_Rupp" title="Ernest Gordon Rupp">Ernest Gordon Rupp</a> and Philip Saville Watson, <i>Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation</i> (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger E. Olson, <i>Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities</i> (InterVarsity Press, 2009), 17. "Arminians of the heart emphatically do not deny total depravity," but prefer not to use the word.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keith_D_2012-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keith_D_2012_184-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith D. Stanglin and Thomas H. McCall, <i>Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace</i> (Oxford University, 2012), 157–158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Soteriology. Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Soteriology">http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Soteriology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071113004719/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/soteriology">Archived</a> 13 November 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (accessed: 2 March 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/soteriology">"soteriology– Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary"</a>. Merriam-webster.com. 25 April 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=soteriology%E2%80%93+Definition+from+the+Merriam-Webster+Online+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-webster.com&rft.date=2007-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fsoteriology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. <i>God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine</i>. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Calvin, <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Calvin, <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Calvin, <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morris, J.W., <i>The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History</i>, p267, "The Book of Concord became the official statement of doctrine for most of the world's Lutherans. The Formula of Concord reaffirmed the traditional Lutheran doctrine of total depravity in very clear terms"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Melton, J.G., <i>Encyclopedia of Protestantism</i>, p229, on <i>Formula of Concord</i>, "the 12 articles of the formula focused on a number of newer issues such as original sin (in which total depravity is affirmed)"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714213942/http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl@1518cutopic_topicid257cuitem_itemid7092.htm">"WELS vs Assembly of God"</a>. <i>WELS Topical Q&A</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl@1518cutopic_topicid257cuitem_itemid7092.htm">the original</a> on 14 July 2014. <q>[P]eople by nature are dead in their transgressions and sin and therefore have no ability to decide of Christ (Ephesians 2:1, 5). We do not choose Christ, rather he chose us (John 15:16) We believe that human beings are purely passive in conversion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WELS+Topical+Q%26A&rft.atitle=WELS+vs+Assembly+of+God&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farkiv.lbk.cc%2Ffaq%2Fsite.pl%401518cutopic_topicid257cuitem_itemid7092.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bookofconcord.org/augsburgconfession.php#article18.1">Augsburg Confessional, Article XVIII, Of Free Will</a>, saying: "(M)an's will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness, and to work things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:14); but this righteousness is wrought in the heart when the Holy Ghost is received through the Word."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Cole, trans., <i>Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will</i> (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term <i>liberum arbitrium</i> was translated "free-will" by Cole. However <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gordon_Rupp" title="Ernest Gordon Rupp">Ernest Gordon Rupp</a> and Philip Saville Watson, <i>Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation</i> (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanglinMcCall2012" class="citation book cs1">Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). <i>Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace</i>. New York: Oxford University Press USA. pp. 157–158.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jacob+Arminius%3A+Theologian+of+Grace&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=157-158&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+USA&rft.date=2012-11-15&rft.aulast=Stanglin&rft.aufirst=Keith+D.&rft.au=McCall%2C+Thomas+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Concord" class="mw-redirect" title="The Book of Concord">The Book of Concord</a>: The Confessions of the Lutheran Church</i>, XI. Election. "Predestination" means "God's ordination to salvation".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson2009" class="citation book cs1">Olson, Roger E. (2009). <i>Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities</i>. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 63. <q>Arminians accepts divine election, [but] they believe it is conditional.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arminian+Theology%3A+Myths+and+Realities&rft.place=Downers+Grove&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Westminster Confession</i>, III:6, says that only the "elect" are "effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved." However in his <i>Calvin and the Reformed Tradition</i> (Baker, 2012), 45, Richard A. Muller observes that "a sizeable body of literature has interpreted Calvin as teaching "limited atonement", but "an equally sizeable body . . . [interprets] Calvin as teaching "unlimited atonement".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-ROM-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-ROM_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090927073134/http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=2954">"Justification / Salvation"</a>. <i>WELS Topical Q&A</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod" title="Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod">Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=2954">the original</a> on 27 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2015</span>. <q>Romans 3:23-24, 5:9, 18 are other passages that lead us to say that it is most appropriate and accurate to say that universal justification is a finished fact. God has forgiven the sins of the whole world whether people believe it or not. He has done more than "made forgiveness possible." All this is for the sake of the perfect substitutionary work of Jesus Christ.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WELS+Topical+Q%26A&rft.atitle=Justification+%2F+Salvation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsite.pl%3F1518%26cuTopic_topicID%3D45%26cuItem_itemID%3D2954&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-TWB-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-TWB_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/statements-beliefs/this-we-believe/justification">"IV. Justification by Grace through Faith"</a>. <i>This We Believe</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod" title="Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod">Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2015</span>. <q>We believe that God has justified all sinners, that is, he has declared them righteous for the sake of Christ. This is the central message of Scripture upon which the very existence of the church depends. It is a message relevant to people of all times and places, of all races and social levels, for "the result of one trespass was condemnation for all men" (Romans 5:18]). All need forgiveness of sins before God, and Scripture proclaims that all have been justified, for "the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life for all men" (Romans 5:18). We believe that individuals receive this free gift of forgiveness not on the basis of their own works, but only through faith (Ephesians 2:8–9). ... On the other hand, although Jesus died for all, Scripture says that "whoever does not believe will be condemned" (Mark 16:16). Unbelievers forfeit the forgiveness won for them by Christ (John 8:24).