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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_life_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life and education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Later life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory-sublist" class="cdx-button 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href="#Sociability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Sociability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Social geometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Views</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Views subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Metropolis and Mental Life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Philosophy_of_Money" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Philosophy_of_Money"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>The Philosophy of Money</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Philosophy_of_Money-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"The_Stranger"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"The_Stranger""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>"The Stranger"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"The_Stranger"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_secrecy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_secrecy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>On secrecy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_secrecy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_flirtation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_flirtation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>On flirtation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_flirtation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>On fashion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Edited_works_of_Simmel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edited_works_of_Simmel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Edited works of Simmel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edited_works_of_Simmel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_on_Simmel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_on_Simmel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Works on Simmel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_on_Simmel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Georg Simmel</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%84" title="جورج زيمل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جورج زيمل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georq_Zimmel" title="Georq Zimmel – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Georq Zimmel" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="গেয়র্গ জিমেল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গেয়র্গ জিমেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Георг Зимел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Георг Зимел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%AD%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BA_%CE%96%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BB" title="Γκέοργκ Ζίμελ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γκέοργκ Ζίμελ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%84" title="گئورگ زیمل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گئورگ زیمل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%8C%EC%98%A4%EB%A5%B4%ED%81%AC_%EC%A7%80%EB%A9%9C" title="게오르크 지멜 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="게오르크 지멜" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A3_%D4%B6%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Գեորգ Զիմել – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գեորգ Զիմել" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92_%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%9C" title="גאורג זימל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאורג זימל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92_%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="გეორგ ზიმელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეორგ ზიმელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Зиммель – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Георг Зиммель" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Зиммель Георг – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Зиммель Георг" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Simmel" title="Georgius Simmel – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Georgius Simmel" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Георг Зимел – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Георг Зимел" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%84" title="جورج سيمل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جورج سيمل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%82%AA%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B8%E3%83%B3%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AB" title="ゲオルク・ジンメル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゲオルク・ジンメル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C,_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Зиммель, Георг – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Зиммель, Георг" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Зиммель Георг – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Зиммель Георг" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Georg Simmel" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li 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Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%A0%BC%C2%B7%E9%BD%90%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%94" title="格奥尔格·齐美尔 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="格奥尔格·齐美尔" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q76849#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Georg Simmel</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Simmel_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Simmel_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="188" height="251" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="188" data-file-height="251" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">1 March 1858<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">26 September 1918<span style="display:none">(1918-09-26)</span> (aged 60)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strassburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a> (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Lebensphilosophie" title="Lebensphilosophie">Lebensphilosophie</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg" title="University of Strasbourg">University of Strasbourg</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Robert E. Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Formal_sociology" title="Formal sociology">Formal sociology</a>, social forms and contents, the tragedy of culture, web of group affiliation</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Georg Simmel</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/əl/: 'le' in 'bottle'">əl</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈzɪməl]</a></span>; 1 March 1858 – 26 September 1918) was a German <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Critic" title="Critic">critic</a>. </p><p>Simmel was influential in the field of sociology. Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Kantian">neo-Kantian</a> approach laid the foundations for sociological <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">antipositivism</a>, asking "what is society?"—directly alluding to Kant's "what is nature?"—presenting pioneering analyses of social <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individuality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(sociology)" title="Fragmentation (sociology)">fragmentation</a>. Simmel discussed social and cultural phenomena in terms of "forms" and "contents" with a transient relationship, wherein form becomes content, and vice versa dependent on context. In this sense, Simmel was a forerunner to <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Structuralism (sociology)">structuralist</a> styles of reasoning in the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>. </p><p>Through "<a href="/wiki/The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life" title="The Metropolis and Mental Life">The Metropolis and Mental Life</a>" Simmel was a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social network</a> analysis. An acquaintance of <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, Simmel wrote on the topic of personal character in a manner reminiscent of the sociological <a href="/wiki/Ideal_type" title="Ideal type">ideal type</a>. He broadly rejected academic standards, however, philosophically covering topics such as emotion and romantic love. Both Simmel and Weber's nonpositivist theory informed the eclectic <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Georg Simmel was born in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, as the youngest of seven children to an <a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">assimilated Jewish</a> family. His father, Eduard Simmel (1810–1874), a prosperous businessman and convert to <a href="/wiki/Roman_catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman catholic">Roman Catholicism</a>, had founded a confectionery store called "Felix & Sarotti" that would later be taken over by a <a href="/wiki/Sarotti" title="Sarotti">chocolate manufacturer</a>. His mother Flora Bodstein (1818–1897) came from a Jewish family who had converted to <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>. Georg, himself, was <a href="/wiki/Baptized" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptized">baptized</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> when he was a child.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Sociology_of_Georg_Simmel_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Sociology_of_Georg_Simmel-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father died in 1874, when Georg was 16, leaving a sizable inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Georg was then adopted by Julius Friedländer, the founder of an international music publishing house known as Peters Verlag, who endowed him with the large fortune that enabled him to become a scholar.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in 1876, Simmel studied <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-GS-society_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GS-society-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> going on to receive his doctorate in 1881 for his thesis on <a href="/wiki/Kantian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantian philosophy">Kantian philosophy</a> of matter, titled "<span title="German-language text"><span lang="de" style="font-style: normal;">Das Wesen der Materie nach Kants Physischer Monadologie</span></span>" ("The Nature of Matter According to Kant's Physical Monadology").<sup id="cite_ref-GS-society_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GS-society-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1885, Simmel became a <i><a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent">privatdozent</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>, officially lecturing in philosophy but also in <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pessimism" title="Pessimism">pessimism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His lectures were not only popular inside the university, but attracted the intellectual elite of Berlin as well. Although his applications for vacant chairs at German universities were supported by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, Simmel remained an <a href="/wiki/Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic">academic</a> outsider. However, with the support of an inheritance from his guardian, he was able to pursue his scholarly interests for many years without needing a salaried position.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmisano_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmisano-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simmel had a hard time gaining acceptance in the academic community despite the support of well known associates, such as <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilke" title="Rainer Maria Rilke">Rainer Maria Rilke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stefan_George" title="Stefan George">Stefan George</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>. This was partly because he was seen as a Jew during an era of anti-Semitism, but also simply because his articles were written for a general audience rather than academic sociologists. This led to dismissive judgements from other professionals. Simmel nevertheless continued his intellectual and academic work, as well as taking part in artistic circles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_life">Later life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg-Simmel-1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Georg-Simmel-1914.jpg/250px-Georg-Simmel-1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Georg-Simmel-1914.jpg/330px-Georg-Simmel-1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption>Simmel in 1914</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1890, Georg married Gertrud Kinel, a philosopher who published under the <a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">pseudonym</a> Marie-Luise Enckendorf, and under her own name. They lived a sheltered and <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> life, their home becoming a venue for cultivated gatherings in the tradition of the salon.<sup id="cite_ref-socio.ch_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-socio.ch-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had one son, Hans Eugen Simmel, who became a medical doctor.