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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mainstream_recognition_of_Harlem_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainstream_recognition_of_Harlem_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Mainstream recognition of Harlem culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainstream_recognition_of_Harlem_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discourse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discourse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Discourse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discourse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Musical_theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Musical_theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Musical theatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Musical_theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Fashion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Photography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Painting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Painting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Painting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Painting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sculpting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sculpting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Sculpting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sculpting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics_and_themes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics_and_themes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Characteristics and themes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics_and_themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_new_black_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_new_black_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>A new black identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_new_black_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_and_the_LGBTQ_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_and_the_LGBTQ_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Women and the LGBTQ community</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_and_the_LGBTQ_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Criticism of the movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_associated_with_the_Harlem_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_associated_with_the_Harlem_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Works associated with the Harlem Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_associated_with_the_Harlem_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes and references subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Harlem Renaissance</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%A9_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%85" title="نهضة هارلم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نهضة هارلم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaixement_de_Harlem" title="Renaixement de Harlem – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Renaixement de Harlem" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlemsk%C3%A1_renesance" title="Harlemská renesance – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Harlemská renesance" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Harlem Renaissance" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Harlem Renaissance" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renacimiento_de_Harlem" title="Renacimiento de Harlem – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Renacimiento de Harlem" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlema_renesanco" title="Harlema renesanco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Harlema renesanco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlemgo_Pizkundea" title="Harlemgo Pizkundea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Harlemgo Pizkundea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%85" title="رنسانس هارلم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رنسانس هارلم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_de_Harlem" title="Renaissance de Harlem – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Renaissance de Harlem" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rexurdimento_de_Harlem" title="Rexurdimento de Harlem – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Rexurdimento de Harlem" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%A0%EB%A0%98_%EB%A5%B4%EB%84%A4%EC%83%81%EC%8A%A4" title="할렘 르네상스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="할렘 르네상스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaisans_Harlem" title="Renaisans Harlem – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Renaisans Harlem" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinascimento_di_Harlem" title="Rinascimento di Harlem – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rinascimento di Harlem" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A1_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%9D" title="הרנסאנס של הארלם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הרנסאנס של הארלם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ჰარლემის რენესანსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰარლემის რენესანსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renascentia_Harlemensis" title="Renascentia Harlemensis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Renascentia Harlemensis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Харлемска ренесанса – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Харлемска ренесанса" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembaharuan_Harlem" title="Pembaharuan Harlem – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembaharuan Harlem" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Harlem Renaissance" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AC%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8D%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9" title="ハーレム・ルネサンス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハーレム・ルネサンス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlemrenessansen" title="Harlemrenessansen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Harlemrenessansen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renascimento_do_Harlem" title="Renascimento do Harlem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Renascimento do Harlem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Гарлемский ренессанс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гарлемский ренессанс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Harlem