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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Children </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Career_and_first_scientific_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Career_and_first_scientific_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Career and first scientific contributions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Career_and_first_scientific_contributions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Career and first scientific contributions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Career_and_first_scientific_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kepler's_supernova" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kepler's_supernova"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Kepler's supernova </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kepler's_supernova-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refracting_telescope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refracting_telescope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Refracting telescope </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refracting_telescope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Moon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jupiter's_moons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jupiter's_moons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Jupiter's moons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jupiter's_moons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phases_of_Venus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phases_of_Venus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.5 Phases of Venus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phases_of_Venus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saturn_and_Neptune" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saturn_and_Neptune"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.6 Saturn and Neptune </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saturn_and_Neptune-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sunspots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunspots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.7 Sunspots </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunspots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milky_Way_and_stars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milky_Way_and_stars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.8 Milky Way and stars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milky_Way_and_stars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_tides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_tides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Theory of tides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_tides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy_over_comets_and_The_Assayer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy_over_comets_and_The_Assayer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Controversy over comets and The Assayer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy_over_comets_and_The_Assayer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy_over_heliocentrism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy_over_heliocentrism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Controversy over heliocentrism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy_over_heliocentrism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Scientific contributions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_contributions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scientific contributions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientific_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Scientific methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Engineering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Physics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pendulum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pendulum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Pendulum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pendulum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_frequency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_frequency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.2 Sound frequency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_frequency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_pump" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_pump"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3 Water pump </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_pump-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Speed_of_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speed_of_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.4 Speed of light </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speed_of_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galilean_invariance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galilean_invariance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.5 Galilean invariance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galilean_invariance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Falling_bodies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Falling_bodies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.6 Falling bodies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Falling_bodies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-John_Philoponus,_Nicole_Oresme,_and_Domingo_de_Soto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Philoponus,_Nicole_Oresme,_and_Domingo_de_Soto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.6.1 John Philoponus, Nicole Oresme, and Domingo de Soto </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Philoponus,_Nicole_Oresme,_and_Domingo_de_Soto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delft_tower_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delft_tower_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.6.2 Delft tower experiment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delft_tower_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.6.3 Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two_New_Sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_New_Sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.6.4 Two New Sciences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_New_Sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time-squared_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time-squared_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.6.5 Time-squared law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time-squared_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inertia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inertia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.7 Inertia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inertia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Later_Church_reassessments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Church_reassessments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Later Church reassessments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Church_reassessments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_modern_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_modern_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Impact on modern science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_modern_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Writings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Published_written_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Published_written_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Published written works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Published_written_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_library" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_library"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Personal library </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_library-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 General sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Galileo Galilei</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" 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Available in 201 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-201" aria-hidden="true" > 201 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%8B%E1%88%8A%E1%88%8D%E1%8B%AE" title="ጋሊልዮ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጋሊልዮ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="गैलिलियो गैलिली – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="गैलिलियो गैलिली" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A" title="غاليليو غاليلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غاليليو غاليلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%85%E2%80%99_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF" title="গেলিলিঅ’ গেলিলি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="গেলিলিঅ’ গেলিলি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="गैलीलियो गैलिली – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="गैलीलियो गैलिली" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galil%C3%A9o_Galil%C3%A9i" title="Galiléo Galiléi – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Galiléo Galiléi" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalileo_Qaliley" title="Qalileo Qaliley – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qalileo Qaliley" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A6" title="قالیلئو قالیلئ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قالیلئو قالیلئ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galil%C3%A9o_Galil%C3%A9i" title="Galiléo Galiléi – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Galiléo Galiléi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%87" title="গ্যালিলিও গ্যালিলেই – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গ্যালিলিও গ্যালিলেই" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галілеа Галілей – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Галілеа Галілей" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галілео Галілей – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Галілео Галілей" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%B1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%B1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8D" title="གཱ་ལི་ལེའོ་གཱ་ལི་ལེའི། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གཱ་ལི་ལེའོ་གཱ་ལི་ལེའི།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9,_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE" title="Галилей, Галилео – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Галилей, Галилео" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%DA%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A" title="ڭاليليو ڭاليلي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ڭاليليو ڭاليلي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%B9" title="Γαλιλαίος Γαλιλέι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλιλαίος Γαλιλέι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilejo" title="Galilejo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Galilejo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%87" title="گالیلئو گالیله – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گالیلئو گالیله" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galil%C3%A9e_(savant)" title="Galilée (savant) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Galilée (savant)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5" title="伽利略 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="伽利略" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%85%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%8B_%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%85%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF" title="ગૅલિલિયો ગૅલિલિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ગૅલિલિયો ગૅલિલિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%88%EB%A6%B4%EB%A0%88%EC%98%A4_%EA%B0%88%EB%A6%B4%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4" title="갈릴레오 갈릴레이 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="갈릴레오 갈릴레이" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B8_%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B5" title="Գալիլեո Գալիլեյ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գալիլեո Գալիլեյ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="गैलीलियो गैलिली – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गैलीलियो गैलिली" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95_%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99" title="גלילאו גליליי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גלילאו גליליי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galil%C3%A9e" title="Galilée – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Galilée" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF" title="ಗೆಲಿಲಿಯೋ ಗೆಲಿಲಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗೆಲಿಲಿಯೋ ಗೆಲಿಲಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98" title="გალილეო გალილეი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გალილეო გალილეი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galil%C3%A9_(savan)" title="Galilé (savan) – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Galilé (savan)" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilaeus_Galilaei" title="Galilaeus Galilaei – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Galilaeus Galilaei" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilejs" title="Galileo Galilejs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Galileo Galilejs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galil%C4%97jus" title="Galilėjus – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Galilėjus" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/galileos.galileis" title="galileos.galileis – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="galileos.galileis" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%98" title="Галилео Галилеј – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Галилео Галилеј" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B_%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF" title="ഗലീലിയോ ഗലീലി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗലീലിയോ ഗലീലി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="गॅलेलियो गॅलिली – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गॅलेलियो गॅलिली" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%98" title="გალილეო გალილეი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გალილეო გალილეი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%89" title="جاليليو جاليلى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جاليليو جاليلى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%87" title="گالیله – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="گالیله" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%A3_%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A9" title="ꯒꯦꯂꯤꯂꯤꯑꯣ ꯒꯦꯂꯤꯂꯩ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯒꯦꯂꯤꯂꯤꯑꯣ ꯒꯦꯂꯤꯂꯩ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileu_Galilei" title="Galileu Galilei – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Galileu Galilei" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B9" title="Галилэо Галилэй – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Галилэо Галилэй" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF" title="ဂယ်လီလီယို – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂယ်လီလီယို" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AA%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AA%E3%83%AC%E3%82%A4" title="ガリレオ・ガリレイ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガリレオ・ガリレイ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9,_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE" title="Галилей, Галилео – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Галилей, Галилео" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%97%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%93" title="ଗାଲିଲିଓ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଗାଲିଲିଓ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galiiliyoo_Galiilii" title="Galiiliyoo Galiilii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Galiiliyoo Galiilii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%93_%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80" title="ਗੈਲੀਲਿਓ ਗੈਲਿਲੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗੈਲੀਲਿਓ ਗੈਲਿਲੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88_%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="گلیلیو گلیلی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گلیلیو گلیلی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%DB%8C" title="گاليليو گاليلی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="گاليليو گاليلی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gialiliyo_Gialileyi" title="Gialiliyo Gialileyi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Gialiliyo Gialileyi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileusz" title="Galileusz – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Galileusz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileu_Galilei" title="Galileu Galilei – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Galileu Galilei" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galiley" title="Galileo Galiley – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Galileo Galiley" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D2%90%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Ґалілео Ґалілей – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґалілео Ґалілей" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9,_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE" title="Галилей, Галилео – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Галилей, Галилео" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE" title="Галилей Галилео – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Галилей Галилео" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciyalilu.ciyalilay" title="Ciyalilu.ciyalilay – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Ciyalilu.ciyalilay" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9A_%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱜᱟᱞᱤᱞᱤᱭᱚ ᱜᱟᱞᱤᱞᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱜᱟᱞᱤᱞᱤᱭᱚ ᱜᱟᱞᱤᱞᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88" title="گیلیلیو – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="گیلیلیو" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileu_Galilei" title="Galileu Galilei – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Galileu Galilei" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9D_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%93" title="ගැලලියෝ ගැලලී – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ගැලලියෝ ගැලලී" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A6%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%DA%AF%D8%A6%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A" title="گئليليو گئليلي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="گئليليو گئليلي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8E%D9%88_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%95%DB%8C" title="گالیلێو گالیلەی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گالیلێو گالیلەی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%98" title="Галилео Галилеј – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Галилео Галилеј" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF" title="கலீலியோ கலிலி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கலீலியோ கலிலி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%8B_%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF" title="గెలీలియో గెలీలి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గెలీలియో గెలీలి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B5" title="กาลิเลโอ กาลิเลอี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กาลิเลโอ กาลิเลอี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галилео Галилей – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Галилео Галилей" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF" title="ಗೆಲಿಲಿಯೋ ಗೆಲಲಿ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಗೆಲಿಲಿಯೋ ಗೆಲಲಿ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9,_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE" title="Галилей, Галилео – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Галилей, Галилео" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Галілео Галілей – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Галілео Галілей" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88_%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="گلیلیو گلیلی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گلیلیو گلیلی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D9%84%DB%90%D9%8A" title="گالىلېي – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="گالىلېي" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilei_Galileo" title="Galilei Galileo – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Galilei Galileo" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilei_Galileo" title="Galilei Galileo – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Galilei Galileo" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5" title="伽利略 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="伽利略" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E8%8E%B1" title="伽利略·伽利莱 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="伽利略·伽利莱" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%90_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%99" title="גאלילעא גאלילעי – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גאלילעא גאלילעי" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Galileo Galilei" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E8%90%8A" title="伽利略·伽利萊 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="伽利略·伽利萊" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Florentine physicist and astronomer (1564–1642)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Galileo" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Galileo (disambiguation)">Galileo (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Galileo Galilei (disambiguation)">Galileo Galilei (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Galileo Galilei</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei_(1564-1642)_RMG_BHC2700.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Galileo_Galilei_%281564-1642%29_RMG_BHC2700.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-Galileo_Galilei_%281564-1642%29_RMG_BHC2700.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Galileo_Galilei_%281564-1642%29_RMG_BHC2700.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-Galileo_Galilei_%281564-1642%29_RMG_BHC2700.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Galileo_Galilei_%281564-1642%29_RMG_BHC2700.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-Galileo_Galilei_%281564-1642%29_RMG_BHC2700.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2964" data-file-height="3765" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1640</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></div> (1564-02-15)15 February 1564<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake19781-2">[2]</a> <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a>, Duchy of Florence</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">8 January 1642(1642-01-08) (aged 77) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Arcetri" title="Arcetri">Arcetri</a>, Grand Duchy of Tuscany</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pisa" title="University of Pisa">University of Pisa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical dynamics">Analytical dynamics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pisa" title="University of Pisa">University of Pisa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Patrons</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosimo_II_de_Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosimo II de Medici">Cosimo II de Medici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Cesi" title="Federico Cesi">Federico Cesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_II_de_Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinando II de Medici">Ferdinando II de Medici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fra_Paolo_Sarpi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fra Paolo Sarpi">Fra Paolo Sarpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Maria_del_Monte" title="Francesco Maria del Monte">Francesco Maria del Monte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ostilio_Ricci_da_Fermo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostilio Ricci da Fermo">Ostilio Ricci da Fermo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Castelli" title="Benedetto Castelli">Benedetto Castelli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Guiducci" title="Mario Guiducci">Mario Guiducci</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani" title="Vincenzo Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei_Signature_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Galileo_Galilei_Signature_2.svg/130px-Galileo_Galilei_Signature_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Galileo_Galilei_Signature_2.svg/195px-Galileo_Galilei_Signature_2.svg.png 1.5x, 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:WMAP_2012.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Full-sky image derived from nine years' WMAP data" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/220px-WMAP_2012.