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Georg and Gertrud's granddaughter was the psychologist <a href="/wiki/Marianne_Simmel" title="Marianne Simmel">Marianne Simmel</a>. Simmel also had a secret affair with his assistant <a href="/wiki/Gertrud_Kantorowicz" title="Gertrud Kantorowicz">Gertrud Kantorowicz</a>, who bore him a daughter in 1907, though this fact was hidden until after Simmel's death.<sup id="cite_ref-LaneRuehl2011_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaneRuehl2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1909, Simmel, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, and others, co-founded the <a href="/wiki/German_Sociological_Association" title="German Sociological Association">German Society for Sociology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmisano_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmisano-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He served as a member of its first executive body.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1914, Simmel received an ordinary professorship with chair, at the then German <a href="/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg" title="University of Strasbourg">University of Strassburg</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but did not feel at home there. Because <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> broke out, all academic activities and lectures were halted and lecture halls were converted to military hospitals. In 1915 he applied – without success – for a chair at the <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_University" title="Heidelberg University">Heidelberg University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodstein_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodstein-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1917, Simmel stopped reading the newspapers and withdrew to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Forest" title="Black Forest">Black Forest</a> to finish the book <i>The View of Life</i> (<i>Lebensanschauung</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-The_Sociology_of_Georg_Simmel_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Sociology_of_Georg_Simmel-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly before the end of the war in 1918, he died from <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">liver cancer</a> in Strasbourg.<sup id="cite_ref-socio.ch_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-socio.ch-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are four basic levels of concern in Simmel's work: </p> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a> workings of social life</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sociological" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological">sociological</a> workings of <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">interpersonal relationships</a>.</li> <li>The structure of and changes in <i><a href="/wiki/Zeitgeist" title="Zeitgeist">zeitgeist</a></i> (i.e. the social and cultural "spirit") of his time. He would also adopt the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">emergentism</a></i>, the idea that higher levels of conscious properties emerge from lower levels.</li> <li>The nature and inevitable <a href="/wiki/Fate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fate">fate</a> of humanity.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialectical_method">Dialectical method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dialectical method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a> approach is a multicausal and multidirectional method: it focuses on social relations; integrates facts and value, rejecting the idea that there are hard and fast dividing lines between social phenomena; looks not only at the present, but also at the past and future; and is deeply concerned with both conflicts and contradictions. Simmel's sociology was concerned with relationships—especially interaction—and was thus known as a <i lang="en"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/methodological#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:methodological">methodological</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Relationalism" title="Relationalism">relationalist</a></i>. This approach is based on the idea that interactions exist between everything.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, Simmel would be mostly interested in <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualisms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conflict_(process)" title="Conflict (process)">conflicts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradictions</a> in whatever realm of the social world he happened to be working on.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forms_of_association">Forms of association</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Forms of association"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The furthest Simmel has brought his work to a <a href="/wiki/Microsociology" title="Microsociology">micro-level</a> of analysis was in dealing with forms and interactions that takes place with different types of people. Such forms would include <i>subordination</i>, <i>superordination</i>, <i>exchange</i>, <i>conflict</i> and <i>sociability</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 158–88">: 158–88 </span></sup> </p><p>Simmel focused on these forms of <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">association</a> while paying little attention to individual consciousness. Simmel believed in the <i>creative <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a></i> that can be found in diverse forms of interaction, which he observed both the ability of actors to create <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a>, as well as the disastrous effects such structures had on the creativity of individuals. Simmel also believed that social and cultural structures come to have a life of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sociability">Sociability</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sociability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Simmel refers to "all the forms of association by which a mere sum of separate individuals are made into a 'society'," whereby <i>society</i> is defined as a "higher unity," composed of individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 157">: 157 </span></sup> </p><p>Simmel would especially be fascinated by man's "impulse to sociability," whereby "the solitariness of the individuals is resolved into togetherness," referring to this unity as "the free-playing, interacting interdependence of individuals."<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 157–8">: 157–8 </span></sup> Accordingly, he defines <i>sociability</i> as "the play-form of association" driven by "amicability, breeding, cordiality and attractiveness of all kinds."<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 158">: 158 </span></sup> In order for this free association to occur, Simmel explains, "the personalities must not emphasize themselves too individually...with too much abandon and aggressiveness."