Renaissance" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlemsk%C3%A1_renesancia" title="Harlemská renesancia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Harlemská renesancia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesansa_iz_Harlema" title="Renesansa iz Harlema – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Renesansa iz Harlema" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlemin_renessanssi" title="Harlemin renessanssi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Harlemin renessanssi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" 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class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the album by Benny Carter, see <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance_(album)" title="Harlem Renaissance (album)">Harlem Renaissance (album)</a>. For the basketball team, see <a href="/wiki/New_York_Renaissance" title="New York Renaissance">New York Renaissance</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Harlem Renaissance</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_Harlem_Women,_ca._1925.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Three_Harlem_Women%2C_ca._1925.png/270px-Three_Harlem_Women%2C_ca._1925.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Three_Harlem_Women%2C_ca._1925.png/405px-Three_Harlem_Women%2C_ca._1925.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Three_Harlem_Women%2C_ca._1925.png/540px-Three_Harlem_Women%2C_ca._1925.png 2x" data-file-width="2083" data-file-height="2812" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Three African-American women in Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance in 1925</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">1918–mid-1930s</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, United States and influences from <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Also known as</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">New Negro Movement</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data attendee" style="text-align: left;">Various artists and social critics</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;">Mainstream recognition of cultural developments and idea of <a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Harlem Renaissance</b> was an intellectual and cultural revival of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African-American</a> music, dance, art, fashion, literature, theater, politics and scholarship centered in <a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, New York City, spanning the 1920s and 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20240321_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20240321-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, it was known as the "<b>New Negro Movement</b>", named after <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Negro:_An_Interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Negro: An Interpretation">The New Negro</a></i>, a 1925 anthology edited by <a href="/wiki/Alain_Locke" class="mw-redirect" title="Alain Locke">Alain Locke</a>. The movement also included the new African-American cultural expressions across the urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest United States affected by a renewed militancy in the general struggle for civil rights, combined with the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> of African-American workers fleeing the racist conditions of the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as Harlem was the final destination of the largest number of those who migrated north. </p><p>Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood, many <a href="/wiki/Francophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Francophone">francophone</a> black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France, were also influenced by the movement.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature", as <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, took place between 1924—when <i><a href="/wiki/Opportunity:_A_Journal_of_Negro_Life" title="Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life">Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life</a></i> hosted a party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance—and 1929, the year of the <a href="/wiki/Stock_market_crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Stock market crash of 1929">stock-market crash</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. The Harlem Renaissance is considered to have been a rebirth of the African-American arts.<sup id="cite_ref-MUSEcullen_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MUSEcullen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harlem_map2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map of Upper Manhattan with pink sections for Harlem" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Harlem_map2.svg/220px-Harlem_map2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Harlem_map2.svg/330px-Harlem_map2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Harlem_map2.svg/440px-Harlem_map2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1816" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Manhattan" title="Upper Manhattan">Upper Manhattan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Until the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction Era</a>, the emancipated African Americans began to strive for civic participation, political equality, and economic and cultural self-determination. Soon after the end of the Civil War, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Enforcement Act of 1871">Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871</a> gave rise to speeches by African-American congressmen addressing this bill.<sup id="cite_ref-klanactspeeches_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-klanactspeeches-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1875, sixteen African Americans had been elected and served in Congress and gave numerous speeches with their newfound civil empowerment.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was followed by the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a>, part of Reconstruction legislation by <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a>. During the mid-to-late 1870s, racist whites organized in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> launched a murderous campaign of racist terrorism to regain political power throughout the South. From 1890 to 1908, they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites, trapping them without representation. They established <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacist</a> regimes of <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> segregation in the South and one-party block voting behind Southern <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phillip_A._Payton,_Outlook.