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/330px-WMAP_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/WMAP_2012.png/440px-WMAP_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2048" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:0;font-weight:normal; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> · <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Early universe</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Inflation</a> · <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Backgrounds</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave (GWB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">Microwave (CMB)</a> · <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background" title="Cosmic neutrino background">Neutrino (CNB)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Expansion · Future</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> · <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">FLRW metric</a> · <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inhomogeneous_cosmology" title="Inhomogeneous cosmology">Inhomogeneous cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Components · Structure</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Components</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Structure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe" title="Shape of the universe">Shape of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_filament" title="Galaxy filament">Galaxy filament</a> · <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group" title="Large quasar group">Large quasar group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observable_universe#Large-scale_structure" title="Observable universe">Large-scale structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reionization" title="Reionization">Reionization</a> · <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">Structure formation</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Observational_cosmology" title="Observational cosmology">Experiments</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hole_Initiative" title="Black Hole Initiative">Black Hole Initiative (BHI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BOOMERanG_experiment" title="BOOMERanG experiment">BOOMERanG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Energy_Survey" title="Dark Energy Survey">Dark Energy Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck space observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey" title="2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey">2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF")</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.9em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Aaronson" title="Marc Aaronson">Aaronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Alpher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">de Sitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Dicke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Ehlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedmann</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">Gamow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Guth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_B._Suntzeff" title="Nicholas B. Suntzeff">Suntzeff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Sunyaev" title="Rashid Sunyaev">Sunyaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Tolman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_Zeldovich" title="Yakov Zeldovich">Zeldovich</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" title="List of cosmologists">List of cosmologists</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddd8e7;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology#Subject_history" title="Physical cosmology">Subject history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">History of the Big Bang theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">Timeline of cosmological theories</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="display:block;margin-top:0.4em; line-height:1.6em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_cosmology" title="Category:Physical cosmology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/16px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/24px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/32px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_cosmology" title="Template:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_cosmology" title="Template talk:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_cosmology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical cosmology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌɡælɪˈleɪoʊ ˌɡælɪˈleɪ/</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a> also <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌɡælɪˈliːoʊ -/</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">Italian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛːi]</a>) or mononymously as Galileo, was a Florentine <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> and engineer, sometimes described as a <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>. He was born in the city of <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a>, then part of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Florence" title="Duchy of Florence">Duchy of Florence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Galileo has been called the father of <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> modern-era classical physics,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Galileo studied <a href="/wiki/Speed" title="Speed">speed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_fall" title="Free fall">free fall</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">principle of relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Projectile_motion" title="Projectile motion">projectile motion</a> and also worked in <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a> and technology, describing the properties of the <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic">hydrostatic</a> balances". He was one of the earliest Renaissance developers of the <a href="/wiki/Thermoscope" title="Thermoscope">thermoscope</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> and the inventor of various <a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)" title="Sector (instrument)">military compasses</a>. With an improved <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> he built, he observed the stars of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus" title="Phases of Venus">phases of Venus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons" title="Galilean moons">four largest satellites</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn%27s_rings" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturn's rings">Saturn's rings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lunar_craters" title="Lunar craters">lunar craters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">sunspots</a>. He also built an early <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>. Galileo's championing of <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism" title="Copernican heliocentrism">Copernican heliocentrism</a> was met with opposition from within the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a> in 1615, which concluded that his opinions contradicted accepted Biblical interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994127–131-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201074-11">[11]</a> Galileo later defended his views in <a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" title="Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a> (1632), which appeared to attack and ridicule <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII" title="Pope Urban VIII">Pope Urban VIII</a>, thus alienating both the Pope and the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a>, who had both strongly supported Galileo up until this point.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344-9">[9]</a> He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199747-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilliam200596-13">[13]</a> During this time, he wrote <a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a> (1638), primarily concerning <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength of materials</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JoCarney-14">[14]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_family">Early life and family</h2></div> Galileo was born in <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a> (then part of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Florence" title="Duchy of Florence">Duchy of Florence</a>) on 15 February 1564,<a href="#cite_note-Galileo_Galilei-15">[15]</a> the first of six children of <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Galilei" title="Vincenzo Galilei">Vincenzo Galilei</a>, a leading <a href="/wiki/Lutenist" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutenist">lutenist</a>, composer, and <a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theorist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giulia_Ammannati" title="Giulia Ammannati">Giulia Ammannati</a>, the daughter of a prominent merchant, who had married two years earlier in 1562, when he was 42, and she was 24. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a skepticism for established authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200826-16">[16]</a> Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, <a href="/wiki/Michelagnolo_Galilei" title="Michelagnolo Galilei">Michelangelo</a> (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200830-17">[17]</a> Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who later attempted to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo also occasionally had to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and excursions. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200831-18">[18]</a> When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to <a href="/wiki/Florence,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Florence, Italy">Florence</a>, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. When Galileo was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence, where he came under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini.<a href="#cite_note-Galileo_Galilei-15">[15]</a> He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the <a href="/wiki/Vallombrosa_Abbey" title="Vallombrosa Abbey">Vallombrosa Abbey</a>, about 30 km southeast of Florence.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert,_N._W._1963_223–231-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Name">Name</h3></div> Galileo tended to refer to himself only by his first name. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his first name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derived from an ancestor, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Bonaiuti" title="Galileo Bonaiuti">Galileo Bonaiuti</a>, an important physician, professor, and politician in Florence in the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200016-21">[21]</a> Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same church, the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Santa_Croce,_Florence" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence">Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence</a>, where about 200 years later, Galileo Galilei was also buried.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> When he did refer to himself with more than one name, it was sometimes as Galileo Galilei Linceo, a reference to his being a member of the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a>, an elite science organization founded in the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>. It was common for mid-16th century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200013-23">[23]</a> Hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name "Galileo" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", meaning "of <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>".<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200016-21">[21]</a> The biblical roots of Galileo's name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989300,_330-25">[25]</a> In 1614, during the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a>, one of Galileo's opponents, the Dominican priest <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Caccini" title="Tommaso Caccini">Tommaso Caccini</a>, delivered against Galileo a controversial and influential <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Caccini#Sermon_at_Santa_Maria_Novella" title="Tommaso Caccini">sermon</a>. In it he made a point of quoting <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Acts#1:11" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Acts">1:11</a>: "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children">Children</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_nun,_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste,_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/A_nun%2C_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste%2C_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg/170px-A_nun%2C_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste%2C_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/A_nun%2C_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste%2C_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg/255px-A_nun%2C_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste%2C_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/A_nun%2C_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste%2C_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg/340px-A_nun%2C_traditionally_identified_as_Suor_Maria_Celeste%2C_daugh_Wellcome_L0031890.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2781" data-file-height="3864" /></a><figcaption>Portrait believed to be of Galileo's elder daughter <a href="/wiki/Maria_Celeste" title="Maria Celeste">Virginia</a>, who was particularly devoted to her father.</figcaption></figure></div></div> Despite being a genuinely pious Catholic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199417,_213-26">[26]</a> Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with <a href="/wiki/Marina_Gamba" title="Marina Gamba">Marina Gamba</a>. They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a son, <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gamba" title="Vincenzo Gamba">Vincenzo</a> (born 1606).<a href="#cite_note-RosenGothard2009-27">[27]</a> Due to their illegitimate birth, Galileo considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing problems of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems with two of his sisters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200842-28">[28]</a> Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in <a href="/wiki/Arcetri" title="Arcetri">Arcetri</a> and remained there for the rest of their lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel20005-29">[29]</a> Virginia took the name <a href="/wiki/Maria_Celeste" title="Maria Celeste">Maria Celeste</a> upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Santa_Croce,_Florence" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence">Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence</a>. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later <a href="/wiki/Legitimation" title="Legitimation">legitimised</a> as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career_and_first_scientific_contributions">Career and first scientific contributions</h2></div> Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pisa" title="University of Pisa">University of Pisa</a> for a medical degree.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReston20003–14-31">[31]</a> He was influenced by the lectures of <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Borro" title="Girolamo Borro">Girolamo Borro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Buonamici_(philosopher)" title="Francesco Buonamici (philosopher)">Francesco Buonamici</a> of Florence.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert,_N._W._1963_223–231-20">[20]</a> In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging <a href="/wiki/Chandelier" title="Chandelier">chandelier</a>, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulums</a> of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>, almost one hundred years later, that the <a href="/wiki/Tautochrone_curve" title="Tautochrone curve">tautochrone</a> nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece.<a href="#cite_note-Asimov-32">[32]</a> Up to this point, Galileo had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> instead of medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Asimov-32">[32]</a> He created a <a href="/wiki/Thermoscope" title="Thermoscope">thermoscope</a>, a forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometer</a>, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic">hydrostatic</a> balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_delle_Arti_del_Disegno" title="Accademia delle Arti del Disegno">Accademia delle Arti del Disegno</a> in Florence, teaching perspective and <a href="/wiki/Chiaroscuro" title="Chiaroscuro">chiaroscuro</a>. In the same year, upon invitation by the <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Florentine Academy">Florentine Academy</a>, he presented two lectures, <a href="/wiki/On_the_Shape,_Location,_and_Size_of_Dante%27s_Inferno" title="On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno">On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno</a>, in an attempt to propose a rigorous cosmological model of <a href="/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)" title="Inferno (Dante)">Dante's hell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance artists</a>, Galileo acquired an <a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">aesthetic mentality</a>. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter <a href="/wiki/Cigoli" title="Cigoli">Cigoli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-panofsky-35">[35]</a> In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Michelagnolo_Galilei" title="Michelagnolo Galilei">Michelagnolo</a>. In 1592, he moved to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a> where he taught geometry, <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, and astronomy until 1610.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199445–66-36">[36]</a> During this period, Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">fundamental science</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> of motion and astronomy) as well as practical <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a> (for example, strength of materials and pioneering the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, which at the time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics, astronomy and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kepler's_supernova">Kepler's supernova</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> and others had observed the <a href="/wiki/Supernova_of_1572" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernova of 1572">supernova of 1572</a>. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to Galileo brought the 1572 supernova and the less bright nova of 1601 to Galileo's notice. Galileo observed and discussed <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova" title="Kepler's Supernova">Kepler's Supernova</a> in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable <a href="/wiki/Parallax#Diurnal_parallax" title="Parallax">diurnal parallax</a>, Galileo concluded that they were distant stars, and, therefore, disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability of the heavens.<a href="#cite_note-:1-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Refracting_telescope">Refracting telescope</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_galilei,_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Galileo_galilei%2C_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG/220px-Galileo_galilei%2C_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Galileo_galilei%2C_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG/330px-Galileo_galilei%2C_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Galileo_galilei%2C_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG/440px-Galileo_galilei%2C_telescopi_del_1609-10_ca..JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="1470" /></a><figcaption>Galileo's "cannocchiali" <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Galileo" title="Museo Galileo">Museo Galileo</a>, Florence</figcaption></figure> Perhaps based only on descriptions of the first practical telescope which <a href="/wiki/Hans_Lippershey" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Lippershey">Hans Lippershey</a> tried to patent in the Netherlands in 1608,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing200330–32-40">[40]</a> Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1990133–134-41">[41]</a> With a <a href="/wiki/Galilean_telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Galilean telescope">Galilean telescope</a>, the observer could see magnified, upright images on the Earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of about 8x or 9x, to <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetian</a> lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo, who sold them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief <a href="/wiki/Treatise" title="Treatise">treatise</a> entitled <a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">Sidereus Nuncius</a> (Starry Messenger).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt19941–2-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Moon">Moon</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sidereus,_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sidereus%2C_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg/170px-Sidereus%2C_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sidereus%2C_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg/255px-Sidereus%2C_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sidereus%2C_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg/340px-Sidereus%2C_nuncius_magna_longeqve_admirabilia_spectacula..._Wellcome_L0072633.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3539" data-file-height="5939" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of the Moon from Sidereus Nuncius, published in Venice, 1610</figcaption></figure>On 30 November 1609, Galileo aimed his telescope at the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2009159-43">[43]</a> While not being the first person to observe the Moon through a telescope (English mathematician <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harriot" title="Thomas Harriot">Thomas Harriot</a> had done so four months before but only saw a "strange spottednesse"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgerton2009155-44">[44]</a> Galileo was the first to deduce the cause of the uneven waning as light occlusion from lunar mountains and <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">craters</a>. In his study, he also made topographical charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Moon was not what was long thought to have been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Aristotle claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a>. Galileo is sometimes credited with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Libration#Lunar_libration" title="Libration">lunar libration in latitude</a> in 1632,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> although Thomas Harriot or <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> may have done so before.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The painter Cigoli, a friend of Galileo, included a realistic depiction of the Moon in one of his paintings; he probably used his own telescope to make the observation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jupiter's_moons">Jupiter's moons</h4></div> On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible<a href="#cite_note-47">[a]</a> by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978146-48">[47]</a> Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been <a href="/wiki/Fixed_stars" title="Fixed stars">fixed stars</a>. On 10 January, Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days, he concluded that they were <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbiting</a> Jupiter: he had discovered <a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter">three of Jupiter's four largest moons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978152-49">[48]</a> He discovered the fourth on 13 January. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_II_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany</a>, and Cosimo's three brothers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199417-50">[49]</a> Later astronomers, however, renamed them <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons" title="Galilean moons">Galilean satellites</a> in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Marius" title="Simon Marius">Simon Marius</a> on 8 January 1610 and are now called <a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Callisto_(moon)" title="Callisto (moon)">Callisto</a>, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg/220px-Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg/330px-Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg/440px-Carte_de_France_corrig%C3%A9e_par_ordre_du_Roy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2903" data-file-height="2181" /></a><figcaption>Map of France presented in 1684, showing the outline of an earlier map (light outline) compared to a new survey conducted using the moons of Jupiter as an accurate timing reference (heavier outline)</figcaption></figure> Galileo's observations of the satellites of Jupiter caused controversy in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of <a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">Aristotelian cosmology</a>, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinton200498,_205-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978157-53">[52]</a> and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978158–168-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199418–19-55">[54]</a> Compounding this problem, other astronomers had difficulty confirming Galileo's observations. When he demonstrated the telescope in Bologna, the attendees struggled to see the moons. One of them, Martin Horky, noted that some fixed stars, such as <a href="/wiki/Spica" title="Spica">Spica Virginis</a>, appeared double through the telescope. He took this as evidence that the instrument was deceptive when viewing the heavens, casting doubt on the existence of the moons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend197588–89-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaess200457-57">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clavius" title="Christopher Clavius">Christopher Clavius</a>'s observatory in Rome confirmed the observations and, although unsure how to interpret them, gave Galileo a hero's welcome when he visited the next year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009313-58">[57]</a> Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> had believed impossible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978168-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199493-60">[59]</a> Galileo saw a practical use for his discovery. Determining the east–west position of ships at sea required their clocks to be synchronized with clocks at the <a href="/wiki/Prime_meridian" title="Prime meridian">prime meridian</a>. Solving this <a href="/wiki/Longitude_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitude problem">longitude problem</a> had great importance to safe navigation and large prizes were established by Spain and later Holland for its solution. Since eclipses of the moons he discovered were relatively frequent and their times could be predicted with great accuracy, they could be used to set shipboard clocks and Galileo applied for the prizes. Observing the moons from a ship proved too difficult, but the method was used for land surveys, including the remapping of France.<a href="#cite_note-danson-wtw-61">[60]</a>: 15–16 <a href="#cite_note-rgm-62">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phases_of_Venus">Phases of Venus</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Phases-of-Venus2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Phases-of-Venus2.svg/200px-Phases-of-Venus2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Phases-of-Venus2.svg/300px-Phases-of-Venus2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Phases-of-Venus2.svg/400px-Phases-of-Venus2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg/200px-Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg/300px-Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg/400px-Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">In 1610 Galileo Galilei observed with his telescope that <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus" title="Phases of Venus">Venus showed phases</a>, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and not <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, as predicted by <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric model">heliocentric model</a> and disproved the then conventional <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> (second image).</div></div></div></div> From September 1610, Galileo observed that <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> exhibits <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus" title="Phases of Venus">a full set of phases</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">that of the Moon</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric model">heliocentric model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. In <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model#Ptolemaic_model" title="Geocentric model">Ptolemy's geocentric model</a>, it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally, the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the early 17th century, as a result of his discovery, the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThoren19898-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskin1999117-64">[63]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system" title="Tychonic system">Tychonic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella" title="Martianus Capella">Capellan</a> and Extended Capellan models,<a href="#cite_note-65">[b]</a> each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all explained the phases of Venus without the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of stellar parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Venus was thus his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saturn_and_Neptune">Saturn and Neptune</h4></div> In 1610, Galileo also observed the planet <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>, and at first mistook its rings for planets,<a href="#cite_note-:2-66">[64]</a> thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented to Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Galileo observed the planet <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> in 1612. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise that it was a planet, but he did note its motion relative to the stars before losing track of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrakeKowal1980-68">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sunspots">Sunspots</h4></div> Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of <a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">sunspots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-69">[67]</a> Their existence raised another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent annual variation in their trajectories, observed by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Sizzi" title="Francesco Sizzi">Francesco Sizzi</a> and others in 1612–1613,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978209-70">[68]</a> also provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.<a href="#cite_note-74">[c]</a> A dispute over claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Scheiner" title="Christoph Scheiner">Christoph Scheiner</a>. In the middle was <a href="/wiki/Mark_Welser" title="Mark Welser">Mark Welser</a>, to whom Scheiner had announced his discovery, and who asked Galileo for his opinion. Both of them were unaware of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fabricius" title="Johannes Fabricius">Johannes Fabricius</a>' earlier observation and publication of sunspots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGribbin200840-75">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Milky_Way_and_stars">Milky Way and stars</h4></div> Galileo observed the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, previously believed to be <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebulous</a>, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to be clouds. He located many other stars too distant to be visible to the naked eye. He observed the double star <a href="/wiki/Mizar_(star)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizar (star)">Mizar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ursa_Major" title="Ursa Major">Ursa Major</a> in 1617.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOndra200472–73-76">[73]</a> In the Starry Messenger, Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets, which the telescope revealed to be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his <a href="/wiki/Letters_on_Sunspots" title="Letters on Sunspots">Letters on Sunspots</a>, he reported that the telescope revealed the shapes of both stars and planets to be "quite round". From that point forward, he continued to report that telescopes showed the roundness of stars, and that stars seen through the telescope measured a few seconds of arc in diameter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney2010455-77">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyGrayson2011353-78">[75]</a> He also devised a method for measuring the apparent size of a star without a telescope. As described in his <a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" title="Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a>, his method was to hang a thin rope in his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. From his measurements of this distance and of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star at his viewing point.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Helden198575-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChalmers199925-80">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953361–362-81">[78]</a> In his Dialogue, he reported that he had found the apparent diameter of a star of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_magnitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar magnitude">first magnitude</a> to be no more than 5 <a href="/wiki/Arcsecond" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcsecond">arcseconds</a>, and that of one of sixth magnitude to be about 5/6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and did not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were much smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those made by Brahe, and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to be absurdly large for their annual <a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">parallaxes</a> to be undetectable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989167–176-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953359–360-83">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOndra200474–75-84">[81]</a> Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Riccioli" title="Giovanni Battista Riccioli">Giovanni Battista Riccioli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martin_van_den_Hove" title="Martin van den Hove">Martinus Hortensius</a> made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney2010454–462-85">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyGrayson2011352–355-86">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_tides">Theory of tides</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei,_1564-1642_RMG_BHC2699.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Galileo_Galilei%2C_1564-1642_RMG_BHC2699.tiff/lossy-page1-180px-Galileo_Galilei%2C_1564-1642_RMG_BHC2699.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Galileo_Galilei%2C_1564-1642_RMG_BHC2699.tiff/lossy-page1-270px-Galileo_Galilei%2C_1564-1642_RMG_BHC2699.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Galileo_Galilei%2C_1564-1642_RMG_BHC2699.tiff/lossy-page1-360px-Galileo_Galilei%2C_1564-1642_RMG_BHC2699.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6050" data-file-height="7200" /></a><figcaption>Galileo Galilei, portrait by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Porcia" title="Francesco Porcia">Francesco Porcia</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Bellarmine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Bellarmine">Cardinal Bellarmine</a> had written in 1615 that the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism" title="Copernican heliocentrism">Copernican system</a> could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198967–69-87">[84]</a> Galileo considered his theory of the <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a> to provide such evidence.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> This theory was so important to him that he originally intended to call his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989354-89">[86]</a> The reference to tides was removed from the title by order of the Inquisition.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Orsini_(cardinal)" title="Alessandro Orsini (cardinal)">Cardinal Orsini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989119–133-90">[87]</a> His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> instead of one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989127–131-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953432–436-92">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> later expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1953xvii-93">[90]</a> Galileo also dismissed the idea, <a href="/wiki/Tide#History" title="Tide">known from antiquity</a> and by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953462-94">[91]</a> caused the tides—Galileo also took no interest in Kepler's <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">elliptical orbits of the planets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> Galileo continued to argue in favour of his theory of tides, considering it the ultimate proof of Earth's motion.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversy_over_comets_and_The_Assayer">Controversy over comets and The Assayer</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/The_Assayer#Grassi_on_the_comets" title="The Assayer">The Assayer § Grassi on the comets</a></div> In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father <a href="/wiki/Orazio_Grassi" title="Orazio Grassi">Orazio Grassi</a>, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Collegio_Romano" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegio Romano">Collegio Romano</a>. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published <a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a> (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider controversy over the very nature of science itself. The title page of the book describes Galileo as a philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960vii,_xxiii–xxiv-99">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994139–140-100">[97]</a> Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960a-101">[98]</a> which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978268-102">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960a16)-103">[100]</a> and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the Moon, it must be farther away than the Moon.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticised in a subsequent article, <a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Comets" title="Discourse on Comets">Discourse on Comets</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci1960-104">[101]</a> published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named <a href="/wiki/Mario_Guiducci" title="Mario Guiducci">Mario Guiducci</a>, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvi-105">[102]</a> Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1957222-106">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvii-107">[104]</a> although they did present some tentative conjectures that are now known to be mistaken. (The correct approach to the study of comets had been proposed at the time by Tycho Brahe.) In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Scheiner" title="Christoph Scheiner">Christoph Scheiner</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135-108">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xii-109">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci196024-110">[107]</a> and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_College" title="Roman College">Collegio Romano</a> were scattered throughout the work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135-108">[105]</a> The Jesuits were offended,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994135-108">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xvii-107">[104]</a> and Grassi soon replied with a <a href="/wiki/Polemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemical">polemical</a> tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrassi1960b-111">[108]</a> under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978494-112">[109]</a> purporting to be one of his own pupils.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalileiGuiducci1960-104">[101]</a> It has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of polemical literature,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994137-113">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1957227-114">[111]</a> in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994138–142-115">[112]</a> It was greeted with wide acclaim and particularly pleased the new pope, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII" title="Pope Urban VIII">Urban VIII</a>, to whom it had been dedicated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960xix-116">[113]</a> In Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, the future Urban VIII, had come down on the side of Galileo and the <a href="/wiki/Lincean_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincean Academy">Lincean Academy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many Jesuits,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1960vii-118">[115]</a> and Galileo and his friends were convinced that they were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994175-119">[116]</a> although supporting evidence for this is not conclusive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994175–178-120">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackwell200630-121">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversy_over_heliocentrism">Controversy over heliocentrism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg/220px-Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg/330px-Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg/440px-Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1567" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cristiano_Banti" title="Cristiano Banti">Cristiano Banti</a>'s 1857 painting Galileo facing the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a></figcaption></figure> At the time of Galileo's conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribed to the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> <a href="/wiki/Geocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentric">geocentric</a> view that the Earth is the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_center_of_the_Universe" title="History of the center of the Universe">centre of the Universe</a> and the orbit of all heavenly bodies, or Tycho Brahe's new system blending geocentrism with heliocentrism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009303–316-122">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> Opposition to heliocentrism and Galileo's writings on it combined religious and scientific objections. Religious opposition to heliocentrism arose from biblical passages implying the fixed nature of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-bible-125">[d]</a> Scientific opposition came from Brahe, who argued that if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, though none was at the time.<a href="#cite_note-127">[e]</a> Aristarchus and Copernicus had correctly postulated that parallax was negligible because the stars were so distant. However, Brahe countered that since stars <a href="/wiki/Airy_disk" title="Airy disk">appear to have measurable angular size</a>, if the stars were that distant, they would have to be far larger than the Sun or even the orbit of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyDanielson2014-128">[123]</a> It would not be until much later that astronomers realized the apparent magnitudes of stars were caused by an optical phenomenon called the <a href="/wiki/Airy_disk" title="Airy disk">airy disk</a>, and were functions of their brightness rather than true physical size (see <a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)#History" title="Magnitude (astronomy)">Magnitude#History</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraneyDanielson2014-128">[123]</a> Galileo defended heliocentrism based on <a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">his astronomical observations of 1609</a>. In December 1613, the Grand Duchess <a href="/wiki/Christina_of_Lorraine" title="Christina of Lorraine">Christina of Florence</a> confronted one of Galileo's friends and followers, <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Castelli" title="Benedetto Castelli">Benedetto Castelli</a>, with biblical objections to the motion of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-130">[f]</a> Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_Benedetto_Castelli" title="Letter to Benedetto Castelli">letter to Castelli</a> in which he argued that heliocentrism was actually not contrary to biblical texts and that the Bible was an authority on faith and morals, not science. This letter was not published but circulated widely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198927–28-129">[124]</a> Two years later, Galileo wrote a <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand_Duchess_Christina" title="Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina">letter to Christina</a> that expanded his arguments previously made in eight pages to forty pages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989-131">[125]</a> By 1615, Galileo's writings on heliocentrism had been submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a> by Father <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Lorini" title="Niccolò Lorini">Niccolò Lorini</a>, who claimed that Galileo and his followers were attempting to reinterpret the Bible,<a href="#cite_note-bible-125">[d]</a> which was seen as a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> and looked dangerously like <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangford199856–57-132">[126]</a> Lorini specifically cited Galileo's letter to Castelli.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198928,_134-133">[127]</a> Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his ideas. At the start of 1616, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Ingoli" title="Francesco Ingoli">Francesco Ingoli</a> initiated a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the action against Copernicanism that followed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney201568–69-134">[128]</a> Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, with the essay providing the basis for the Inquisition's actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201072-135">[129]</a> The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from Tycho Brahe's arguments, notably that heliocentrism would require the stars as they appeared to be much larger than the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-137">[g]</a> The essay also included four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggested Galileo focus on the physical and mathematical arguments, and he did not mention Galileo's biblical ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney201566–76,_164–175,_187–195-138">[131]</a> In February 1616, an Inquisitorial commission declared heliocentrism to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". The Inquisition found that the idea of the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth, it is at least erroneous in faith".<a href="#cite_note-wcumf-139">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_V" title="Pope Paul V">Pope Paul V</a> instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to deliver this finding to Galileo, and to order him to abandon heliocentrism. On 26 February, Galileo was called to Bellarmine's residence and ordered "to abandon completely ... the opinion that the sun stands still at the centre of the world and the Earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010218-140">[133]</a> The decree of the <a href="/wiki/Congregation_of_the_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregation of the Index">Congregation of the Index</a> banned Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works until correction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010218-140">[133]</a> For the next decade, Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Maffeo <a href="/wiki/Barberini" class="mw-redirect" title="Barberini">Barberini</a> as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII" title="Pope Urban VIII">Pope Urban VIII</a> in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo and had opposed the admonition of Galileo in 1616. Galileo's resulting book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.<a href="#cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-141">[134]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_(Uffizi).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg/220px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg/330px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg/440px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei_%28Uffizi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2113" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Galilei by <a href="/wiki/Justus_Sustermans" title="Justus Sustermans">Justus Sustermans</a>, 1635</figcaption></figure> Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (<a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a> in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199782-142">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMossWallace200311-143">[136]</a> This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.