<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 158">: 158 </span></sup> Rather, "this world of sociability...a democracy of equals" is to be without friction so long as people blend together in the spirit of pleasure and bringing "about among themselves a pure interaction free of any disturbing material accent."<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 159">: 159 </span></sup> </p><p>Simmel describes idealised interactions in expressing that "the vitality of real individuals, in their sensitivities and attractions, in the fullness of their impulses and convictions...is but a symbol of life, as it shows itself in the flow of a lightly amusing play," adding that "a symbolic play, in whose <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic</a> charm all the finest and most highly sublimated dynamics of social existence and its riches are gathered."<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 162–3">: 162–3 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_geometry">Social geometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Social geometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a dyad (i.e. a two-person group), a person is able to retain their individuality as there is no fear that another may shift the balance of the group. In contrast, triads (i.e. three-person groups) risk the potential of one member becoming subordinate to the other two, thus threatening their individuality. Furthermore, were a triad to lose a member, it would become a dyad. </p><p>The basic nature of this dyad-triad principle forms the essence of structures that form society. As a group (structure) increases in size, it becomes more isolated and segmented, whereby the individual also becomes further separated from each member. In respect to the notion of "group size", Simmel's view was somewhat ambiguous. On one hand, he believed that the individual benefits most when a group gets bigger and exerting control on the individual becomes harder. On the other hand, with a large group there is a possibility of the individual's becoming distant and impersonal. Therefore, in an effort for the individual to cope with the larger group they must become a part of a smaller group such as the family.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The value of something is determined by the distance from its actor. In "<a href="/wiki/The_Stranger_(essay)" title="The Stranger (essay)">The Stranger</a>", Simmel discusses how if a person is too close to the actor they are not considered a stranger. If they are too far, however, they would no longer be a part of a group. The particular distance from a group allows a person to have objective relationships with different group members.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views">Views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life">The Metropolis and Mental Life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Metropolis and Mental Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life" title="The Metropolis and Mental Life">The Metropolis and Mental Life</a></div> <p>One of Simmel's most notable essays is "<a href="/wiki/The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life" title="The Metropolis and Mental Life">The Metropolis and Mental Life</a>" ("<span title="German-language text"><span lang="de" style="font-style: normal;">Die Großstädte und das Geistesleben</span></span>") from 1903, which was originally given as one of a series of lectures on all aspects of city life by experts in various fields, ranging from science and religion to art. The series was conducted alongside the <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> cities exhibition of 1903. Simmel was originally asked to lecture on the role of intellectual (or scholarly) life in the big city, but he effectively reversed the topic in order to analyze the effects of the big city on the mind of the individual. As a result, when the lectures were published as essays in a book, to fill the gap, the series editor himself had to supply an essay on the original topic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>"The Metropolis and Mental Life" was not particularly well received during Simmel's lifetime. The organisers of the exhibition overemphasised its negative comments about city life, because Simmel also pointed out positive transformations. During the 1920s the essay was influential on the thinking of Robert E. Park and other American sociologists at the University of Chicago who collectively became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago School</a>". It gained wider circulation in the 1950s when it was translated into English and published as part of Kurt Wolff's edited collection, <i>The Sociology of Georg Simmel</i>. It now appears regularly on the reading lists of courses in <a href="/wiki/Urban_studies" title="Urban studies">urban studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a> history. However, it is important to note that the notion of the blasé is actually not the central or final point of the essay, but is part of a description of a sequence of states in an irreversible transformation of the mind. In other words, Simmel does not quite say that the big city has an overall negative effect on the mind or the self, even as he suggests that it undergoes permanent changes. It is perhaps this ambiguity that gave the essay a lasting place in the discourse on the metropolis.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual to maintain the independence and individuality of his existence against the sovereign powers of society, against the weight of the historical heritage and the external culture and technique of life. The antagonism represents the most modern form of the conflict which primitive man must carry on with nature for his own bodily existence. The eighteenth century may have called for liberation from all the ties which grew up historically in politics, in religion, in morality and in economics in order to permit the original natural virtue of man, which is equal in everyone, to develop without inhibition; the nineteenth century may have sought to promote, in addition to man's freedom, his individuality (which is connected with the division of labor) and his achievements which make him unique and indispensable but which at the same time make him so much the more dependent on the complementary activity of others; Nietzsche may have seen the relentless struggle of the individual as the prerequisite for his full development, while socialism found the same thing in the suppression of all competition – but in each of these the same fundamental motive was at work, namely the resistance of the individual to being levelled, swallowed up in the social-technological mechanism.