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=This+We+Believe&rft.atitle=IV.+Justification+by+Grace+through+Faith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fwhat-we-believe%2Fstatements-beliefs%2Fthis-we-believe%2Fjustification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-Justification-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-Justification_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker" class="citation web cs1">Becker, Siegbert W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wlsessays.net/files/BeckerJustification.pdf">"Objective Justification"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Lutheran_Seminary" title="Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary">Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary</a>. p. 1<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Objective+Justification&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Wisconsin+Lutheran+Seminary&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Siegbert+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wlsessays.net%2Ffiles%2FBeckerJustification.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-UnivJus-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-UnivJus_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090927133257/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=16624">"Universal Justification"</a>. <i>WELS Topical Q&A</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod" title="Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod">Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=16624">the original</a> on 27 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2015</span>. <q>Christ paid for all our sins. God the Father has therefore forgiven them. But to benefit from this verdict we need to hear about it and trust in it. If I deposit money in the bank for you, to benefit from it you need to hear about it and use it. Christ has paid for your sins, but to benefit from it you need to hear about it and believe in it. We need to have faith but we should not think of faith as our contribution. It is a gift of God which the Holy Spirit works in us.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WELS+Topical+Q%26A&rft.atitle=Universal+Justification&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsite.pl%3F1518%26cuTopic_topicID%3D45%26cuItem_itemID%3D16624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Augsburg Confession</i>, Article V, Of Justification. People "cannot be justified before God by their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith, when they believe that they are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for Christ's sake. ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanglinMcCall2012" class="citation book cs1">Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). <i>Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace</i>. New York: Oxford University Press USA. p. 136. <q>Faith is a condition of justification</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jacob+Arminius%3A+Theologian+of+Grace&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+USA&rft.date=2012-11-15&rft.aulast=Stanglin&rft.aufirst=Keith+D.&rft.au=McCall%2C+Thomas+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul ChulHong Kang, <i>Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals</i> (<a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally defends Augustine's "monergistic view".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-Diehl-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-Diehl_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiehl" class="citation web cs1">Diehl, Walter A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=58&cuItem_itemID=11345">"The Age of Accountability"</a>. Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2015</span>. <q>In full accord with Scripture the Lutheran Confessions teach monergism. "In this manner, too, the Holy Scriptures ascribe conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration, renewal and all the belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human powers of the natural free will, neither entirely, nor half, nor in any, even the least or most inconsiderable part, but in solidum, that is, entirely, solely, to the divine working and the Holy Ghost" (Trigl. 891, F.C., Sol. Decl., II, 25).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Accountability&rft.pub=Wisconsin+Lutheran+Seminary&rft.aulast=Diehl&rft.aufirst=Walter+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsite.pl%3F1518%26cuTopic_topicID%3D58%26cuItem_itemID%3D11345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Monergism">Monergism</a>; thefreedictionary.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-TULIP-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-TULIP_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090927073128/http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=15094">"Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared"</a>. <i>WELS Topical Q&A</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod" title="Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod">Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=15094">the original</a> on 27 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WELS+Topical+Q%26A&rft.atitle=Calvinism+and+Lutheranism+Compared&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsite.pl%3F1518%26cuTopic_topicID%3D10%26cuItem_itemID%3D15094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson2009" class="citation book cs1">Olson, Roger E. (2009). <i>Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities</i>. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 18. <q>Arminian synergism" refers to "evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arminian+Theology%3A+Myths+and+Realities&rft.place=Downers+Grove&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson2009" class="citation book cs1">Olson, Roger E. (2009). <i>Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities</i>. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 165. <q>[Arminius]' evangelical synergism reserves all the power, ability and efficacy in salvation to grace, but allows humans the God-granted ability to resist or not resist it. The only "contribution" humans make is nonresistance to grace.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arminian+Theology%3A+Myths+and+Realities&rft.place=Downers+Grove&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession_of_Faith" title="Westminster Confession of Faith">Westminster Confession of Faith</a></i>, Ch XVII, "Of the Perseverance of the Saints".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-OSAS-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-OSAS_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090927165641/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=9372">"Once saved always saved"</a>. <i>WELS Topical Q&A</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod" title="Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod">Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=9372">the original</a> on 27 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2015</span>. <q>People can fall from faith. The Bible warns, "If you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don't fall" (1 Corinthians 10:12). Some among the Galatians had believed for a while, but had fallen into soul-destroying error. Paul warned them, "You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace" (Galatians 5:4). In his explanation of the parable of the sower, Jesus says, "Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in time of testing they fall away" (Luke 8:13). According to Jesus a person can believe for a while and then fall away. While they believed they possessed eternal salvation, but when they fell from faith they lost God's gracious gift.