<a href="#cite_note-147">[h]</a> However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings<a href="#cite_note-148">[140]</a> in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before inquisitor <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Maculani" title="Vincenzo Maculani">Vincenzo Maculani</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Criminal_charge" title="Criminal charge">charged</a>. Throughout his trial, Galileo steadfastly maintained that since 1616 he had faithfully kept his promise not to hold any of the condemned opinions, and initially he denied even defending them. However, he was eventually persuaded to admit that, contrary to his true intention, a reader of his Dialogue could well have obtained the impression that it was intended to be a defence of Copernicanism. In view of Galileo's rather implausible denial that he had ever held Copernican ideas after 1616 or ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, concluded with his being threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he maintained his denial despite the threat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994171–175-149">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2010308–317-150">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGingerich1992117–118-151">[143]</a> The sentence of the Inquisition was delivered on 22 June. It was in three essential parts: <ul><li>Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (though he was never formally charged with heresy, relieving him of facing corporal punishment),<a href="#cite_note-152">[144]</a> namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "<a href="/wiki/Abjure" class="mw-redirect" title="Abjure">abjure</a>, curse and detest" those opinions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantoli2005139-153">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro1989288–293-154">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantoli2005140-155">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005282–284-156">[148]</a></li> <li>He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198938,_291,_306-157">[149]</a> On the following day, this was commuted to house arrest, under which he remained for the rest of his life.<a href="#cite_note-158">[150]</a></li> <li>His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978367-159">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994184-160">[152]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E_pur_si_muove.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/E_pur_si_muove.jpg/220px-E_pur_si_muove.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/E_pur_si_muove.jpg/330px-E_pur_si_muove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/E_pur_si_muove.jpg/440px-E_pur_si_muove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1780" /></a><figcaption>Portrait, originally attributed to Murillo, of Galileo gazing at the words "E pur si muove" (<a href="/wiki/E_pur_si_muove!" class="mw-redirect" title="E pur si muove!">And yet it moves</a>) (not legible in this image) scratched on the wall of his prison cell. The attribution and narrative surrounding the painting have since been contested.</figcaption></figure> According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "<a href="/wiki/E_pur_si_muove!" class="mw-redirect" title="E pur si muove!">And yet it moves</a>". There was a claim that a 1640s painting by the Spanish painter <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Murillo" title="Bartolomé Esteban Murillo">Bartolomé Esteban Murillo</a> or an artist of his school, in which the words were hidden until restoration work in 1911, depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently gazing at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest known written account of the legend dates to a century after his death. Based on the painting, <a href="/wiki/Stillman_Drake" title="Stillman Drake">Stillman Drake</a> wrote "there is no doubt now that the famous words were already attributed to Galileo before his death".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978356–357-161">[153]</a> However, an intensive investigation by astrophysicist <a href="/wiki/Mario_Livio" title="Mario Livio">Mario Livio</a> has revealed that said painting is most probably a copy of an 1837 painting by the Flemish painter Roman-Eugene Van Maldeghem.<a href="#cite_note-162">[154]</a> After a period with the friendly <a href="/wiki/Ascanio_II_Piccolomini" title="Ascanio II Piccolomini">Ascanio Piccolomini</a> (the Archbishop of <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at <a href="/wiki/Arcetri" title="Arcetri">Arcetri</a> near Florence in 1634, where he spent part of his life under house arrest. Galileo was ordered to read the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Penitential_Psalms" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Penitential Psalms">Seven Penitential Psalms</a> once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieved him of the burden after securing <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical" title="Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> permission to take it upon herself.<a href="#cite_note-163">[155]</a> It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, <a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a>. Here he summarised work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength of materials</a>, published in Holland to avoid the censor. This book was highly praised by Albert Einstein.<a href="#cite_note-164">[156]</a> As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He went completely blind in 1638 and developed a painful <a href="/wiki/Hernia" title="Hernia">hernia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice.<a href="#cite_note-JoCarney-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dava_Sobel" title="Dava Sobel">Dava Sobel</a> argues that prior to Galileo's 1633 trial and judgement for heresy, Pope Urban VIII had become preoccupied with court intrigue and problems of state and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that the problem of Galileo was presented to the pope by court insiders and enemies of Galileo. Having been accused of weakness in defending the church, Urban reacted against Galileo out of anger and fear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000232–234-165">[157]</a> Mario Livio places Galileo and his discoveries in modern scientific and social contexts. In particular, he argues that the Galileo affair has its counterpart in science denial.<a href="#cite_note-166">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG/220px-Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG/330px-Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG/440px-Tomb_of_Galileo_Galilei.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1231" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption>Tomb of Galileo, <a href="/wiki/Basilica_di_Santa_Croce_di_Firenze" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze">Santa Croce</a>, Florence</figcaption></figure> Galileo continued to receive visitors until his death on 8 January 1642, aged 77, following a fever and heart palpitations.<a href="#cite_note-JoCarney-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[159]</a> The Grand Duke of Tuscany, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_II_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Ferdinando II</a>, wished to bury him in the main body of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_di_Santa_Croce_di_Firenze" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze">Basilica of Santa Croce</a>, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199-168">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000378-169">[161]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo%E2%80%99s_finger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Galileo%E2%80%99s_finger.jpg/170px-Galileo%E2%80%99s_finger.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Galileo%E2%80%99s_finger.jpg/255px-Galileo%E2%80%99s_finger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Galileo%E2%80%99s_finger.jpg/340px-Galileo%E2%80%99s_finger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4284" data-file-height="5712" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_middle_finger" title="Galileo's middle finger">Galileo's middle finger</a> from his right hand</figcaption></figure> These plans were dropped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199-168">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000378-169">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994207-170">[162]</a> because Galileo had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "vehement suspicion of heresy".<a href="#cite_note-171">[163]</a> He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199-168">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000380-172">[164]</a> He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003200-173">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000380–384-174">[166]</a> during this move, three fingers and a tooth were removed from his remains.<a href="#cite_note-175">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_middle_finger" title="Galileo's middle finger">One of these fingers</a> is currently on exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Galileo" title="Museo Galileo">Museo Galileo</a> in Florence, Italy.<a href="#cite_note-176">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_contributions">Scientific contributions</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">This and other facts, not few in number or less worth knowing, I have succeeded in proving; and what I consider more important, there have been opened up to this vast and most excellent science, of which my work is merely the beginning, ways and means by which other minds more acute than mine will explore its remote corners.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_methods">Scientific methods</h3></div> Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiments and mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994204–205-177">[169]</a> More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a>, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Galilei" title="Vincenzo Galilei">Vincenzo Galilei</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lutenist</a> and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension.<a href="#cite_note-178">[170]</a> These observations lay within the framework of the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras#Musical_theories_and_investigations" title="Pythagoras">Pythagorean</a> tradition of music, well known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related to music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.<a href="#cite_note-179">[171]</a> Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">laws of nature</a> are mathematical. In <a href="/wiki/The_Assayer#Science,_mathematics,_and_philosophy" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a>, he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1957237–238-180">[172]</a> His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallace1984-181">[173]</a> His work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Galileo showed a modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabola</a>, both in terms of <a href="/wiki/Conic_section" title="Conic section">conic sections</a> and in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Ordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinate">ordinate</a> (y) varying as the square of the <a href="/wiki/Abscissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Abscissa">abscissa</a> (x). Galileo further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal <a href="/wiki/Trajectory" title="Trajectory">trajectory</a> of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of <a href="/wiki/Air_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Air resistance">air resistance</a> or other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204-182">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954250–252-183">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890274–275-184">[176]</a> but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204-182">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954252-185">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890275-186">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy_2">Astronomy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg/220px-Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg/330px-Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg/440px-Galileo_telescope_replica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the <a href="/wiki/Griffith_Observatory" title="Griffith Observatory">Griffith Observatory</a></figcaption></figure> Using his <a href="/wiki/Refracting_telescope" title="Refracting telescope">refracting telescope</a>, Galileo observed in late 1609 that the surface of the Moon is not smooth.<a href="#cite_note-:0-34">[34]</a> Early the next year, he observed the four largest moons of Jupiter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199417-50">[49]</a> Later in 1610, he observed the phases of Venus—a proof of heliocentrism—as well as Saturn, though he thought the planet's rings were two other planets.<a href="#cite_note-:2-66">[64]</a> In 1612, he observed Neptune and noted its motion, but did not identify it as a planet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrakeKowal1980-68">[66]</a> Galileo made studies of sunspots,<a href="#cite_note-:3-69">[67]</a> the Milky Way, and made various observations about stars, including how to measure their apparent size without a telescope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Helden198575-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChalmers199925-80">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1953361–362-81">[78]</a> He coined the term <a href="/wiki/Aurora_Borealis" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora Borealis">Aurora Borealis</a> in 1619 from the Roman goddess of the dawn and the Greek name for the north wind, to describe lights in the northern and southern sky when particles from the solar wind energise the magnetosphere.<a href="#cite_note-187">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engineering">Engineering</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_at_Mantua.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_at_Mantua.jpg/260px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_at_Mantua.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_at_Mantua.jpg/390px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_at_Mantua.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_at_Mantua.jpg/520px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_at_Mantua.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1251" data-file-height="952" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Self-Portrait_in_a_Circle_of_Friends_from_Mantua" title="Self-Portrait in a Circle of Friends from Mantua">Self-Portrait in a Circle of Friends from Mantua</a> by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>, 1602-06. Galilei is the third man on the left. The picture depicts the Aurora Borealis in the distance.</figcaption></figure> Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, as distinct from pure <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo devised and improved a <a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)" title="Sector (instrument)">geometric and military compass</a> suitable for use by <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">gunners</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveyors</a>. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Niccolò Tartaglia">Niccolò Tartaglia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guidobaldo_del_Monte" title="Guidobaldo del Monte">Guidobaldo del Monte</a>. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> for <a href="/wiki/Round_shot" title="Round shot">cannonballs</a> of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular <a href="/wiki/Polygon" title="Polygon">polygon</a>, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker <a href="/wiki/Marc%27Antonio_Mazzoleni" title="Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni">Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni</a> produced more than 100 of these compasses, which Galileo sold (along with an instruction manual he wrote) for 50 lire and offered a course of instruction in the use of the compasses for 120 lire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReston200056-188">[180]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery,_2009-11-24.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg/220px-Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg/330px-Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg/440px-Galileo%27s_geometrical_and_military_compass_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3473" data-file-height="1955" /></a><figcaption>Galileo's <a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)" title="Sector (instrument)">geometrical and military compass</a>, thought to have been made c. 1604 by his personal instrument-maker <a href="/wiki/Marc%27Antonio_Mazzoleni" title="Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni">Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni</a></figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology" title="Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology">1593</a>, Galileo constructed a <a href="/wiki/Galileo_thermometer" title="Galileo thermometer">thermometer</a>, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harriot" title="Thomas Harriot">Thomas Harriot</a> and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Demisiani" title="Giovanni Demisiani">Giovanni Demisiani</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200043-189">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978196-190">[182]</a> at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince <a href="/wiki/Federico_Cesi" title="Federico Cesi">Federico Cesi</a> to make Galileo a member of his <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[183]</a> In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978163–164-192">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890163-193">[185]</a> By 1624, Galileo had used a compound <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978289-194">[186]</a> and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286-195">[187]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Linceans</a> played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Faber" title="Giovanni Faber">Giovanni Faber</a> coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope".<a href="#cite_note-196">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a> Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_microscope_technology" title="Timeline of microscope technology">use of a compound microscope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286-195">[187]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Pendulum_Clock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Galileo_Pendulum_Clock.jpg/220px-Galileo_Pendulum_Clock.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Galileo_Pendulum_Clock.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>The earliest known pendulum clock design, conceived by Galileo Galilei</figcaption></figure> In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits, one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life, but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini" title="Giovanni Domenico Cassini">Giovanni Domenico Cassini</a> in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used to survey France, and later by <a href="/wiki/Zebulon_Pike" title="Zebulon Pike">Zebulon Pike</a> of the midwestern United States in 1806. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required the development of a practical portable <a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">marine chronometer</a>, such as that of <a href="/wiki/John_Harrison" title="John Harrison">John Harrison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[190]</a> Late in his life, when totally blind, Galileo designed an <a href="/wiki/Escapement" title="Escapement">escapement</a> mechanism for a pendulum clock (called <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_escapement" title="Galileo's escapement">Galileo's escapement</a>), although no clock using this was built until after the first fully operational pendulum clock was made by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> in the 1650s.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Galileo was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to alleviate river flooding. In 1630 Mario Guiducci was probably instrumental in ensuring that he was consulted on a <a href="/wiki/Mario_Guiducci#Hydrology_of_the_Bisenzio_River" title="Mario Guiducci">scheme by Bartolotti</a> to cut a new channel for the <a href="/wiki/Bisenzio_(river)" title="Bisenzio (river)">Bisenzio River</a> near Florence.<a href="#cite_note-199">[191]</a> An issue with simple <a href="/wiki/Ball_bearing" title="Ball bearing">ball bearings</a> is that the balls rub against each other, causing additional friction. This can be reduced by enclosing each individual ball within a cage. The captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described by Galileo in the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-Corfield_encyc-200">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tito_Lessi_-_Galileo_and_Viviani.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tito_Lessi_-_Galileo_and_Viviani.jpg/220px-Tito_Lessi_-_Galileo_and_Viviani.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tito_Lessi_-_Galileo_and_Viviani.jpg/330px-Tito_Lessi_-_Galileo_and_Viviani.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Tito_Lessi_-_Galileo_and_Viviani.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>Galileo e <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani" title="Vincenzo Viviani">Viviani</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Tito_Lessi" title="Tito Lessi">Tito Lessi</a>, 1892</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg/220px-Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg/330px-Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg/440px-Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1515" data-file-height="1627" /></a><figcaption>Dome of the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Pisa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral of Pisa">Cathedral of Pisa</a> with the "lamp of Galileo"</figcaption></figure>Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, was a precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> developed by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pendulum">Pendulum</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pendulum#History" title="Pendulum">Pendulum § History</a></div> Galileo conducted several experiments with <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulums</a>. It is popularly believed (thanks to the biography by <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani" title="Vincenzo Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a>) that these began by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse as a timer. The first recorded interest in pendulums made by Galileo was in his posthumously published notes titled <a href="/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" title="De motu antiquiora">On Motion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-201">[193]</a> but later experiments are described in his Two New Sciences. Galileo claimed that a simple pendulum is <a href="/wiki/Pendulum#Period_of_oscillation" title="Pendulum">isochronous</a>, i.e. that its swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a>. In fact, this is only approximately true,<a href="#cite_note-202">[194]</a> as was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sound_frequency">Sound frequency</h4></div> Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_pump">Water pump</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump#History" title="Vacuum pump">Vacuum pump § History</a></div> By the 17th century, water pump designs had improved to the point that they produced measurable vacuums, but this was not immediately understood. What was known was that suction pumps could not pull water beyond a certain height: 18 Florentine yards according to a measurement taken around 1635, or about 34 feet (10 m).<a href="#cite_note-:4-203">[195]</a> This limit was a concern in irrigation projects, mine drainage, and decorative water fountains planned by the Duke of Tuscany, so the duke commissioned Galileo to investigate the problem. In his Two New Sciences (1638) Galileo suggested, incorrectly, that the column of water pulled up by a water pump would break of its own weight once reaching beyond 34 feet.<a href="#cite_note-:4-203">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Speed_of_light">Speed of light</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light#History" title="Speed of light">Speed of light § History</a></div> In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method to measure the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light#Measurement" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.<a href="#cite_note-204">[196]</a> Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine <a href="/wiki/Accademia_del_Cimento" title="Accademia del Cimento">Accademia del Cimento</a> repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result.<a href="#cite_note-205">[197]</a> The speed of light has since been determined to be far too fast to be measured by such methods. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galilean_invariance">Galilean invariance</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">Galilean invariance</a></div> Galileo put forward <a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">the basic principle of relativity</a>, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Special_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Special theory of relativity">special theory of relativity</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Falling_bodies">Falling bodies</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory#European_Renaissance" title="History of gravitational theory">History of gravitational theory § European Renaissance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Free_fall#History" title="Free fall">Free fall § History</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="John_Philoponus,_Nicole_Oresme,_and_Domingo_de_Soto">John Philoponus, Nicole Oresme, and Domingo de Soto</h5></div> That unequal weights would fall with the same speed may have been proposed as early as by the Roman philosopher <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[198]</a> Observations that similarly sized objects of different weights fall at the same speed are documented in sixth-century works by <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, of which Galileo was aware.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009305–306-207">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[200]</a> In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a> had derived the time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClagett1968561-209">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1996103-210">[202]</a> and in the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto" title="Domingo de Soto">Domingo de Soto</a> had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198-211">[203]</a> De Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Delft_tower_experiment">Delft tower experiment</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Delft_tower_experiment" title="Delft tower experiment">Delft tower experiment</a></div> In 1586, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin">Simon Stevin</a> (commonly known as Stevinus) and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Cornets_de_Groot" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Cornets de Groot">Jan Cornets de Groot</a> dropped lead balls from the <a href="/wiki/Nieuwe_Kerk_(Delft)" title="Nieuwe Kerk (Delft)">Nieuwe Kerk</a> in the Dutch city of <a href="/wiki/Delft" title="Delft">Delft</a>. The experiment established that objects of identical size, but different masses, fall at the same speed.<a href="#cite_note-Asimov-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[204]</a> While the Delft tower experiment had been a success, it was not conducted with the same scientific rigour that later experiments were. Stevin was forced to rely on audio feedback (caused by the spheres impacting a wooden platform below) to deduce that the balls had fallen at the same speed. The experiment was given less credence than the more substantive work of Galileo Galilei and his famous Leaning Tower of Pisa thought experiment of 1589. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment">Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment" title="Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment">Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/220px--Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="161" data-durationhint="48" data-mwtitle="Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="196" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="328" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=tok&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tok" label="toki pona ‪(tok)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>During the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_15" title="Apollo 15">Apollo 15</a> mission in 1971, astronaut <a href="/wiki/David_Scott" title="David Scott">David Scott</a> showed that Galileo was right: acceleration is the same for all bodies subject to gravity on the Moon, even for a hammer and a feather.</figcaption></figure>A biography by Galileo's pupil <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani" title="Vincenzo Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a> stated that Galileo had <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment" title="Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment">dropped balls</a> of the same material, but different <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">masses</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa" title="Leaning Tower of Pisa">Leaning Tower of Pisa</a> to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–20-213">[205]</a> This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake19789-214">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199431-215">[207]</a> While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> which did not actually take place.<a href="#cite_note-216">[208]</a> An exception is Stillman Drake,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–21,_414–416-217">[209]</a> who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it. However, most of Galileo's experiments with falling bodies were carried out using inclined planes where both the issues of timing and <a href="/wiki/Air_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Air resistance">air resistance</a> were much reduced.<a href="#cite_note-218">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Two_New_Sciences">Two New Sciences</h5></div> In his 1638 Two New Sciences, Galileo's character <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Salviati" title="Filippo Salviati">Salviati</a>, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. Salviati also held that this could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weights but which were otherwise similar.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Time-squared_law">Time-squared law</h5></div> Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994203-219">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954251–254-220">[212]</a> He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (d∝t2).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198-211">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954174-221">[213]</a> Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inertia">Inertia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion#History" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion § History</a></div> Galileo also concluded that objects retain their velocity in the absence of any impediments to their motion,<a href="#cite_note-222">[214]</a> thereby contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that a body could only remain in so-called <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics#Unnatural_motion" title="Aristotelian physics">"violent", "unnatural", or "forced" motion</a> so long as an agent of change (the "mover") continued to act on it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJung2011504-223">[215]</a> Philosophical ideas relating to <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a> had been proposed by <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a>. Galileo stated:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954268-224">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1974217[268]-225">[217]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Imagine any particle projected along a horizontal plane without friction; then we know, from what has been more fully explained in the preceding pages, that this particle will move along this same plane with a motion which is uniform and perpetual, provided the plane has no limits.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, Fourth Day</cite></div></blockquote> But the surface of the earth would be an instance of such a plane if all its unevenness could be removed.<a href="#cite_note-226">[218]</a> This was incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a> (first law), except for the direction of the motion: Newton's is straight, Galileo's is circular (for example, the planets' motion around the Sun, which according to him, and unlike Newton, takes place in absence of gravity). According to <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Jan_Dijksterhuis" title="Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis">Dijksterhuis</a> Galileo's conception of inertia as a tendency to persevere in circular motion is closely related to his Copernican conviction.<a href="#cite_note-227">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3></div> While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day, including dozens of examples of an inverse proportion <a href="/wiki/Square_root" title="Square root">square root</a> method passed down from <a href="/wiki/Fibonacci" title="Fibonacci">Fibonacci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus#Mathematics" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxian theory of proportion</a>, as set forth in the fifth book of <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Euclid's Elements</a>. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Niccolò Tartaglia">Tartaglia</a> and others; but by the end of Galileo's life, it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>. The concept now named <a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_paradox" title="Galileo's paradox">Galileo's paradox</a> was not original with him. His proposed solution, that <a href="/wiki/Infinite_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinite number">infinite numbers</a> cannot be compared, is no longer considered useful.<a href="#cite_note-228">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Church_reassessments">Later Church reassessments</h3></div> The Galileo affair was largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005299-229">[221]</a> In 1741, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a> authorised the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347-230">[222]</a> which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005303–304-231">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347-230">[222]</a> In 1758, the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Index of prohibited books</a>. However, the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2005307-232">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005347-230">[222]</a> All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMullin20056-233">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne2005346-234">[226]</a> Interest in the Galileo affair was revived in the early 19th century when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_flat_Earth" title="Myth of the flat Earth">myth of the flat Earth</a>) to attack Roman Catholicism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344-9">[9]</a> Interest in it has waxed and waned ever since. In 1939, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a>, in his first speech to the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Pontifical Academy of Sciences">Pontifical Academy of Sciences</a>, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments".<a href="#cite_note-235">[227]</a> His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber, wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."<a href="#cite_note-236">[228]</a> On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the <a href="/wiki/Sapienza_University_of_Rome" title="Sapienza University of Rome">Sapienza University of Rome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199481-237">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeyerabend1995178-238">[230]</a> Cardinal Ratzinger (later <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a>) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498-239">[231]</a> Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a>, whom he quoted as saying: "The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and it took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Its verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498-239">[231]</a> The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say: "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatzinger199498-239">[231]</a> On 31 October 1992, <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> acknowledged that the Inquisition had erred in condemning Galileo for asserting that the Earth revolves around the Sun. "John Paul said the theologians who condemned Galileo did not recognize the formal distinction between the Bible and its interpretation."<a href="#cite_note-240">[232]</a> In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Cabibbo" title="Nicola Cabibbo">Nicola Cabibbo</a>, announced a plan to honour Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwenDelaney2008-241">[233]</a> In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-242">[234]</a> A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that the plan to erect a statue of Galileo on the grounds of the Vatican had been suspended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwen2009-243">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_modern_science">Impact on modern science</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/220px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/330px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/440px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Galileo showing the <a href="/wiki/Doge_of_Venice" title="Doge of Venice">Doge of Venice</a> how to use the telescope (fresco by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Bertini" title="Giuseppe Bertini">Giuseppe Bertini</a>, 1858)</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawking1988179-244">[236]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> called him the father of modern science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1954271-245">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[238]</a> Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> discovered by Galileo (<a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)" title="Io (moon)">Io</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a> and <a href="/wiki/Callisto_(moon)" title="Callisto (moon)">Callisto</a>) as the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons" title="Galilean moons">Galilean moons</a>. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)">Galileo spacecraft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-247">[239]</a> Partly because the year 2009 was the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> scheduled it to be the <a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Astronomy" title="International Year of Astronomy">International Year of Astronomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_Galilei01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Galileo_Galilei01.jpg/170px-Galileo_Galilei01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Galileo_Galilei01.jpg/255px-Galileo_Galilei01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Galileo_Galilei01.jpg/340px-Galileo_Galilei01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Statue outside the <a href="/wiki/Uffizi" title="Uffizi">Uffizi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg/170px-Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg/255px-Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg/340px-Statue_of_Galileo_by_Pio_Fedi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4224" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Galileo by <a href="/wiki/Pio_Fedi" title="Pio Fedi">Pio Fedi</a> (1815–1892) inside the Lanyon Building of the <a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast" title="Queen's University Belfast">Queen's University Belfast</a>. Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Whitla" title="William Whitla">William Whitla</a> (Professor of <a href="/wiki/Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="Materia Medica">Materia Medica</a> 1890–1919) brought the statue back from Italy and donated it to the university.</figcaption></figure> Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water<a href="#cite_note-249">[241]</a> and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass.<a href="#cite_note-250">[242]</a> His early works on dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his circa 1590 Pisan <a href="/wiki/De_Motu_Antiquiora" class="mw-redirect" title="De Motu Antiquiora">De Motu</a> (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian–Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum, bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Philoponan <a href="/wiki/Impetus_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Impetus dynamics">impetus dynamics</a> in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Galileo's 1610 <a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">The Starry Messenger</a> (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of: <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons" title="Galilean moons">Galilean moons</a></li> <li>the roughness of the Moon's surface</li> <li>the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a></li> <li>differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light</li></ul> Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled <a href="/wiki/Letters_on_Sunspots" title="Letters on Sunspots">Letters on Sunspots</a> suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible.<a href="#cite_note-251">[243]</a> The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615, Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the "<a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand_Duchess_Christina" title="Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina">Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina</a>" which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.<a href="#cite_note-252">[244]</a> In 1616, after the order by the Inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the "<a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Tides" title="Discourse on the Tides">Discourse on the Tides</a>" (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Orsini_(cardinal)" title="Alessandro Orsini (cardinal)">Cardinal Orsini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-253">[245]</a> In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.<a href="#cite_note-254">[246]</a> In 1623, Galileo published <a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a>—Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.<a href="#cite_note-255">[247]</a> Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non-geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned from publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his <a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences</a> (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in <a href="/wiki/House_of_Elzevir" title="House of Elzevir">Holland</a>, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Published_written_works">Published written works</h3></div> Galileo's main written works are as follows:<a href="#cite_note-256">[248]</a> <ul><li>The Little Balance (1586; in Italian: La Bilancetta)</li> <li>On Motion (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1590; in Latin: <a href="/wiki/De_Motu_Antiquiora" class="mw-redirect" title="De Motu Antiquiora">De Motu Antiquiora</a>)<a href="#cite_note-257">[249]</a></li> <li>Mechanics (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600; in Italian: Le Meccaniche)</li> <li>The Operations of Geometrical and Military Compass (1606; in Italian: Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">The Starry Messenger</a> (1610; in Latin: Sidereus Nuncius)</li> <li>Discourse on Floating Bodies (1612; in Italian: Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua, o che in quella si muovono, "Discourse on Bodies that Stay Atop Water, or Move in It")</li> <li>History and Demonstration Concerning Sunspots (1613; in Italian: Istoria e dimostrazioni intorno alle macchie solari; work based on the Three Letters on Sunspots, Tre lettere sulle macchie solari, 1612)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand_Duchess_Christina" title="Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina">Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina</a>" (1615; published in 1636)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Tides" title="Discourse on the Tides">Discourse on the Tides</a>" (1616; in Italian: Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)</li> <li>Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian: Discorso delle Comete)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a> (1623; in Italian: Il Saggiatore)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" title="Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a> (1632; in Italian: Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences</a> (1638; in Italian: Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_library">Personal library</h3></div> In the last years of his life, Galileo Galilei kept a library of at least 598 volumes (560 of which have been identified) at <a href="/wiki/Villa_Il_Gioiello" title="Villa Il Gioiello">Villa Il Gioiello</a>, on the outskirts of Florence.<a href="#cite_note-258">[250]</a> Under the restrictions of house arrest, he was forbidden to write or publish his ideas. However, he continued to receive visitors right up to his death and it was through them that he remained supplied with the latest scientific texts from Northern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-librarything.com-259">[251]</a> Galileo's will does not refer to his collection of books and manuscripts. An itemized inventory was only later produced after Galileo's death, when the majority of his possessions including his library passed to his son, Vincenzo Galilei Jr. On his death in 1649, the collection was inherited by his wife Sestilia Bocchineri.<a href="#cite_note-librarything.com-259">[251]</a> Galileo's books, personal papers and unedited manuscripts were then collected by <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Viviani" title="Vincenzo Viviani">Vincenzo Viviani</a>, his former assistant and student, with the intent of preserving his old teacher's works in published form. It was a project that never materialised and in his final will, Viviani bequeathed a significant portion of the collection to the <a href="/wiki/Hospital_of_Santa_Maria_Nuova" title="Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova">Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova</a> in Florence, where there already existed an extensive library. The value of Galileo's possessions was not realised, and duplicate copies were dispersed to other libraries, such as the <a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Comunale_degli_Intronati" title="Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati">Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati</a>, the public library in Sienna. In a later attempt to specialise the library's holdings, volumes unrelated to medicine were transferred to the Biblioteca Magliabechiana, an early foundation for what was to become the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, the <a href="/wiki/National_Central_Library_(Florence)" title="National Central Library (Florence)">National Central Library</a> in Florence.<a href="#cite_note-librarything.com-259">[251]</a> A small portion of Viviani's collection, including the manuscripts of Galileo and those of his peers <a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Castelli" title="Benedetto Castelli">Benedetto Castelli</a>, was left to his nephew, Abbot Jacopo Panzanini. This minor collection was preserved until Panzanini's death when it passed to his great-nephews, Carlo and Angelo Panzanini. The books from both Galileo and Viviani's collections began to disperse as the heirs failed to protect their inheritance. Their servants sold several of the volumes for waste paper. Around 1750 the Florentine senator Giovanni Battista Clemente de'Nelli heard of this and purchased the books and manuscripts from the shopkeepers, and the remainder of Viviani's collection from the Panzanini brothers. As recounted in Nelli's memoirs: "My great fortune in obtaining such a wonderful treasure so cheaply came about through the ignorance of the people selling it, who were not aware of the value of those manuscripts..." The library remained in Nelli's care until his death in 1793. Knowing the value of their father's collected manuscripts, Nelli's sons attempted to sell what was left to them to the French government. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_III,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" title="Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany</a> intervened in the sale and purchased the entire collection. The archive of manuscripts, printed books and personal papers was deposited with the <a href="/wiki/National_Central_Library_(Florence)" title="National Central Library (Florence)">Biblioteca Palatina</a> in Florence, merging the collection with the Biblioteca Magliabechiana in 1861.<a href="#cite_note-librarything.com-259">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_science#Galileo_Galilei" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and science">Catholic Church and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seconds_pendulum" title="Seconds pendulum">Seconds pendulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_Galileo" title="Tribune of Galileo">Tribune of Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Il_Gioiello" title="Villa Il Gioiello">Villa Il Gioiello</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> i.e., invisible to the naked eye. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinton2004212-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994166-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1970191–196-73">[71]</a> This did not apply, however, to the modified version of Tycho's system introduced by his protégé, <a href="/wiki/Longomontanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Longomontanus">Longomontanus</a>, in which the Earth was assumed to rotate. Longomontanus's system could account for the apparent motions of sunspots just as well as the Copernican. </li> <li id="cite_note-bible-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bible_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bible_125-1">b</a> Such passages include <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalm</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Psalms#Psalm_93" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (World English)/Psalms">93:1</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Psalms#Psalm_96" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (World English)/Psalms">96:10</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles" title="Books of Chronicles">1 Chronicles</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/1_Chronicles#Chapter_16" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (World English)/1 Chronicles">16:30</a> which include text stating, "The world also is established. It can not be moved." In the same manner, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Psalms#Psalm_104" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (World English)/Psalms">Psalm 104:5</a> says, "He (the Lord) laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be moved forever." Further, <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(World_English)/Ecclesiastes#Chapter_1" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (World English)/Ecclesiastes">1:5</a> states, "The sun also rises, and the sun goes down, and hurries to its place where it rises", and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Joshua</a> 10:14 states, "Sun, stand still on Gibeon...".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodrick196595-124">[121]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Aberration_(astronomy)" title="Aberration (astronomy)">aberration of light</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_Bradley" title="James Bradley">James Bradley</a> in January 1729 was the first conclusive evidence for the movement of the Earth, and hence for <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a>, Copernicus and Kepler's theories; it was announced in January 1729.<a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a> The second evidence was produced by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Bessel">Friedrich Bessel</a> in 1838. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Finocchiaro" title="Maurice Finocchiaro">Maurice Finocchiaro</a>, this was done in a friendly and gracious manner, out of curiosity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro198927–28-129">[124]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraney201571-136">[130]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Drake asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers Lodovico delle Colombe and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesare Cremonini</a>, rather than Urban.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978355-144">[137]</a> He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1953491-145">[138]</a> Even <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in <a href="/wiki/The_Sleepwalkers_(Koestler_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sleepwalkers (Koestler book)">The Sleepwalkers</a>, after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler1990483-146">[139]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sFiJFuzRVFQC&pg=PA83">Science: The Definitive Visual Guide</a>. DK. 2009. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-6490-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-6490-9"><bdi>978-0-7566-6490-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%3A+The+Definitive+Visual+Guide&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=DK&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7566-6490-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsFiJFuzRVFQC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake19781-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake19781_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFModinos2013" class="citation book cs1">Modinos, A. (2013). 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Dordrecht Heidelberg; London; New York: Springer. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8644-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8644-0"><bdi>978-90-481-8644-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Engineer&rft.place=Dordrecht+Heidelberg%3B+London%3B+New+York&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-481-8644-0&rft.aulast=Valleriani&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009329–344_9-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHannam2009">Hannam 2009</a>, pp. 329–344. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994127–131-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994127–131_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 127–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201074-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro201074_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro2010">Finocchiaro 2010</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199747-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinocchiaro199747_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFinocchiaro1997">Finocchiaro 1997</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilliam200596-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilliam200596_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHilliam2005">Hilliam 2005</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-JoCarney-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JoCarney_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JoCarney_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JoCarney_14-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarney2000" class="citation book cs1">Carney, J. 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A History. 1543–2001</a>. 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Galileo and the Science Deniers. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-9473-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-9473-3"><bdi>978-1-5011-9473-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+and+the+Science+Deniers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-5011-9473-3&rft.aulast=Livio&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerard1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gerard, J. (1913). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Galileo_Galilei">"Galileo Galilei" </a>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Gerard&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199_168-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003199_168-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSheaArtigas2003">Shea & Artigas 2003</a>, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000378-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel2000378_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel2000378_169-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 378. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994207-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994207_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100805135633/http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=100359">Monumental tomb of Galileo</a>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_and_Museum_of_the_History_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute and Museum of the History of Science">Institute and Museum of the History of Science</a>, Florence, Italy. Retrieved 15 February 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000380-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel2000380_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 380. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003200-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESheaArtigas2003200_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSheaArtigas2003">Shea & Artigas 2003</a>, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2000380–384-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel2000380–384_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, pp. 380–384. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/section/GalileanIconographyRelics.html">Section of Room VII Galilean iconography and relics</a>, Museo Galileo. Accessed on line 27 May 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/object/MiddleFingerGalileosRightHand.html">Middle finger of Galileo's right hand</a>, Museo Galileo. Accessed on line 27 May 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994204–205-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994204–205_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 204–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1984" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, H. F. (1984). Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at. Springer. pp. 78–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1637-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-1637-8"><bdi>978-90-277-1637-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantifying+Music%3A+The+Science+of+Music+at&rft.pages=78-84&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-90-277-1637-8&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=H.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFField2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_V._Field" title="Judith V. Field">Field, J. V.</a> (2005). Piero Della Francesca: A Mathematician's Art. Yale University Press. pp. 317–320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10342-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10342-7"><bdi>978-0-300-10342-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Piero+Della+Francesca%3A+A+Mathematician%27s+Art&rft.pages=317-320&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10342-7&rft.aulast=Field&rft.aufirst=J.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1957237–238-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1957237–238_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1957">Drake 1957</a>, pp. 237–238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallace1984-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWallace1984_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWallace1984">Wallace 1984</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994202–204_182-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, pp. 202–204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954250–252-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954250–252_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1954">Galilei 1954</a>, pp. 250–252. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890274–275-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890274–275_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFavaro1890">Favaro 1890</a>, pp. 274–275. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954252-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalilei1954252_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalilei1954">Galilei 1954</a>, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890275-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890275_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFavaro1890">Favaro 1890</a>, p. 275. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/av/41753193">"The Aurora Borealis was named by Galileo in 1619"</a>. BBC Weather. 25 October 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Weather&rft.atitle=The+Aurora+Borealis+was+named+by+Galileo+in+1619&rft.date=2017-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fweather%2Fav%2F41753193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReston200056-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReston200056_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReston2000">Reston 2000</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel200043-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESobel200043_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSobel2000">Sobel 2000</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978196-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978196_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Rosen, Edward, The Naming of the Telescope (1947) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978163–164-192"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978163–164_192-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, pp. 163–164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890163-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFavaro1890163_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFavaro1890">Favaro 1890</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978289-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978289_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 289. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake1978286_195-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 286. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409010159/http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf">"brunelleschi.imss.fi.it "Il microscopio di Galileo""</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=brunelleschi.imss.fi.it+%22Il+microscopio+di+Galileo%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbrunelleschi.imss.fi.it%2Fesplora%2Fmicroscopio%2Fdswmedia%2Frisorse%2Ftesti_completi.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Van Helden, Al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html">Galileo Timeline</a> (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. Retrieved 28 August 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Longitude: the true story of a lone genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time, Dava Sobel Penguin, 1996 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-025879-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-025879-0">978-0-14-025879-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCesare_S._Maffioli2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cesare S. Maffioli (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28086359">"Galileo, Guiducci and the Engineer Bartolotti on the Bisenzio River"</a>. academia.edu. Galileana (V). Retrieved 11 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=academia.edu&rft.atitle=Galileo%2C+Guiducci+and+the+Engineer+Bartolotti+on+the+Bisenzio+River&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Cesare+S.+Maffioli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28086359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corfield_encyc-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Corfield_encyc_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorfield2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Corfield, Justin (2014). "Vaughan, Philip (fl. 1794)". In Kenneth E. Hendrickson III (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History. Vol. 3. Lanham (Maryland, US): Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1008. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8888-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-8888-3"><bdi>978-0-8108-8888-3</bdi></a>. <q>Vaughan is still regarded as the inventor of them, although ... some Roman Nemi ships dating from about 40 CE incorporated them into their design, and Leonardo da Vinci ... is credited with first coming up with the principle behind ball bearings, although he did not use them for his inventions. Another Italian, Galileo, described the use of a caged ball.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Vaughan%2C+Philip+%28fl.+1794%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Industrial+Revolution+in+World+History&rft.place=Lanham+%28Maryland%2C+US%29&rft.pages=1008&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-8888-3&rft.aulast=Corfield&rft.aufirst=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalileiDrabkinDrake1960" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, Galileo; Drabkin, I.E.; Drake, Stillman (1960). On Motion and On Mechanics. Madison: University of Wisconsin. p. 108.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Motion+and+On+Mechanics&rft.place=Madison&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=Galileo&rft.au=Drabkin%2C+I.E.&rft.au=Drake%2C+Stillman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton2004" class="citation book cs1">Newton, R. G. (2004). Galileo's Pendulum: From the Rhythm of Time to the Making of Matter. Harvard University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01331-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01331-5"><bdi>978-0-674-01331-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%27s+Pendulum%3A+From+the+Rhythm+of+Time+to+the+Making+of+Matter&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01331-5&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_203-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillispie1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Coulston_Gillispie" title="Charles Coulston Gillispie">Gillispie, C. C.</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char">The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 99–100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Edge+of+Objectivity%3A+An+Essay+in+the+History+of+Scientific+Ideas&rft.pages=99-100&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Gillispie&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fedgeofobjectivit00char&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)", Isis, 31 (1940): 327–379. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225–229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa (Ithaca, N.Y.: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>, 1935), p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannam2009305–306-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannam2009305–306_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHannam2009">Hannam 2009</a>, pp. 305–306. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Lemons, Don S. Drawing Physics: 2,600 Years of Discovery From Thales to Higgs. MIT Press, 2017, 80 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClagett1968561-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClagett1968561_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClagett1968">Clagett 1968</a>, p. 561. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1996103-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant1996103_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrant1996">Grant 1996</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt1994198_211-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet [The Elements of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Christoffel_Plantijn" class="mw-redirect" title="Christoffel Plantijn">Christoffel Plantijn</a>, 1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated in: <a href="/wiki/E._J._Dijksterhuis" class="mw-redirect" title="E. J. Dijksterhuis">E. J. Dijksterhuis</a>, ed., The Principal Works of Simon Stevin Amsterdam, Netherlands: C.V. Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955 vol. 1, pp. 509, 511. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–20-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake197819–20_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, pp. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake19789-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrake19789_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrake1978">Drake 1978</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharratt199431-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharratt199431_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharratt1994">Sharratt 1994</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroleau" class="citation web cs1">Groleau, R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/experiments.html">"Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. July 2002"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=Galileo%27s+Battle+for+the+Heavens.+July+2002&rft.aulast=Groleau&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fgalileo%2Fexperiments.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall2005" class="citation news cs1">Ball, P. (30 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140620021642/http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm">"Science history: setting the record straight. 30 June 2005"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a>. Chennai. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm">the original</a> on 20 June 2014. 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Retrieved 27 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tel-Aviv+University%2C+Science+and+Technology+Education+Center&rft.atitle=Galileo+Galilei+1564%E2%80%931642&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.tau.ac.il%2Fmuseum%2Fgalileo%2Fgalileo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> For details see William A. Wallace, Galileo and His Sources (Princeton University Press, 2014). </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo">"Collection of Galileo Galilei's Manuscripts and Related Translations"</a>. Retrieved 4 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Collection+of+Galileo+Galilei%27s+Manuscripts+and+Related+Translations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecho.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de%2Fcontent%2Fscientific_revolution%2Fgalileo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.librarything.com/legacylibraries/profile/GalileoGalilei">"Galileo Galilei"</a>. LibraryThing. Retrieved 23 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LibraryThing&rft.atitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.librarything.com%2Flegacylibraries%2Fprofile%2FGalileoGalilei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-librarything.com-259">^ <a href="#cite_ref-librarything.com_259-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-librarything.com_259-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-librarything.com_259-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-librarything.com_259-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.librarything.com/profile/GalileoGalilei">"Galileo Galilei: About My Library"</a>. LibraryThing. Retrieved 23 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LibraryThing&rft.atitle=Galileo+Galilei%3A+About+My+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.librarything.com%2Fprofile%2FGalileoGalilei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackwell2006" class="citation book cs1">Blackwell, R. J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/behindscenesatga0000blac">Behind the Scenes at Galileo's Trial</a>. Notre Dame: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame_Press" title="University of Notre Dame Press">University of Notre Dame Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-268-02201-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-268-02201-3"><bdi>978-0-268-02201-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behind+the+Scenes+at+Galileo%27s+Trial&rft.place=Notre+Dame&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-268-02201-3&rft.aulast=Blackwell&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbehindscenesatga0000blac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrecht1980" class="citation book cs1">Brecht, Bertolt (1980) [1938-39]. The Life of Galileo. Eyre Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-413-47140-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-413-47140-3"><bdi>0-413-47140-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Galileo&rft.pub=Eyre+Methuen&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-413-47140-3&rft.aulast=Brecht&rft.aufirst=Bertolt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodrick1965" class="citation book cs1">Brodrick, J. S. J. (1965). Galileo: the man, his work, his misfortunes. London: G. Chapman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%3A+the+man%2C+his+work%2C+his+misfortunes&rft.place=London&rft.pub=G.+Chapman&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Brodrick&rft.aufirst=J.+S.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChalmers1999" class="citation book cs1">Chalmers, A. F. (1999) [1976]. What is this thing called Science?. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-3093-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-3093-6"><bdi>978-0-7022-3093-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+this+thing+called+Science%3F&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7022-3093-6&rft.aulast=Chalmers&rft.aufirst=A.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClagett1968" class="citation book cs1">Clagett, M., ed. (1968). Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions; a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-04880-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-04880-8"><bdi>978-0-299-04880-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicole+Oresme+and+the+Medieval+Geometry+of+Qualities+and+Motions%3B+a+treatise+on+the+uniformity+and+difformity+of+intensities+known+as+Tractatus+de+configurationibus+qualitatum+et+motuum&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-299-04880-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoyne2005" class="citation book cs1">Coyne, G. V. (2005). The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth. pp. 340–359.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Church%27s+Most+Recent+Attempt+to+Dispel+the+Galileo+Myth&rft.pages=340-359&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Coyne&rft.aufirst=G.