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Georg Simmel, <i>The Metropolis and Mental Life</i> (1903)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Philosophy_of_Money"><i>The Philosophy of Money</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Philosophy of Money"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Philosophy_of_Money" title="The Philosophy of Money">The Philosophy of Money</a></div> <p>In <i>The Philosophy of Money</i>, Simmel views <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">money</a> as a component of life which helped us understand the totality of life. Simmel believed people created value by making objects, then separating themselves from that object and then trying to overcome that distance. He found that things which were too close were not considered valuable and things which were too far for people to get were also not considered valuable. Considered in determining value was the scarcity, time, sacrifice, and difficulties involved in getting the object.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Simmel, city life led to a division of labor and increased <a href="/wiki/Financialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Financialisation">financialisation</a>. As financial transactions increase, some emphasis shifts to what the individual can do, instead of who the individual is. Financial matters in addition to emotions are in play.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""The_Stranger""><span id=".22The_Stranger.22"></span>"The Stranger"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: "The Stranger""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Stranger_(essay)" title="The Stranger (essay)">The Stranger (essay)</a></div> <p>Simmel's concept of distance comes into play where he identifies a stranger as a person that is far away and close at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-Simmel,_Georg_1976_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simmel,_Georg_1976-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Stranger is close to us, insofar as we feel between him and ourselves common features of a national, social, occupational, or generally human, nature. He is far from us, insofar as these common features extend beyond him or us, and connect us only because they connect a great many people.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Georg Simmel, "<a href="/wiki/The_Stranger_(essay)" title="The Stranger (essay)">The Stranger</a>" (1908)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>A stranger is far enough away that he is unknown but close enough that it is possible to get to know him. In a society there must be a stranger. If everyone is known then there is no person that is able to bring something new to everybody. </p><p>The stranger bears a certain objectivity that makes him a valuable member to the individual and society. People let down their inhibitions around him and confess openly without any fear. This is because there is a belief that the Stranger is not connected to anyone significant and therefore does not pose a threat to the confessor's life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>More generally, Simmel observes that because of their peculiar position in the group, strangers often carry out special tasks that the other members of the group are either incapable or unwilling to carry out. For example, especially in pre-modern societies, most strangers made a living from trade, which was often viewed as an unpleasant activity by "native" members of those societies. In some societies, they were also employed as <a href="/wiki/Arbitrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbitrator">arbitrators</a> and judges, because they were expected to treat rival factions in society with an <a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">impartial</a> attitude.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Objectivity may also be defined as freedom: the objective individual is bound by no commitments which could prejudice his perception, understanding, and evaluation of the given.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Georg Simmel, "The Stranger" (1908)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>On one hand the stranger's opinion does not really matter because of his lack of connection to society, but on the other the stranger's opinion does matter, because of his lack of connection to society. He holds a certain objectivity that allows him to be unbiased and decide freely without fear. He is simply able to see, think, and decide without being influenced by the opinion of others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_secrecy">On secrecy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: On secrecy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Simmel, in small groups, secrets are less needed because everyone seems to be more similar. In larger groups <a href="/wiki/Sociological_aspects_of_secrecy" title="Sociological aspects of secrecy">secrets are needed</a> as a result of their <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneity">heterogeneity</a>. In secret societies, groups are held together by the need to maintain the secret, a condition that also causes tension because the society relies on its sense of secrecy and exclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Simmel, secrecy exists even in relationships as intimate as marriage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>In revealing all, marriage becomes dull and boring and loses all excitement. Simmel saw a general thread in the importance of secrets and the strategic use of ignorance: To be social beings who are able to cope successfully with their social environment, people need clearly defined realms of unknowns for themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, sharing a common secret produces a strong "we feeling." The modern world depends on honesty and therefore a lie can be considered more devastating than it ever has been before.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Money allows a level of secrecy that has never been attainable before, because money allows for "invisible" transactions, due to the fact that money is now an integral part of human values and beliefs. It is possible to buy silence.<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_flirtation">On flirtation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: On flirtation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his multi-layered essay, "Women, Sexuality & Love", published in 1923, Simmel discusses <a href="/wiki/Flirtation" class="mw-redirect" title="Flirtation">flirtation</a> as a generalized type of social interaction. According to Simmel, "to define flirtation as simply a 'passion for pleasing' is to confuse the means to an end with the desire for this end." The distinctiveness of the flirt lies in the fact that she awakens delight and desire by means of a unique antithesis and synthesis: through the alternation of accommodation and denial. In the behavior of the flirt, the man feels the proximity and interpenetration of the ability and inability to acquire something. This is in essence the "price." A sidelong glance with the head half-turned is characteristic of flirtation in its most banal guise.