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WELS+Topical+Q%26A&rft.atitle=Once+saved+always+saved&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsite.pl%3F1518%26cuTopic_topicID%3D10%26cuItem_itemID%3D9372&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WELS-Pers-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WELS-Pers_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090927073121/http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=17945">"Perseverence of the Saints (Once Saved Always Saved)"</a>. <i>WELS Topical Q&A</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod" title="Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod">Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=17945">the original</a> on 27 September 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2015</span>. <q>We cannot contribute one speck to our salvation, but by our own arrogance or carelessness we can throw it away. Therefore, Scripture urges us repeatedly to fight the good fight of faith (Ephesians 6 and 2 Timothy 4 for example). My sins threaten and weaken my faith, but the Spirit through the gospel in word and sacraments strengthens and preserves my faith. That's why Lutherans typically speak of God's preservation of faith and not the perseverance of the saints. The key is <i>not our perseverance but the Spirit's preservation</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WELS+Topical+Q%26A&rft.atitle=Perseverence+of+the+Saints+%28Once+Saved+Always+Saved%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wels.net%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsite.pl%3F1518%26cuTopic_topicID%3D10%26cuItem_itemID%3D17945&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemarest1997" class="citation book cs1">Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). <i>The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation</i>. Crossway Books. pp. 437–438.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cross+and+Salvation%3A+The+Doctrine+of+Salvation&rft.pages=437-438&rft.pub=Crossway+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Demarest&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemarest1997" class="citation book cs1">Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). <i>The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation</i>. Crossway Books. p. 35. <q>Many Arminians deny the doctrine of the <i>perseverance of the saints</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cross+and+Salvation%3A+The+Doctrine+of+Salvation&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Crossway+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Demarest&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bishop">"Bishop– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a>. Merriam-webster.com. 25 April 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bishop%E2%80%93+Definition+and+More+from+the+Free+Merriam-Webster+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-webster.com&rft.date=2007-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbishop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OHMS-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OHMS_218-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimFitchett-Climenhaga2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kirsteen_Kim" title="Kirsteen Kim">Kim, Kirsteen</a>; Fitchett-Climenhaga, Alison (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rL9pEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">"Introduction to Mission Studies: Analyzing Missiology's Current Configuration and Charting Future Prospects"</a>. In Kim, Kirsteen; Jørgensen, Knud; Fitchett-Climenhaga, Alison (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Mission Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256757-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256757-4"><bdi>978-0-19-256757-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Mission+Studies%3A+Analyzing+Missiology%27s+Current+Configuration+and+Charting+Future+Prospects&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Mission+Studies&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-256757-4&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Kirsteen&rft.au=Fitchett-Climenhaga%2C+Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrL9pEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorreau2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Morreau, A. S. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yu846j61u0wC&pg=PA780">"Missiology"</a>. In Elwell, Walter A. (ed.). <i>Evangelical Dictionary of Theology</i> (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. pp. 780–783. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-2075-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-2075-9"><bdi>978-0-8010-2075-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Missiology&rft.btitle=Evangelical+Dictionary+of+Theology&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pages=780-783&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Baker+Academic&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-2075-9&rft.aulast=Morreau&rft.aufirst=A.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyu846j61u0wC%26pg%3DPA780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hexam's <i>Concise Dictionary of Religion</i> "Sacrament" obtained at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html">https://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090303103908/http://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Catholic Encyclopaedia: "Sacraments" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm">http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100714192551/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm">Archived</a> 14 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Sacraments <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3">http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100617013804/http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3">Archived</a> 17 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ignazio Silone, <i>Bread and Wine</i> (1937).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-Eucharist-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB-Eucharist_224-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist">"Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+s.v.+Eucharist&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9033174%2FEucharist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/48/E0234800.html">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition 2000</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090210031238/http://www.bartleby.com/61/48/E0234800.html">Archived</a> 10 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.cc/1_corinthians/10-16.htm">"Parallel Translations"</a>. Bible.cc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parallel+Translations&rft.pub=Bible.cc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbible.cc%2F1_corinthians%2F10-16.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Corinthians#10:16" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Corinthians">1 Corinthians 10:16</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComfort2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001). "Lord's Supper, The". In Comfort, Philip W.; Elwell, Walter A. (eds.). <i>Tyndale Bible Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7"><bdi>0-8423-7089-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lord%27s+Supper%2C+The&rft.btitle=Tyndale+Bible+Dictionary&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8423-7089-7&rft.aulast=Comfort&rft.aufirst=Philip+Wesley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossLivingstone2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). "Eucharist". In Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (eds.). <i>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3"><bdi>978-0-19-280290-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eucharist&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280290-3&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Frank+Leslie&rft.au=Livingstone%2C+Elizabeth+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2011:23–25&version=nrsv">1 Corinthians 11:23–25</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">And as they were eating, he took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to them, and said, "Take; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, and they all drank of it. And he said to