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Drake,_Stillman" class="mw-redirect" title="Drake, Stillman">Drake, S.</a> (1953). Notes to English translation of Galileo's Dialogue. pp. 467–491.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+to+English+translation+of+Galileo%27s+Dialogue&rft.pages=467-491&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1957" class="citation book cs1">Drake, S. (1957). <a href="//archive.org/details/discoveriesopini00gali_0" class="extiw" title="iarchive:discoveriesopini00gali 0">Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_%26_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Doubleday & Company">Doubleday & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-09239-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-09239-5"><bdi>978-0-385-09239-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discoveries+and+Opinions+of+Galileo&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday+%26+Company&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-385-09239-5&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1960" class="citation book cs1">Drake, S. (1960). "Introduction". Controversy on the Comets of 1618. pp. vii–xxv.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Controversy+on+the+Comets+of+1618&rft.pages=vii-xxv&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1970" class="citation book cs1">Drake, S. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galileostudiespe0000drak">Galileo Studies</a>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08283-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08283-4"><bdi>978-0-472-08283-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Studies&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-472-08283-4&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgalileostudiespe0000drak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1973" class="citation journal cs1">Drake, S. (1973). "Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Free Fall". Scientific American. 228 (5): 84–92. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973SciAm.228e..84D">1973SciAm.228e..84D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0573-84">10.1038/scientificamerican0573-84</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Galileo%27s+Discovery+of+the+Law+of+Free+Fall&rft.volume=228&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=84-92&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0573-84&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973SciAm.228e..84D&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1978" class="citation book cs1">Drake, S. (1978). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileoatwork00stil" class="extiw" title="iarchive:galileoatwork00stil">Galileo at Work</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16226-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16226-3"><bdi>978-0-226-16226-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+at+Work&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-226-16226-3&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrake1990" class="citation book cs1">Drake, S. (1990). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileo00stil_0" class="extiw" title="iarchive:galileo00stil 0">Galileo: Pioneer Scientist</a>. Toronto: The University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2725-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2725-2"><bdi>978-0-8020-2725-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%3A+Pioneer+Scientist&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=The+University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-2725-2&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakeKowal1980" class="citation journal cs1">Drake, S.; <a href="/wiki/Charles_T._Kowal" title="Charles T. Kowal">Kowal, C. T.</a> (1980). "Galileo's Sighting of Neptune". Scientific American. 243 (6): 74–81. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980SciAm.243f..74D">1980SciAm.243f..74D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1280-74">10.1038/scientificamerican1280-74</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Galileo%27s+Sighting+of+Neptune&rft.volume=243&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=74-81&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1280-74&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980SciAm.243f..74D&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Kowal%2C+C.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton2009" class="citation book cs1">Edgerton, Samuel Y. (2009). The Mirror, the Window, and the Telescope: How Renaissance Linear Perspective Changed Our Vision of the Universe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7480-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7480-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-7480-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mirror%2C+the+Window%2C+and+the+Telescope%3A+How+Renaissance+Linear+Perspective+Changed+Our+Vision+of+the+Universe&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-7480-4&rft.aulast=Edgerton&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein, A.</a> (1953). "Foreword". In Drake, S. (ed.). Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-75766-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-75766-2"><bdi>978-0-375-75766-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreword&rft.btitle=Dialogue+Concerning+the+Two+Chief+World+Systems&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-0-375-75766-2&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1954" class="citation book cs1">Einstein, A. (1954). Ideas and Opinions. Translated by Bargmann, S. London: Crown Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-285-64724-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-285-64724-4"><bdi>978-0-285-64724-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ideas+and+Opinions&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-285-64724-4&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFantoli2005" class="citation book cs1">Fantoli, A. (2005). The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial. pp. 117–149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Disputed+Injunction+and+its+Role+in+Galileo%27s+Trial&rft.pages=117-149&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Fantoli&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFavaro1890" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Favaro, A., ed. (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433057639571">Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale</a> (in Italian). Florence: Barbera. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fnyp.33433057639571">2027/nyp.33433057639571</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-09-20881-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-09-20881-0"><bdi>978-88-09-20881-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/744492762">744492762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Opere+di+Galileo+Galilei%2C+Edizione+Nazionale&rft.place=Florence&rft.pub=Barbera&rft.date=1890&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fnyp.33433057639571&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F744492762&rft.isbn=978-88-09-20881-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fnyp.33433057639571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeyerabend1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend, P.</a> (1995). <a href="//archive.org/details/killingtimeautob00feye" class="extiw" title="iarchive:killingtimeautob00feye">Killing Time: The Autobiography of Paul Feyerabend</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24531-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24531-7"><bdi>978-0-226-24531-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Killing+Time%3A+The+Autobiography+of+Paul+Feyerabend&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-226-24531-7&rft.aulast=Feyerabend&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinocchiaro2010" class="citation book cs1">Finocchiaro, M. A. (2010). Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the two Affairs. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3200-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3200-3"><bdi>978-90-481-3200-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defending+Copernicus+and+Galileo%3A+Critical+Reasoning+in+the+two+Affairs&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-481-3200-3&rft.aulast=Finocchiaro&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinocchiaro1997" class="citation book cs1">Finocchiaro, M. A. (1997). Galileo on the world systems: a new abridged translation and guide. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20548-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20548-2"><bdi>978-0-520-20548-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+on+the+world+systems%3A+a+new+abridged+translation+and+guide&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20548-2&rft.aulast=Finocchiaro&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinocchiaro1989" class="citation book cs1">Finocchiaro, M. A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06662-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06662-5"><bdi>978-0-520-06662-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Galileo+Affair%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06662-5&rft.aulast=Finocchiaro&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinocchiaro2007" class="citation journal cs1">Finocchiaro, M. A. (Fall 2007). "Book Review – The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History". The Historian. 69 (3): 601–602. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.2007.00189_68.x">10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00189_68.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144988723">144988723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historian&rft.atitle=Book+Review+%E2%80%93+The+Person+of+the+Millennium%3A+The+Unique+Impact+of+Galileo+on+World+History&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=601-602&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6563.2007.00189_68.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144988723%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Finocchiaro&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalilei1953" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, G. 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Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00449-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00449-8"><bdi>978-0-520-00449-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialogue+Concerning+the+Two+Chief+World+Systems&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-0-520-00449-8&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalilei1954" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, G. (1954) [1638, 1914]. Crew, H.; de Salvio, A. 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New York: Dover Publications Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-60099-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-60099-4"><bdi>978-0-486-60099-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialogues+Concerning+Two+New+Sciences&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-486-60099-4&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu%2Ftns_draft%2Ftns_244to279.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalileiGuiducci1960" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, G. & Guiducci, M. (1960) [1619]. "Discourse on the Comets". The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by Drake, Stillman & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Donald_O%27Malley" title="Charles Donald O'Malley">O'Malley, C. D.</a> University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 21–65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Discourse+on+the+Comets&rft.btitle=The+Controversy+on+the+Comets+of+1618&rft.pages=21-65&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Guiducci%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalilei1974" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, G. (1974). "Galileo's 1638 Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning two new sciences". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twonewsciencesin0000gali">Galileo: Two New Sciences</a>. Translated by Drake, S. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-06400-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-06400-6"><bdi>978-0-299-06400-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galileo%27s+1638+Discourses+and+mathematical+demonstrations+concerning+two+new+sciences&rft.btitle=Galileo%3A+Two+New+Sciences&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-299-06400-6&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwonewsciencesin0000gali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGingerich1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Owen_Gingerich" title="Owen Gingerich">Gingerich, O.</a> (1992). <a href="//archive.org/details/greatcopernicusc00ging_0" class="extiw" title="iarchive:greatcopernicusc00ging 0">The Great Copernican Chase and other adventures in astronomical history</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32688-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32688-9"><bdi>978-0-521-32688-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Copernican+Chase+and+other+adventures+in+astronomical+history&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32688-9&rft.aulast=Gingerich&rft.aufirst=O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraney2015" class="citation book cs1">Graney, C. (2015). Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Galileo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-268-02988-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-268-02988-3"><bdi>978-0-268-02988-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Setting+Aside+All+Authority%3A+Giovanni+Battista+Riccioli+and+the+Science+against+Copernicus+in+the+Age+of+Galileo&rft.place=Notre+Dame&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-268-02988-3&rft.aulast=Graney&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraney2010" class="citation journal cs1">Graney, C. M. (2010). "The Telescope Against Copernicus: Star Observations by Riccioli Supporting a Geocentric Universe". <a href="/wiki/Journal_for_the_History_of_Astronomy" title="Journal for the History of Astronomy">Journal for the History of Astronomy</a>. 41 (4): 453–467. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JHA....41..453G">2010JHA....41..453G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182861004100402">10.1177/002182861004100402</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117782745">117782745</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=The+Telescope+Against+Copernicus%3A+Star+Observations+by+Riccioli+Supporting+a+Geocentric+Universe&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=453-467&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A117782745%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182861004100402&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010JHA....41..453G&rft.aulast=Graney&rft.aufirst=C.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraneyDanielson2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Graney, C. 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San Francisco: Ignatius Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89870-461-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89870-461-7"><bdi>978-0-89870-461-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60292876">60292876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turning+point+for+Europe%3F+The+Church+in+the+Modern+World+%E2%80%93+Assessment+and+Forecast&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Ignatius+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60292876&rft.isbn=978-0-89870-461-7&rft.aulast=Ratzinger&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReston2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Reston_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="James Reston Jr">Reston, J.</a> (2000). 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Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton. pp. 81–105.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galileo%2C+telescopic+astronomy%2C+and+the+Copernican+system&rft.btitle=Planetary+astronomy+from+the+Renaissance+to+the+rise+of+astrophysics+Part+A%3A+Tycho+Brahe+to+Newton&rft.pages=81-105&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Van+Helden&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Helden1985" class="citation book cs1">Van Helden, A. (1985). Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84881-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84881-5"><bdi>978-0-226-84881-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Measuring+the+Universe%3A+Cosmic+Dimensions+from+Aristarchus+to+Halley&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-226-84881-5&rft.aulast=Van+Helden&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace1984" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, W. A. (1984). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileohissource00wall" class="extiw" title="iarchive:galileohissource00wall">Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science</a>. Princeton: Princeton Univ. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984gshc.book.....W">1984gshc.book.....W</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08355-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08355-1"><bdi>978-0-691-08355-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+and+His+Sources%3A+The+Heritage+of+the+Collegio+Romano+in+Galileo%27s+Science&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+Univ.&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984gshc.book.....W&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08355-1&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=W.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2004" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, W. A. (2004). Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-964-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-964-2"><bdi>978-0-86078-964-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domingo+de+Soto+and+the+Early+Galileo&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-86078-964-2&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=W.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2007" class="citation book cs1">White, M. (2007). Galileo: Antichrist: A Biography. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84868-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84868-4"><bdi>978-0-297-84868-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%3A+Antichrist%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-297-84868-4&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWisan1984" class="citation journal cs1">Wisan, W. L. (1984). "Galileo and the Process of Scientific Creation". Isis. 75 (2): 269–286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F353480">10.1086/353480</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145410913">145410913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Galileo+and+the+Process+of+Scientific+Creation&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=269-286&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F353480&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145410913%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wisan&rft.aufirst=W.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZik2001" class="citation journal cs1">Zik, Y. (2001). "Science and Instruments: The telescope as a scientific instrument at the beginning of the seventeenth century". Perspectives on Science. 9 (3): 259–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F10636140160176143">10.1162/10636140160176143</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57571555">57571555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science&rft.atitle=Science+and+Instruments%3A+The+telescope+as+a+scientific+instrument+at+the+beginning+of+the+seventeenth+century&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=259-284&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F10636140160176143&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57571555%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Zik&rft.aufirst=Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Reference-Biagioli-1993" class="citation book cs1">Biagioli, M. (1993). <a href="//archive.org/details/galileocourtier00mari" class="extiw" title="iarchive:galileocourtier00mari">Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04559-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04559-7"><bdi>978-0-226-04559-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%2C+Courtier%3A+The+Practice+of+Science+in+the+Culture+of+Absolutism&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-226-04559-7&rft.aulast=Biagioli&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClavelin1974" class="citation book cs1">Clavelin, M. (1974). The Natural Philosophy of Galileo. MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+Philosophy+of+Galileo&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Clavelin&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClerke1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Clerke" title="Agnes Mary Clerke">Clerke, Agnes Mary</a> (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Galileo_Galilei">"Galileo Galilei" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 406–410.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=406-410&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Clerke&rft.aufirst=Agnes+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoffa1968" class="citation journal cs1">Coffa, J. (1968). "Galileo's Concept of Inertia". Physis Riv. Internaz. Storia Sci. 10: 261–281.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physis+Riv.+Internaz.+Storia+Sci.&rft.atitle=Galileo%27s+Concept+of+Inertia&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=261-281&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Coffa&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConsolmagnoSchaefer1994" class="citation book cs1">Consolmagno, G.; Schaefer, M. (1994). Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science. Englewood: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994watp.book.....C">1994watp.book.....C</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-964131-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-964131-2"><bdi>978-0-13-964131-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+Apart%2C+A+Textbook+in+Planetary+Science&rft.place=Englewood&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994watp.book.....C&rft.isbn=978-0-13-964131-2&rft.aulast=Consolmagno&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Schaefer%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrabkinDrake1960" class="citation book cs1">Drabkin, I.; Drake, S., eds. (1960). On Motion and On Mechanics. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-02030-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-02030-9"><bdi>978-0-299-02030-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Motion+and+On+Mechanics&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-299-02030-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Drake, Stillman. Galileo (University of Toronto Press, 2017).</li> <li>Drake, Stillman. Essays on Galileo and the History and Philosophy of Science (U of Toronto Press, 2019).</li> <li>Drake, Stillman. Galileo and the First Mechanical Computing Device (U of Toronto Press, 2019).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDugas1988" class="citation book cs1">Dugas, R. (1988) [1955]. A History of Mechanics. Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65632-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65632-8"><bdi>978-0-486-65632-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mechanics&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65632-8&rft.aulast=Dugas&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuhem1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Duhem, P. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/History_of_Physics" class="extiw" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/History of Physics">History of Physics</a>". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=History+of+Physics&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Duhem&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFantoli2003" class="citation book cs1">Fantoli, A. (2003). Galileo: For Copernicanism and the Church (3rd ed.). Vatican Observatory Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-209-7427-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-209-7427-5"><bdi>978-88-209-7427-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%3A+For+Copernicanism+and+the+Church&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Vatican+Observatory+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-88-209-7427-5&rft.aulast=Fantoli&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeyerabend1975" class="citation book cs1">Feyerabend, P. (1975). Against Method. Verso.