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Phillip_A._Payton%2C_Outlook.jpg/220px-Phillip_A._Payton%2C_Outlook.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Phillip_A._Payton%2C_Outlook.jpg/330px-Phillip_A._Payton%2C_Outlook.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Phillip_A._Payton%2C_Outlook.jpg/440px-Phillip_A._Payton%2C_Outlook.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philip_A._Payton_Jr." title="Philip A. Payton Jr.">Philip A. Payton Jr.</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Afro-American_Realty_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American Realty Company">Afro-American Realty Company</a> in 1903, which sought to fight <a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">housing discrimination</a> and encourage Black migration into Harlem.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Democratic Party politicians (many having been former slaveowners and political and military leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a>) conspired to deny African Americans their exercise of civil and political rights by terrorizing black communities with lynch mobs and other forms of vigilante violence<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as by instituting a convict labor system that forced many thousands of African Americans back into unpaid labor in mines, plantations and on public works projects such as roads and levees. Convict laborers were typically subject to brutal forms of corporal punishment, overwork and disease from unsanitary conditions. Death rates were extraordinarily high.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While a small number of African Americans were able to acquire land shortly after the Civil War, most were exploited as sharecroppers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether sharecropping or on their own acreage, most of the black population was closely financially dependent on agriculture. This added another impetus for the Migration: the <a href="/wiki/Invasive_agricultural_pest" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive agricultural pest">arrival</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Boll_weevil" title="Boll weevil">boll weevil</a>. The beetle eventually came to waste 8% of the country's <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> yield annually and thus disproportionately impacted this part of America's citizenry.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabbar-Obstfeld-2007_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabbar-Obstfeld-2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to migrate north in great numbers. </p><p>Most of the future leading lights of what was to become known as the "Harlem Renaissance" movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents, grandparents – or they themselves – had been slaves. Their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including better-than-average education. </p><p>Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> out of the South into the <a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">African-American neighborhoods</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>. African Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> who came to the United States hoping for a better life. Uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Study_of_negro_artists.ogv/220px--Study_of_negro_artists.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="911" data-mwtitle="Study_of_negro_artists.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Study_of_negro_artists.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Study_of_negro_artists.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/53/Study_of_negro_artists.ogv/Study_of_negro_artists.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/53/Study_of_negro_artists.ogv/Study_of_negro_artists.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>A silent short documentary on the Negro Artist. <a href="/wiki/Richmond_Barth%C3%A9" title="Richmond Barthé">Richmond Barthé</a> working on Kalombwan (1934)</figcaption></figure> <p>During the early portion of the 20th century, Harlem was a destination for migrants from around the country, attracting both people from the South seeking work and an educated class who made the area a center of culture, as well as a growing "Negro" middle class. These people were looking for a fresh start in life and this was a good place to go. The district had originally been developed in the 19th century as an exclusive suburb for the white middle and upper middle classes; its affluent beginnings led to the development of stately houses, grand avenues, and world-class amenities such as the <a href="/wiki/Polo_Grounds" title="Polo Grounds">Polo Grounds</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Opera_House" title="Harlem Opera House">Harlem Opera House</a>. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the white middle class, who moved farther north. </p><p>Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s. In 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church group.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many more African Americans arrived during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, Washington, D.C., and New York. </p><p>Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities, even in the North.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the end of World War I, many African-American soldiers—who fought in segregated units such as the <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Hellfighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlem Hellfighters">Harlem Hellfighters</a>—came home to a nation whose citizens often did not respect their accomplishments.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Race riots</a> and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the United States during the <a href="/wiki/Red_Summer_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Summer of 1919">Red Summer of 1919</a>, reflecting economic competition over jobs and housing in many cities, as well as tensions over social territories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainstream_recognition_of_Harlem_culture">Mainstream recognition of Harlem culture</h3></div> <p>The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. In 1917, the premiere of <i>Granny Maumee, The Rider of Dreams, and Simon the Cyrenian: Plays for a Negro Theater</i> took place. These plays, written by white playwright <a href="/wiki/Ridgely_Torrence" title="Ridgely Torrence">Ridgely Torrence</a>, featured African-American actors conveying complex human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the <a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">blackface</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">minstrel show</a> traditions. In 1917, <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> called the premieres of these plays "the most important single event in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theater".