them, "This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God." Mark 14:22–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to the disciples and said, "Take, eat; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, saying, "Drink of it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom." Matthew 26:26–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">They prepared the passover. And when the hour came, he sat at table, and the apostles with him. And he said to them, "I have earnestly desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer; for I tell you I shall not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he said, "Take this, and divide it among yourselves; for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes." And he took bread, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he broke it and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me." And likewise the cup after supper, saying, "This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. ..." Luke 22:13–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harris-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harris_234-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris_234-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_L_Harris" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen L Harris">Harris, Stephen L.</a>, Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComfort2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001). "John, Gospel of". In Comfort, Philip W.; Elwell, Walter A. (eds.). <i>Tyndale Bible Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7"><bdi>0-8423-7089-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John%2C+Gospel+of&rft.btitle=Tyndale+Bible+Dictionary&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8423-7089-7&rft.aulast=Comfort&rft.aufirst=Philip+Wesley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert1978" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, J. C. (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalsta0002unse"><i>The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia</i></a></span> (reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wm._B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.">Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-8045-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-8045-2"><bdi>0-8028-8045-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Standard+Bible+Encyclopedia&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-8028-8045-2&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finternationalsta0002unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Metzger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruce Metzger">Bruce Metzger</a>. The canon of the New Testament. 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9–10, with the earlier one now put in second place." Crossan. The historical Jesus. Citing Riggs, John W. 1984</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">" ... (t)he eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins, and which in His loving-kindness the Father raised up. ... Let that eucharist alone be considered valid which is under the bishop or him to whom he commits it. ... It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize, or to hold a love-feast. But whatsoever he approves, that also is well-pleasing to God, that everything which you do may be secure and valid." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html">Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 6, 8</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225192321/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Give heed to keep one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup unto union with His blood. There is one altar, as there is one bishop, together with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants; that whatsoever you do, you may do according unto God."<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html">Letter to the Philadelphians, 4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101129072313/http://earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html">Archived</a> 29 November 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html">First Apology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170731060254/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html">Archived</a> 31 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 65–67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglo-Catholics, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html#c10499"><i>Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry</i> document</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080709031256/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html">Archived</a> 9 July 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Most Christian traditions also teach that Jesus is present in the Eucharist in some special way, though they disagree about the mode, the locus, and the time of that presence" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist">Encyclopædia Britannica Online)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080519053204/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist">Archived</a> 19 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBobichon" class="citation journal cs1">Bobichon, Philippe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36639639">"Philippe Bobichon, Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr"</a>. <i>In Mélanges Sur la Question Millénariste de l'Antiquité À Nos Jours, Martin Dumont (Dir.) [Bibliothèque d'Étude des Mondes Chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, P. 61-82</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414075605/https://www.academia.edu/36639639/_Mill%C3%A9narisme_et_orthodoxie_dans_les_%C3%A9crits_de_Justin_Martyr_">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=In+M%C3%A9langes+Sur+la+Question+Mill%C3%A9nariste+de+l%27Antiquit%C3%A9+%C3%80+Nos+Jours%2C+Martin+Dumont+%28Dir.%29+%26%2391%3BBiblioth%C3%A8que+d%27%C3%89tude+des+Mondes+Chr%C3%A9tiens%2C+11%26%2393%3B%2C+Paris%2C+2018%2C+P.+61-82.&rft.atitle=Philippe+Bobichon%2C+Mill%C3%A9narisme+et+orthodoxie+dans+les+%C3%A9crits+de+Justin+Martyr&rft.aulast=Bobichon&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36639639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson, eds. <i>Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>. (16 vol.) Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1994. The writings of Ignatius and Justin Martyr can be found in Vol. 1; Tertullian, in Volumes 3–4; and Origen, in Volume 4.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkhof1996" class="citation book cs1">Berkhof, Louis. (1996). <i>The History of Christian Doctrine</i>. Banner of Truth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85151-005-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-85151-005-1"><bdi>0-85151-005-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Christian+Doctrine&rft.pub=Banner+of+Truth&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-85151-005-1&rft.aulast=Berkhof&rft.aufirst=Louis.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemarest1997" class="citation book cs1">Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U0_1wAEACAAJ"><i>The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation</i></a>. Crossway Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89107-937-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89107-937-8"><bdi>978-0-89107-937-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cross+and+Salvation%3A+The+Doctrine+of+Salvation&rft.pub=Crossway+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-89107-937-8&rft.aulast=Demarest&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU0_1wAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2009" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Mark (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z9acTl-jAkAC"><i>Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church</i></a>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780754662914" title="Special:BookSources/9780754662914"><bdi>9780754662914</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholicity+and+Heresy+in+the+Early+Church&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780754662914&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz9acTl-jAkAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2003" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Jonathan (2003). <i>The History of Christian Thought</i>. Lion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7459-5093-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7459-5093-0"><bdi>0-7459-5093-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Christian+Thought&rft.pub=Lion+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7459-5093-0&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Volume 1: <i>The Living God</i> (1992). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-066363-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-066363-4">0-06-066363-4</a></li> <li>Volume 2: <i>The Word of Life</i> (1992). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-066364-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-066364-2">0-06-066364-2</a></li> <li>Volume 3: <i>Life in the Spirit</i> (1994). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-066362-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-066362-6">0-06-066362-6</a></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKang2006" class="citation book cs1">Kang, Paul ChulHong (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jNIpgIkTMHIC"><i>Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-8605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-8605-5"><bdi>978-0-8204-8605-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justification%3A+The+Imputation+of+Christ%27s+Righteousness+from+Reformation+Theology+to+the+American+Great+Awakening+and+the+Korean+Revivals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-8605-5&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=Paul+ChulHong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjNIpgIkTMHIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLange2005" class="citation book cs1">Lange, Lyle W. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5W0yOQAACAAJ"><i>God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine</i></a>. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8100-1744-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8100-1744-3"><bdi>978-0-8100-1744-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+So+Loved+the+World%3A+A+Study+of+Christian+Doctrine&rft.place=Milwaukee&rft.pub=Northwestern+Publishing+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8100-1744-3&rft.aulast=Lange&rft.aufirst=Lyle+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5W0yOQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuther1823" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther, Martin</a> (1823). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4CkBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA66"><i>Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will: Written in Answer to the Diatribe of Erasmus on Free-will. First Pub. in the Year of Our Lord 1525</i></a>. Translated by Cole, Henry. London: T. Bensley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martin+Luther+on+the+Bondage+of+the+Will%3A+Written+in+Answer+to+the+Diatribe+of+Erasmus+on+Free-will.+First+Pub.+in+the+Year+of+Our+Lord+1525&rft.place=London&rft.pub=T.+Bensley&rft.date=1823&rft.aulast=Luther&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4CkBAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">McGrath, Alister</a> (7 March 2011). <i>The Christian Theology Reader</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470654842" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470654842"><bdi>978-0470654842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+Theology+Reader&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2011-03-07&rft.isbn=978-0470654842&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">McGrath, Alister</a> (4 October 2010). <i>Christian Theology: An Introduction</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1444335149" title="Special:BookSources/978-1444335149"><bdi>978-1444335149</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Theology%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2010-10-04&rft.isbn=978-1444335149&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuller2012" class="citation book cs1">Muller, Richard A. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jUhexw_A7AUC&pg=PA45"><i>Calvin and the Reformed Tradition: On the Work of Christ and the Order of Salvation</i></a>. Baker Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4412-4254-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4412-4254-9"><bdi>978-1-4412-4254-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+and+the+Reformed+Tradition%3A+On+the+Work+of+Christ+and+the+Order+of+Salvation&rft.pub=Baker+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4412-4254-9&rft.aulast=Muller&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjUhexw_A7AUC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson2009" class="citation book cs1">Olson, Roger E. (2009). <i>Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities</i>. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arminian+Theology%3A+Myths+and+Realities&rft.place=Downers+Grove&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppWatson1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gordon_Rupp" title="Ernest Gordon Rupp">Rupp, Ernest Gordon</a>; Watson, Philip Saville (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IU_8JDjxL34C"><i>Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation</i></a>. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-24158-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-24158-2"><bdi>978-0-664-24158-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luther+and+Erasmus%3A+Free+Will+and+Salvation&rft.place=Louisville&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-664-24158-2&rft.aulast=Rupp&rft.aufirst=Ernest+Gordon&rft.au=Watson%2C+Philip+Saville&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIU_8JDjxL34C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanglinMcCall2012" class="citation book cs1">Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=00ulN0NOINsC"><i>Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace</i></a>. New York: OUP USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975567-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975567-7"><bdi>978-0-19-975567-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jacob+Arminius%3A+Theologian+of+Grace&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2012-11-15&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975567-7&rft.aulast=Stanglin&rft.aufirst=Keith+D.&rft.au=McCall%2C+Thomas+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D00ulN0NOINsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+theology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/theology">Christian Theology Reading Room</a> (Tyndale Seminary) for an extensive collection of online resources for Christian Theology.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccel.org/">Christian Classics Ethereal Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jonathanscorner.com">Jonathan Hayward, contemporary Orthodox theologian</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orthodoxchurchfathers.com/">Orthodox Church Fathers: Christian Theology Classics Search Engine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_theology&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130131073408/http://argumentrix.com/wiki/Appendix:Christian_theology">Table of Christian theological terms</a> in Argumentrix (archived 31 January 2013)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_inspiration" title="Biblical inspiration">Inspiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_plenary_preservation" title="Verbal plenary preservation">Preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics" title="Biblical hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Attributes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paterology" title="Paterology">Paterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatology" title="Pneumatology">Pneumatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocentricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theocentricism">Theocentricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_proper" title="Theology