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_fashion">On fashion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: On fashion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the eyes of Simmel, fashion is a form of social relationship that allows those who wish to conform to the demands of a group to do so. It also allows some to be individualistic by deviating from the norm. There are many social roles in fashion and both objective culture and individual culture can have an influence on people.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the initial stage everyone adopts what is fashionable and those that deviate from the fashion inevitably adopt a whole new view of what they consider fashion. Ritzer wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 163">: 163 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Simmel argued that not only does following what is in fashion involve dualities so does the effort on the part of some people to be of fashion. Unfashionable people view those who follow a fashion as being imitators and themselves as mavericks, but Simmel argued that the latter are simply engaging in an inverse form of imitation.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">George Ritzer</a>, "Georg Simmel", <i>Modern Sociological Theory</i> (2008)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>This means that those who are trying to be different or "unique," are not, because in trying to be different they become a part of a new group that has labeled themselves different or "unique".<sup id="cite_ref-ritzer_12-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Simmel's major monographic works include, in chronological order: </p> <ul><li><i>Über sociale Differenzierung</i> (1890). Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot [<i>On Social Differentiation</i>]</li> <li><i>Einleitung in die Moralwissenschaft</i> 1 & 2 (1892–1893). Berlin: Hertz [<i>Introduction to the Science of Ethics</i>]</li> <li><i>Die Probleme der Geschichtphilosophie</i> (1892). Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. (2nd ed., 1905) [<i>The Problems of the Philosophy of History</i>]</li> <li><i>Philosophie des Geldes</i> (1900). Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot (2nd ed., 1907) [<i>The Philosophy of Money</i>]</li> <li><i>Die Großstädte und das Geistesleben</i> (1903). Dresden: Petermann. [<i>The Metropolis and Mental Life</i>]</li> <li><i>Kant</i> (1904). Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. (6th ed., 1924)</li> <li><i>Philosophie der Mode</i> (1905). Berlin: Pan-Verlag.</li> <li><i>Kant und Goethe</i> (1906). Berlin: Marquardt.</li> <li><i>Die Religion</i> (1906). Frankfurt am Main: Rütten & Loening. (2nd ed., 1912).</li> <li><i>Schopenhauer und Nietzsche (</i>1907). Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Soziologie</i> (1908). Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. [<i>Sociology : inquiries into the construction of social forms</i>]</li> <li><i>Hauptprobleme der Philosophie</i> (1910). Leipzig: Göschen.</li> <li><i>Philosophische Kultur</i> (1911) Leipzig: Kröner. (2nd ed., 1919).</li> <li><i>Goethe</i> (1913). Leipzig: Klinkhardt.</li> <li><i>Rembrandt</i> (1916) Leipzig: Wolff.</li> <li><i>Grundfragen der Soziologie</i> (1917) Berlin: Göschen. [<i>Fundamental Questions of Sociology</i>]</li> <li><i>Lebensanschauung</i> (1918). München: Duncker & Humblot. [<i>The View of Life</i>]</li> <li><i>Zur Philosophie der Kunst</i> (1922). Potsdam: Kiepenheur.</li> <li><i>Fragmente und Aufsäze aus dem Nachlass</i> (1923), edited by G. Kantorowicz. München: Drei Masken Verlag.</li> <li><i>Brücke und Tür</i> (1957), edited by M. Landmann & M. Susman. Stuttgart: Koehler.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Works in periodicals</dt></dl> <ul><li>"Rom, eine ästhetische Analyse." <i>Die Zeit, Wiener Wochenschrift für Politik, Vollwirtschaft Wissenschaft und Kunst</i> [weekly newspaper] (28 May 1898).</li> <li>"Florenz." <i>Der Tag</i> [magazine] (2 March 1906).</li> <li>"Venedig." <i>Der Kunstwart, Halbmonatsschau über Dichtung, Theater, Musik, bildende und angewandte Kunst</i> [magazine] (June 1907).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_philosophy" title="Definitions of philosophy">Definitions of philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Karl Mannheim</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-The_Sociology_of_Georg_Simmel-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Sociology_of_Georg_Simmel_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Sociology_of_Georg_Simmel_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Heinrich_Wolff" title="Kurt Heinrich Wolff">Wolff, Kurt H.</a> 1950. <a href="//archive.org/details/sociologyofgeorg030082mbp" class="extiw" title="iarchive:sociologyofgeorg030082mbp"><i>The Sociology of Georg Simmel</i></a>. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Horst_Helle" title="Horst Helle">Helle, Horst J.</a> 2009. "Introduction to the translation." <i>Sociology: inquiries into the construction of social forms</i> 1. Leiden, HL: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Koninklijke Brill</a>. p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coser, Lewis A. 1977. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socio.ch/sim/bio.htm">Georg Simmel: Biographic Information</a>." In <i>Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context</i> (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Harcourt_(publisher)" title="Harcourt (publisher)">Harcourt Brace Jovanovich</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GS-society-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GS-society_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GS-society_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.simmel-gesellschaft.de/00_simmel/biostud.htm">Biografie</a>" <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span>. Section: "Studien und Ehe" (university studies and marriage). Georg Simmel Gesellschaft. simmel-gesellschaft.de. Retrieved 17 January 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georg-Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>." <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>, 2020 [1999].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palmisano-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Palmisano_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmisano_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmisano, Joseph M. 2001. "Georg Simmel." <i>World of Sociology</i>. Detroit: <a href="/wiki/Gale_(publisher)" title="Gale (publisher)">Gale</a>. Retrieved 17 January 2018 via <i>Biography in Context</i> database.