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another landmark came in 1919, when the communist poet <a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a> published his militant sonnet "<a href="/wiki/If_We_Must_Die" title="If We Must Die">If We Must Die</a>", which introduced a dramatically political dimension to the themes of African cultural inheritance and modern urban experience featured in his 1917 poems "Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer". Published under the pseudonym Eli Edwards, these were his first appearance in print in the United States after immigrating from Jamaica.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although "If We Must Die" never alluded to race, African-American readers heard its note of defiance in the face of racism and the nationwide race riots and <a href="/wiki/Lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynchings">lynchings</a> then taking place. By the end of the First World War, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of Claude McKay were describing the reality of contemporary African-American life in America. </p><p>The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the African-American community since the abolition of slavery, as the expansion of communities in the North. These accelerated as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and the great social and cultural changes in the early 20th-century United States. Industrialization attracted people from rural areas to cities and gave rise to a new mass culture. Contributing factors leading to the Harlem Renaissance were the Great Migration of African Americans to Northern cities, which concentrated ambitious people in places where they could encourage each other, and the First World War, which had created new industrial work opportunities for tens of thousands of people. Factors leading to the decline of this era include the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <p>In 1917, <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Harrison" title="Hubert Harrison">Hubert Harrison</a>, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism", founded the Liberty League and <i>The Voice</i>, the first organization and the first newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro Movement". Harrison's organization and newspaper were political but also emphasized the arts (his newspaper had "Poetry for the People" and book review sections). In 1927, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Courier" title="Pittsburgh Courier">Pittsburgh Courier</a></i>, Harrison challenged the notion of the Renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion overlooked "the stream of literary and artistic products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present," and said the so-called "Renaissance" was largely a white invention.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, a writer like the Chicago-based author, <a href="/wiki/Fenton_Johnson_(poet)" title="Fenton Johnson (poet)">Fenton Johnson</a>, who began publishing in the early 1900s, is called a "forerunner" of the Harlem Renaissance,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "one of the first negro revolutionary poets".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, with the Harlem Renaissance came a sense of acceptance for African-American writers; as Langston Hughes put it, with Harlem came the courage "to express our individual dark-skinned selves without fear or shame".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alain Locke's anthology <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Negro" title="The New Negro">The New Negro</a></i> was considered the cornerstone of this cultural revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anthology featured several African-American writers and poets, from the well-known, such as <a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a> and communists <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a>, to the lesser known, like the poet <a href="/wiki/Anne_Spencer" title="Anne Spencer">Anne Spencer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many poets of the Harlem Renaissance were inspired to tie threads of African-American culture into their poems; as a result, <a href="/wiki/Jazz_poetry" title="Jazz poetry">jazz poetry</a> was heavily developed during this time. "<a href="/wiki/The_Weary_Blues" title="The Weary Blues">The Weary Blues</a>" was a notable jazz poem written by Langston Hughes.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through their works of literature, black authors were able to give a voice to the African-American identity, and strived for a community of support and acceptance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> played a major role in the Harlem Renaissance. Many of the writers and social critics discussed the role of Christianity in African-American lives. For example, a famous poem by <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, "Madam and the Minister", reflects the temperature and mood towards religion in the Harlem Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cover story for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></i> magazine's publication in May 1936 explains how important Christianity was regarding the proposed union of the three largest Methodist churches of 1936. This article shows the controversial question of unification for these churches.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The article "The Catholic Church and the Negro Priest", also published in <i>The Crisis</i>, January 1920, demonstrates the obstacles that African-American priests faced in the Catholic Church. The article confronts what it saw as policies based on race that excluded African Americans from higher positions in the Church.<sup id="cite_ref-MacWilliam_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacWilliam-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discourse">Discourse</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Religion_and_Evolution_Ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Religion_and_Evolution_Ad.jpg/220px-Religion_and_Evolution_Ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Religion_and_Evolution_Ad.jpg/330px-Religion_and_Evolution_Ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Religion_and_Evolution_Ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="388" data-file-height="465" /></a><figcaption>Religion and Evolution Ad</figcaption></figure> <p>Various forms of religious worship existed during this time of African-American intellectual reawakening. </p><p>Although there were racist attitudes within the current <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religious</a> arenas, many African Americans continued to push towards the practice of a more inclusive doctrine. For example, George Joseph MacWilliam presents various experiences of rejection on the basis of his color and race during his pursuit towards priesthood, yet he shares his frustration in attempts to incite action on the part of <i>The Crisis</i> magazine community.