proper">Theology proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immutability_(theology)" title="Immutability (theology)">Immutability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impassibility" title="Impassibility">Impassibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perichoresis" title="Perichoresis">Perichoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_trinitarianism" title="Social trinitarianism">Social trinitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">Son</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">Hypostatic union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos_(Christianity)" title="Logos (Christianity)">Logos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Christocentric">Christocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarnation_(Christianity)" title="Incarnation (Christianity)">Incarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Ascension</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology" title="Biblical cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative" title="Genesis creation narrative">Creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavenly_host" title="Heavenly host">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_angelology" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian angelology">Angelic hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallen_angel" title="Fallen angel">Fallen angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devil_in_Christianity" title="Devil in Christianity">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Soteriology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolution" title="Absolution">Absolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_(theology)" title="Adoption (theology)">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assurance_(theology)" title="Assurance (theology)">Assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atonement_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonement in Christianity">Atonement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effectual_calling" title="Effectual calling">Calling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_preservation_of_the_saints" title="Conditional preservation of the saints">Conditional security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinization_(Christian)" title="Divinization (Christian)">Divinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_in_Christianity" title="Election in Christianity">Election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_life_(Christianity)" title="Eternal life (Christianity)">Eternal life</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Extra_Ecclesiam_nulla_salus" title="Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus">extra Ecclesiam nulla salus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorification" title="Glorification">Glorification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_in_Christianity" title="Grace in Christianity">Grace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irresistible_grace" title="Irresistible grace">Irresistible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevenient_grace" title="Prevenient grace">Prevenient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imputed_righteousness" title="Imputed righteousness">Imputation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)" title="Justification (theology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Means_of_grace" title="Means of grace">Means of grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monergism" title="Monergism">Monergism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_(theology)" title="Mortification (theology)">Mortification</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ordo_salutis" title="Ordo salutis">Ordo salutis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseverance_of_the_saints" title="Perseverance of the saints">Perseverance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">Predestination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapitulation_theory_of_atonement" title="Recapitulation theory of atonement">Recapitulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_(theology)" title="Reconciliation (theology)">Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemption_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Redemption in Christianity">Redemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(theology)" title="Regeneration (theology)">Regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repentance_in_Christianity" title="Repentance in Christianity">Repentance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctification_in_Christianity" title="Sanctification in Christianity">Sanctification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergism" title="Synergism">Synergism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosis_(Eastern_Christian_theology)" title="Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)">Theosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_with_Christ" title="Union with Christ">Union with Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blessing" title="Blessing">Blessing</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hamartiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamartiology">Hamartiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam#The_New_Testament" title="Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">The Fall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incurvatus_in_se" title="Incurvatus in se">Incurvatus in se</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasion_of_sin" title="Occasion of sin">Occasion of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacrament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confession_(religion)" title="Confession (religion)">Confession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missiology" title="Missiology">Missiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Polity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Congregationalist_polity" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregationalist polity">Congregational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episcopal_polity" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_polity" title="Presbyterian polity">Presbyterian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_episcopate" title="Historical episcopate">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarity" title="Conciliarity">Conciliarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinonia" title="Koinonia">Koinonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_communion" title="Full communion">Full communion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_discipline" title="Church discipline">Church discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">Shunning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Eschatology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispensationalism" title="Dispensationalism">Dispensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Pre-</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Post-</a> / <a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">A-millennialism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_theology" title="Covenant theology">Covenant</a> / <a href="/wiki/New_Covenant_theology" title="New Covenant theology">New Covenant theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">End times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_Hell" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian views on Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mortalism" title="Christian mortalism">Soul sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Tribulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_theology" title="Historical theology">Historical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of Christian theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">Patristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesaropapism" title="Caesaropapism">Caesaropapism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipelagianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Semipelagianism">Semipelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakenings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Practical_theology" title="Practical