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-socio.ch-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-socio.ch_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-socio.ch_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCoser1977" class="citation book cs1">Coser, Lewis A (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socio.ch/sim/bio.htm"><i>Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+Sociological+Thought%3A+Ideas+in+Historical+and+Social+Context&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Coser&rft.aufirst=Lewis+A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocio.ch%2Fsim%2Fbio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190511021654/http://agso.uni-graz.at/lexikon/klassiker/simmel/42bio.htm">"Biografie Georg Simmel"</a>. <i>50 Klassiker der Soziologie</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agso.uni-graz.at/lexikon/klassiker/simmel/42bio.htm">the original</a> on 11 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=50+Klassiker+der+Soziologie&rft.atitle=Biografie+Georg+Simmel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fagso.uni-graz.at%2Flexikon%2Fklassiker%2Fsimmel%2F42bio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LaneRuehl2011-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LaneRuehl2011_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLerner2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lerner" title="Robert E. Lerner">Lerner, Robert E.</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5YiiHc6WLpMC&pg=PA56">"The Secret Germany of Gertrud Kantorowicz"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Melissa_Lane" title="Melissa Lane">Melissa Lane</a>; Martin Ruehl (eds.). <i>A Poet's Reich: Politics and Culture in the George Circle</i>. Camden House. pp. <span class="nowrap">56–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-462-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-462-2"><bdi>978-1-57113-462-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Secret+Germany+of+Gertrud+Kantorowicz&rft.btitle=A+Poet%27s+Reich%3A+Politics+and+Culture+in+the+George+Circle&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.pub=Camden+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-57113-462-2&rft.aulast=Lerner&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5YiiHc6WLpMC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glatzer, Wolfgang. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soziologie.de/index.php?id=14">Die akademische soziologische Vereinigung seit 1909</a>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171433/http://www.soziologie.de/index.php?id=14">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span>. <i>Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie</i>. Retrieved 17 January 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodstein-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goodstein_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodstein, Elizabeth S. (2017). <i>Georg Simmel and the Disciplinary Imaginary</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1503600742" title="Special:BookSources/1503600742">1503600742</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ritzer-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ritzer_12-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="Ritzer" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">Ritzer, George</a> (2007). <i>Modern Sociological Theory</i> (7th ed.). New York: McGraw–Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0073404103" title="Special:BookSources/978-0073404103"><bdi>978-0073404103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Sociological+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=McGraw%E2%80%93Hill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0073404103&rft.aulast=Ritzer&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simmel, Georg. 1971 [1903]. "The Metropolis and Mental Life." P. 324 in <i>Simmel: On individuality and social forms</i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Donald_N._Levine" title="Donald N. Levine">D. N. Levine</a>. Chicago: Chicago University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226757765" title="Special:BookSources/0226757765">0226757765</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simmel,_Georg_1976-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Simmel,_Georg_1976_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simmel, Georg. 1976 [1908]. "The Stranger." In <i>The Sociology of Georg Simmel</i>. New York: Free Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKarakayali,_Nedim2006" class="citation journal cs1">Karakayali, Nedim (2006). "The Uses of the Stranger: Circulation, Arbitration, Secrecy, and Dirt". <i>Sociological Theory</i>. <b>24</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">312–</span>330. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9558.2006.00293.x">10.1111/j.1467-9558.2006.00293.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11693%2F23657">11693/23657</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53581773">53581773</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Theory&rft.atitle=The+Uses+of+the+Stranger%3A+Circulation%2C+Arbitration%2C+Secrecy%2C+and+Dirt&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E312-%3C%2Fspan%3E330&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11693%2F23657&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53581773%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9558.2006.00293.x&rft.au=Karakayali%2C+Nedim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimmel1906" class="citation journal cs1">Simmel, Georg (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2422431">"The Sociology of Secrecy and of Secret Societies"</a>. <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>. <b>11</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">441–</span>498. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F211418">10.1086/211418</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55481088">55481088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=The+Sociology+of+Secrecy+and+of+Secret+Societies&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E441-%3C%2Fspan%3E498&rft.date=1906&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F211418&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55481088%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Simmel&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2422431&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGross,_Matthias2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Gross" title="Matthias Gross">Gross, Matthias</a> (2012). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Objective Culture' and the Development of Nonknowledge: Georg Simmel and the Reverse Side of Knowing". <i>Cultural Sociology</i>. <b>6</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">422–</span>437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1749975512445431">10.1177/1749975512445431</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144524090">144524090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Sociology&rft.atitle=%27Objective+Culture%27+and+the+Development+of+Nonknowledge%3A+Georg+Simmel+and+the+Reverse+Side+of+Knowing&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E422-%3C%2Fspan%3E437&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1749975512445431&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144524090%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Gross%2C+Matthias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simmel, Georg. 