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+Method&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Feyerabend&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalilei1960" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, G. (1960) [1623]. "The Assayer". The Controversy on the Comets of 1618. Translated by Drake, S. pp. 151–336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-158-34578-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-158-34578-6"><bdi>978-1-158-34578-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Assayer&rft.btitle=The+Controversy+on+the+Comets+of+1618&rft.pages=151-336&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-1-158-34578-6&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalileiScheiner2010" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, G.; Scheiner, C. (2010). On Sunspots. Translated by Reeves, E.; Van Helden, A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-70715-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-70715-0"><bdi>978-0-226-70715-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Sunspots&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-226-70715-0&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Scheiner%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeymonat1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ludovico_Geymonat" title="Ludovico Geymonat">Geymonat, L.</a> (1965). Galileo Galilei, A biography and inquiry into his philosophy and science. Translated by Drake, S. McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ggbi.book.....G">1965ggbi.book.....G</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Galilei%2C+A+biography+and+inquiry+into+his+philosophy+and+science&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965ggbi.book.....G&rft.aulast=Geymonat&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gilbert, Neal Ward. "Galileo and the School of Padua." Journal of the History of Philosophy 1.2 (1963): 223–231. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/229899/summary">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1965–1967" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, E. (1965–1967). "Aristotle, Philoponus, Avempace, and Galileo's Pisan Dynamics". <a href="/wiki/Centaurus_(journal)" title="Centaurus (journal)">Centaurus</a>. 11 (2): 79–95. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966Cent...11...79G">1966Cent...11...79G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1966.tb00051.x">10.1111/j.1600-0498.1966.tb00051.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Centaurus&rft.atitle=Aristotle%2C+Philoponus%2C+Avempace%2C+and+Galileo%27s+Pisan+Dynamics&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=79-95&rft.date=1965%2F1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1966.tb00051.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1966Cent...11...79G&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1963" class="citation book cs1">Hall, A. R. (1963). From Galileo to Newton, 1630–1720. Collins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Galileo+to+Newton%2C+1630%E2%80%931720&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=A.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1964–1965" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, A. R. (1964–1965). "Galileo and the Science of Motion". British Journal for the History of Science. 2 (3): 185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0007087400002193">10.1017/s0007087400002193</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145683472">145683472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Galileo+and+the+Science+of+Motion&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=185&rft.date=1964%2F1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0007087400002193&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145683472%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=A.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphreys1967" class="citation journal cs1">Humphreys, W. C. (1967). "Galileo, Falling Bodies and Inclined Planes. An Attempt at Reconstructing Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Squares". <a href="/wiki/British_Journal_for_the_History_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="British Journal for the History of Science">British Journal for the History of Science</a>. 3 (3): 225–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087400002673">10.1017/S0007087400002673</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145468106">145468106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Galileo%2C+Falling+Bodies+and+Inclined+Planes.+An+Attempt+at+Reconstructing+Galileo%27s+Discovery+of+the+Law+of+Squares&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=225-244&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087400002673&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145468106%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Humphreys&rft.aufirst=W.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGalileo+Galilei" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and Plato." Journal of the History of Ideas 4.4 (1943): 400–428. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hyperdream.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Galileo__Plato.pdf">online</a> (PDF)</li> <li>Koyré, Alexandre. "Galileo and the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century." Philosophical Review 52.4 (1943): 333–348. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cbbp.thep.lu.se/~henrik/fyta13/litteratur/Koyre1943.pdf">online</a> (PDF)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Galilei%2C%20Galileo%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galilei%2C%20Galileo%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galilei%2C%20G%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Galilei%2C%20Galileo%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Galileo%20Galilei%22%29%20OR%20%28%221564-1642%22%20AND%20Galilei%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Galileo Galilei</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.librarything.com/catalog/GalileoGalilei">Works in Galileo's Personal Library</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibraryThing" title="LibraryThing">LibraryThing</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Galileo_Galilei" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Galileo_Galilei" title="Template:Galileo Galilei"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Galileo_Galilei" title="Template talk:Galileo Galilei"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galileo_Galilei" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Galileo Galilei"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Galileo_Galilei" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Galileo Galilei</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific career</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_escapement" title="Galileo's escapement">Galileo's escapement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">Galilean invariance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons" title="Galilean moons">Galilean moons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_transformation" title="Galilean transformation">Galilean transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment" title="Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment">Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus" title="Phases of Venus">Phases of Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celatone" title="Celatone">Celatone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoscope" title="Thermoscope">Thermoscope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" title="De motu antiquiora">De motu antiquiora</a> (1589–1592)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">Sidereus Nuncius</a> (1610)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_Sunspots" title="Letters on Sunspots">Letters on Sunspots</a> (1613)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_to_Benedetto_Castelli" title="Letter to Benedetto Castelli">Letter to Benedetto Castelli</a> (1613)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand_Duchess_Christina" title="Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina">Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina</a>" (1615)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Tides" title="Discourse on the Tides">Discourse on the Tides</a>" (1616)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Comets" title="Discourse on Comets">Discourse on Comets</a> (1619)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a> (1623)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" title="Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems">Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems</a> (1632)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a> (1638)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Galilei" title="Vincenzo Galilei">Vincenzo Galilei</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelagnolo_Galilei" title="Michelagnolo Galilei">Michelagnolo Galilei</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gamba" title="Vincenzo Gamba">Vincenzo Gamba</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Celeste" title="Maria Celeste">Maria Celeste</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marina_Gamba" title="Marina Gamba">Marina Gamba</a> (mistress)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/And_yet_it_moves" title="And yet it moves">And yet it moves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Il_Gioiello" title="Villa Il Gioiello">Villa Il Gioiello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_paradox" title="Galileo's paradox">Galileo's paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)" title="Sector (instrument)">Sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Galileo" title="Museo Galileo">Museo Galileo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_telescopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo's telescopes">Galileo's telescopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_objective_lens" title="Galileo's objective lens">Galileo's objective lens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_Galileo" title="Tribune of Galileo">Tribune of Galileo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_thermometer" title="Galileo thermometer">Galileo thermometer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_project" title="Galileo project">Galileo project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)">spacecraft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisa_International_Airport" title="Pisa International Airport">Galileo Galilei Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_National_Telescope" title="Galileo National Telescope">Galileo National Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Galileo" title="Life of Galileo">Life of Galileo (1943 play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamp_At_Midnight" title="Lamp At Midnight">Lamp At Midnight (1947 play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(1968_film)" title="Galileo (1968 film)">Galileo (1968 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(1975_film)" title="Galileo (1975 film)">Galileo (1975 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starry_Messenger_(picture_book)" title="Starry Messenger (picture book)">Starry Messenger (1996 book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Daughter" title="Galileo's Daughter">Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love (1999 book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei_(opera)" title="Galileo Galilei (opera)">Galileo Galilei (2002 opera)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo%27s_Dream" title="Galileo's Dream">Galileo's Dream (2009 novel)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template talk:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Scientists whose names are used as units</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI base units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI derived units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Celsius" title="Anders Celsius">Anders Celsius</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Harold_Gray" title="Louis Harold Gray">Louis Harold Gray</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Siemens" title="Werner von Siemens">Werner von Siemens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Siemens_(unit)" title="Siemens (unit)">siemens</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Maximilian_Sievert" title="Rolf Maximilian Sievert">Rolf Maximilian Sievert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">tesla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Weber_(unit)" title="Weber (unit)">weber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-SI metric (<a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">cgs</a>) units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Jonas_%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m" title="Anders Jonas Ångström">Anders Jonas Ångström</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> (<a href="/wiki/Debye" title="Debye">debye</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lor%C3%A1nd_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s" title="Loránd Eötvös">Loránd Eötvös</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eotvos_(unit)" title="Eotvos (unit)">eotvos</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Galileo Galilei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gal_(unit)" title="Gal (unit)">gal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">gauss</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(physicist)" title="William Gilbert (physicist)">William Gilbert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(unit)" title="Gilbert (unit)">gilbert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Kayser" title="Heinrich Kayser">Heinrich Kayser</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kayser_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser (unit)">kayser</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lambert_(unit)" title="Lambert (unit)">lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Langley" title="Samuel Langley">Samuel Langley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Langley_(unit)" title="Langley (unit)">langley</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maxwell_(unit)" title="Maxwell (unit)">maxwell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oersted" title="Oersted">oersted</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_L%C3%A9onard_Marie_Poiseuille" title="Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille">Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poise_(unit)" title="Poise (unit)">poise</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stokes_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes (unit)">stokes</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rayl" title="Rayl">rayl</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_units" title="Imperial units">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_customary_units" title="United States customary units">US customary</a> units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gabriel_Fahrenheit" title="Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit">Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foot-lambert" title="Foot-lambert">foot-lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquorn_Rankine" class="mw-redirect" title="Macquorn Rankine">William John Macquorn Rankine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rankine_scale" title="Rankine scale">degree Rankine</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bel_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel (unit)">bel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">dalton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Faraday_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday (unit)">faraday</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Mache" title="Heinrich Mache">Heinrich Mache</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mache_(unit)" title="Mache (unit)">Mache</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neper" title="Neper">neper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur</a> (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale" title="Réaumur scale">degree Réaumur</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">roentgen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thomson_(unit)" title="Thomson (unit)">thomson</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torr" title="Torr">torr</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="List of scientists whose names are used as units">List of scientists whose names are used as units</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants">Scientists whose names are used in physical constants</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">People whose names are used in chemical element names</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/29px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/38px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Engineering</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/21px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/42px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/29756/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJdmmv9xMqF97yfQjPYF8C">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118537229">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79003254">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11903931b">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11903931b">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00440426">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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1,\n [\"CITEREFDisraeli1835\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrabkinDrake1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrakeKowal1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDugas1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuhem1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdgerton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwin_Danson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEinstein1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEinstein1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFantoli2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFantoli2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFavaro1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeyerabend1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeyerabend1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFField2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinocchiaro\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinocchiaro1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinocchiaro1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinocchiaro2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinocchiaro2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischer2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalilei1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalilei1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalilei1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalilei1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalileiDrabkinDrake1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalileiGuiducci1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalileiScheiner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerard1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeymonat1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert,_N._W.1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillispie1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGingerich1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraney2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraney2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraneyDanielson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraneyGrayson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1965–1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrassi1960a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrassi1960b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGribbin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGribbin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroleau\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1964–1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannam2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawking1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilbron2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilbron2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHellman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilliam2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoskin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphreys1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacqueline_Bergeron2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrel1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJung2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelter2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoestler1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKollerstrom2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoyré1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangford1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLattis1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLen_Fisher2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLessl2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivio2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMachamer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMullin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMullin2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFModinos2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMossWallace2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaess2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaylor1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaylor2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewall2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;ConnorRobertson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOndra2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrow1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwenDelaney2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanofsky1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPasachoff2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPedersen1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatzinger1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRemmert2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReston2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenGothard2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRutkin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharratt1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShea2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheaArtigas2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinger1941\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSobel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephen_Pumfrey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTatonWilson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThoren1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Nations_Educational,_Scientific_and_Cultural_Organization2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValleriani2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Helden1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Helden1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaqueroVázquez2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallace1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallace2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitehouse2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWisan1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZik2001\"] = 1,\n [\"Reference-Biagioli-1993\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bibleref2-nb\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Bots\"] = 1,\n [\"Catholic Encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite Catholic Encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 97,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 25,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 27,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Cosmology\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Galilei, Galileo\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 9,\n [\"Emdash\"] = 1,\n [\"Fact\"] = 1,\n [\"Galileo Galilei\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 2,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox scientist\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"OL author\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy of science\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"Scientists whose names are used as non SI units\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 184,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Stack\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","22.2"],["?","240","14.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","11.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","8.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","80","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","4.9"],["type","80","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","60","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","2.5"],["[others]","300","18.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-79d9bc49cc-7dxxj","timestamp":"20241203042235","ttl":2489851,"transientcontent":true}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Galileo Galilei","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Galileo_Galilei","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q307","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q307","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-30T20:51:32Z","dateModified":"2024-11-29T07:59:12Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/fc\/Galileo_Galilei_%281564-1642%29_RMG_BHC2700.tiff","headline":"Italian polymath (1564\u20131642)"}</script> </body> </html>