theology">Practical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_Old_Covenant" title="Christian views on the Old Covenant">Biblical law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgics" title="Liturgics">Liturgics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missiology" title="Missiology">Missiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_theology" title="Pastoral theology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_theology" title="Public theology">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christian_theology_by_tradition" title="Template:Christian theology by tradition">By tradition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-size: 90%;"><div id="Catholic_Church" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolution" title="Absolution">Absolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">Apostolic succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Assumption of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_dogmatic_theology" title="Catholic dogmatic theology">Dogmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Ecumenical Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">Filioque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Immaculate Conception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">Indulgences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">Infant baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephology" title="Josephology">Josephology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariology of the Catholic Church">Mariology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Mass in the Catholic Church">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Priesthood in the Catholic Church">Priesthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartodecimanism" title="Quartodecimanism">Quartodecimanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_presence_of_Christ_in_the_Eucharist" title="Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist">Real presence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacerdotalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacerdotalism">Sacerdotalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacrament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Sainthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">Transubstantiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultramontanism" title="Ultramontanism">Ultramontanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneration#Roman_Catholic,_Orthodox" title="Veneration">Veneration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-size: 90%;"><div id="Eastern_Orthodox_Church" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_theology" title="Eastern Orthodox theology">Eastern Orthodox Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphatic_theology" title="Cataphatic theology">Cataphatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_(religion)" title="Economy (religion)">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence%E2%80%93energies_distinction" title="Essence–energies distinction">Essence–energies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomic_will" title="Gnomic will">Gnomic will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metousiosis" title="Metousiosis">Metousiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronema" title="Phronema">Phronema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyletism" title="Phyletism">Phyletism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proskynesis" title="Proskynesis">Proskynesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobornost" title="Sobornost">Sobornost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symphonia_(theology)" title="Symphonia (theology)">Symphonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabor_Light" title="Tabor Light">Tabor Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoria">Theoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosis_(Eastern_Christian_theology)" title="Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)">Theosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-size: 90%;"><div id="Oriental_Orthodoxy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoenergism" title="Monoenergism">Monoenergism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monothelitism" title="Monothelitism">Monothelitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphthartodocetae" title="Aphthartodocetae">Aphthartodocetism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-size: 90%;"><div id="Protestantism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Protestant_theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant theologian">Protestantism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protestant_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant theology">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora#Adiaphora_in_Christianity" title="Adiaphora">Adiaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_Old_Covenant" title="Christian views on the Old Covenant">Christian views on the Old Covenant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_theology" title="Covenant theology">Covenant theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispensationalism" title="Dispensationalism">Dispensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersessionism" title="Supersessionism">Supersessionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_theology" title="Evangelical theology">Evangelical theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">Sola fide</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sola_gratia" title="Sola gratia">Sola gratia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">Sola scriptura</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Soli_Deo_gloria" title="Soli Deo gloria">Soli Deo gloria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solus_Christus" title="Solus Christus">Solus Christus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_ecclesiology" title="Protestant ecclesiology">Protestant ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">Priesthood of all believers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_covenant" title="Church covenant">Church covenant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity#Protestantism" title="Salvation in Christianity">Protestant Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assurance_(theology)" title="Assurance (theology)">Assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_election" title="Conditional election">Conditional election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_preservation_of_the_saints" title="Conditional preservation of the saints">Conditional preservation of the saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevenient_grace" title="Prevenient grace">Prevenient grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglican_doctrine" title="Anglican doctrine">Anglican</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Catholicism" title="Anglo-Catholicism">Anglo-Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_theory" title="Branch theory">Branch theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_church" title="Broad church">Broad church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_churchmanship" title="Central churchmanship">Center church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_church" title="High church">High church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_church" title="Low church">Low church</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Believer%27s_baptism" title="Believer's baptism">Believer's baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_baptism" title="Immersion baptism">Immersion baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Lutheran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_Lutheranism" title="Confessional Lutheranism">Confessional Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Catholic" title="Evangelical Catholic">Evangelical Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haugean_movement" title="Haugean