1984 [1923]. "Women, Sexuality & Love"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socio.ch/sim/work.htm">"Georg Simmel: Work"</a>. <i>socio.ch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=socio.ch&rft.atitle=Georg+Simmel%3A+Work&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocio.ch%2Fsim%2Fwork.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Simmel" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simmel, George. 1991 [1907]. <i>Schopenhauer and Nietzsche</i>. University of Illinois Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-06228-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-06228-0">0-252-06228-0</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edited_works_of_Simmel">Edited works of Simmel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Edited works of Simmel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Andrews, John A. Y., and <a href="/wiki/Donald_N._Levine" title="Donald N. Levine">Donald N. Levine</a>, trans. 2010. <i>The View of Life: Four Metaphysical Essays with Journal Aphorisms,</i> with introduction by D. N. Levine and D. Silver. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_N._Levine" title="Donald N. Levine">Levine, Donald</a>, ed. 1972. <i>On Individuality and Social Forms.</i> Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>.</li> <li>Wolff, Kurt, trans. & ed. 1950. <i>The Sociology of Georg Simmel</i>. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.</li> <li>Wolff, Kurt, trans. & ed. 1955. <i>Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliations</i> (1922). Glencoe, IL: Free Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_on_Simmel">Works on Simmel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Simmel&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Works on Simmel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ankerl, Guy. 1972. <i>Sociologues Allemands. Sociologie de la forme.</i> Neuchâtel: <a href="/w/index.php?title=La_Baconni%C3%A8re_editions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La Baconnière editions (page does not exist)">La Baconnière editions</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Baconni%C3%A8re_editions" class="extiw" title="fr:La Baconnière editions">fr</a>]</span><i>.</i> pp. 73–106.</li> <li>Best, Shaun, 2019. <i>The Stranger</i>, London, Routledge: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-31220-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-31220-3">978-1-138-31220-3</a>.</li> <li>Bistis, Margo. 2005. "Simmel and Bergson: The Theorist and the Exemplar of the Blasé Person." <i>Journal of European Studies</i> 35(4):395–418.</li> <li>Hartmann, Alois. 2003. "Sinn und Wert des Geldes." In <i>der Philosophie von Georg Simmel und <a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Adam (von) Müller</a></i>. Berlin. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-936749-53-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-936749-53-1">3-936749-53-1</a>.</li> <li>Ionin, Leonid. 1989. "<a href="//archive.org/details/AHistoryOfClassicalSociology" class="extiw" title="iarchive:AHistoryOfClassicalSociology">Georg Simmel's Sociology</a>." Pp. 189–205. in <i>A History of Classical Sociology</i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Igor_Kon" title="Igor Kon">I. S. Kon</a>, translated by H. Campbell Creighton. Moscow: <a href="/wiki/Progress_Publishers" title="Progress Publishers">Progress Publishers</a>.</li> <li>Karakayali, Nedim. 2003. <i>Simmel's Stranger: In Theory and in Practice</i>. PhD Thesis. Toronto: University of Toronto.</li> <li>— 2006. "The Uses of the Stranger: Circulation, Arbitration, Secrecy and Dirt". <i><a href="/wiki/Sociological_Theory_(journal)" title="Sociological Theory (journal)">Sociological Theory</a></i> 24(4):312–30.</li> <li>Kim, David, ed. 2006. <i>Georg Simmel in Translation: Interdisciplinary Border-Crossings in Culture and Modernity.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84718-060-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-84718-060-4">1-84718-060-4</a>.</li> <li>Muller, Jerry Z. 2002. <i>The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought.</i> <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Anchor Books</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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href="https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/autoren/namen/simmel.html">Works by Georg Simmel</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Projekt_Gutenberg-DE" title="Wikipedia:Projekt Gutenberg-DE">Projekt Gutenberg-DE</a> <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georg-simmel-gesellschaft.org/"><i>Georg Simmel Gesellschaft</i></a> <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://simmelstudies.org/index.php/simmel_studies"><i>Simmel Studies</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socio.ch/sim/">Georg Simmel Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lbi.org/digibaeck/results/?qtype=pid&term=1769389">Georg Simmel Collection, AR 388</a> Archival Collection at the <a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo Baeck Institute, New York">Leo Baeck Institute, New York</a></li></ul> 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<li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/39384262">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/37244/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJyMfy7xrw73M9dptghmBP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118614436">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79063822">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11924807v">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11924807v">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00456621">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Simmel, Georg"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV005105">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35499935">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990007969&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX1014486">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=161849">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000026263">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199625347">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/tr57806c4lgrb6q">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810533641405606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/73313">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UcctlXUAAAAJ">Google Scholar</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500226097">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/c26ef622-6718-4222-9ab0-c55364a43020">MusicBrainz</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118614436">FID</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/975593">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118614436.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118614436">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027138739">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w64496p9">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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