movement">Haugean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loci_Theologici" class="mw-redirect" title="Loci Theologici">Loci Theologici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Lutheran orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran scholasticism">Lutheran scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_the_Cross" title="Theology of the Cross">Theology of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_kingdoms_doctrine" title="Two kingdoms doctrine">Two kingdoms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_with_the_Holy_Spirit" title="Baptism with the Holy Spirit">Baptism with the Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossolalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossolalia">Glossolalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Reformed <span class="nobold">(Calvinist)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_reconstructionism" title="Christian reconstructionism">Christian reconstructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_grace_theology" title="Free grace theology">Free Grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_salvation_controversy" title="Lordship salvation controversy">Lordship salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Calvinism" title="Predestination in Calvinism">Predestination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_theology" title="Wesleyan theology">Wesleyan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_perfection" title="Christian perfection">Christian perfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imparted_righteousness" title="Imparted righteousness">Imparted righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_work_of_grace" title="Second work of grace">Second work of grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_Quadrilateral" title="Wesleyan Quadrilateral">Wesleyan Quadrilateral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_theology" title="Seventh-day Adventist theology">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Anabaptism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theology of Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Jewish_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Messianic Jewish theology">Messianic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Attributes of God in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_mercy" title="Divine mercy">Divine mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_in_Christianity" title="Grace in Christianity">Grace in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Love of God in Christianity">Love of God in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_God" title="Love of God">Love of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">Omnibenevolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipresence" title="Omnipresence">Omnipresence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Problem of Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christian_theologians" title="Lists of Christian theologians">Lists of Christian theologians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christian_theology" title="Outline of Christian theology">Outline of Christian theology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/30px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><span title="Tagalog-language text"><span lang="tl" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Theology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theology" title="Template:Theology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theology" title="Template talk:Theology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Conceptions_of_God" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathenotheism" title="Kathenotheism">Kathenotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urmonotheismus" title="Urmonotheismus">Urmonotheismus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polydeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_finitism" title="Theistic finitism">Theistic finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theopanism" title="Theopanism">Theopanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">Divinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_of_God" title="Gender of God">Gender of God</a> <i>and gods</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">Numen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Singular god</a><br />theologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By faith</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanationism" title="Emanationism">Emanationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">God as</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Sustainer" title="God the Sustainer">Sustainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Father_of_Greatness" title="Father of Greatness">Father of Greatness</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinitarianism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed" title="Athanasian Creed">Athanasian Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannine_Comma" title="Johannine Comma">Comma Johanneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consubstantiality" title="Consubstantiality">Consubstantiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoousion" title="Homoousion">Homoousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoiousian" title="Homoiousian">Homoiousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)" title="Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)">Hypostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perichoresis" title="Perichoresis">Perichoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_of_the_Trinity" title="Shield of the Trinity">Shield of the Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_formula" title="Trinitarian formula">Trinitarian formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism_in_the_Church_Fathers" title="Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers">Trinity of the Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_universalism" title="Trinitarian universalism">Trinitarian universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fitra" title="Fitra">Fitra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_religion" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Incantations_Scripture" title="Divine Incantations Scripture">Taoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hinduism" title="Women in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_women" title="Mormonism and women">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Attributes of God in Christianity</a> / <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binitarianism" title="Binitarianism">Binitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_presence" title="Divine presence">Divine presence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egotheism" title="Egotheism">Egotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotheology" title="Exotheology">Exotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godhead_in_Christianity" title="Godhead in Christianity">Godhead in Christianity</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Latter Day Saints</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect of the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olelbis" title="Olelbis">Olelbis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">Open theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenological_definition_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenological definition of God">Phenomenological definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo%27s_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo's view of God">Philo's view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a> in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Names of God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_titles_and_names_of_Krishna" title="List of titles and names of Krishna">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam" title="Names of God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_faith" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By faith</div></th></tr><tr><td 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