<sup id="cite_ref-MacWilliam_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacWilliam-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were other forms of spiritualism practiced among African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance. Some of these religions and philosophies were inherited from African ancestry. For example, the religion of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was present in Africa as early as the 8th century through the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">Trans-Saharan trade</a>. Islam came to Harlem likely through the migration of members of the <a href="/wiki/Moorish_Science_Temple_of_America" title="Moorish Science Temple of America">Moorish Science Temple of America</a>, which was established in 1913 in New Jersey.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Various forms of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> were practiced, including <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a>, but it was <a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a> that founded their religious belief system during the early 20th century in the Harlem Renaissance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Traditional forms of religion acquired from various parts of Africa were inherited and practiced during this era. Some common examples were <a href="/wiki/West_African_Vodou" class="mw-redirect" title="West African Vodou">Voodoo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Santeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Santeria">Santeria</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism">Criticism</h4></div> <p>Religious critique during this era was found in music, literature, art, theater and poetry. The Harlem Renaissance encouraged analytic dialogue that included the open critique and the adjustment of current religious ideas. </p><p>One of the major contributors to the discussion of African-American renaissance culture was <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Douglas_(artist)" title="Aaron Douglas (artist)">Aaron Douglas</a>, who, with his artwork, also reflected the revisions African Americans were making to the Christian dogma. Douglas uses biblical imagery as inspiration to various pieces of artwork, but with the rebellious twist of an African influence.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Countee_Cullen" title="Countee Cullen">Countee Cullen</a>'s poem "Heritage" expresses the inner struggle of an African American between his past African heritage and the new <a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christian culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more severe criticism of the Christian religion can be found in <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>'s poem "Merry Christmas", where he exposes the irony of religion as a symbol for good and yet a force for oppression and injustice.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adelaide_Hall_and_Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson_in_Brown_Buddies,_on_Broadway,_1930.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Adelaide_Hall_and_Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson_in_Brown_Buddies%2C_on_Broadway%2C_1930.jpg/200px-Adelaide_Hall_and_Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson_in_Brown_Buddies%2C_on_Broadway%2C_1930.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Adelaide_Hall_and_Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson_in_Brown_Buddies%2C_on_Broadway%2C_1930.jpg/300px-Adelaide_Hall_and_Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson_in_Brown_Buddies%2C_on_Broadway%2C_1930.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Adelaide_Hall_and_Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson_in_Brown_Buddies%2C_on_Broadway%2C_1930.jpg/400px-Adelaide_Hall_and_Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson_in_Brown_Buddies%2C_on_Broadway%2C_1930.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1434" /></a><figcaption>The multi-talented <a href="/wiki/Adelaide_Hall" title="Adelaide Hall">Adelaide Hall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_%27Bojangles%27_Robinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson">Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson</a> in the musical comedy <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_Buddies" title="Brown Buddies">Brown Buddies</a></i> on <a href="/wiki/Broadway_theatre" title="Broadway theatre">Broadway</a>, 1930</figcaption></figure> <p>A new way of playing the piano called the <a href="/wiki/Stride_(music)" title="Stride (music)">Harlem Stride style</a> was created during the Harlem Renaissance helping to blur the lines between the poor African Americans and socially elite African Americans. The traditional <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> band was composed primarily of brass instruments and was considered a symbol of the South, but the piano was considered an instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, the wealthy African Americans now had more access to jazz music. Its popularity soon spread throughout the country and was consequently at an all-time high. </p><p>Innovation and liveliness were important characteristics of performers in the beginnings of jazz. Jazz performers and composers at the time such as <a href="/wiki/Eubie_Blake" title="Eubie Blake">Eubie Blake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noble_Sissle" title="Noble Sissle">Noble Sissle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jelly_Roll_Morton" title="Jelly Roll Morton">Jelly Roll Morton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luckey_Roberts" title="Luckey Roberts">Luckey Roberts</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_P._Johnson" title="James P. Johnson">James P. Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willie_%22The_Lion%22_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Willie "The Lion" Smith">Willie "The Lion" Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andy_Razaf" title="Andy Razaf">Andy Razaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fats_Waller" title="Fats Waller">Fats Waller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Waters" title="Ethel Waters">Ethel Waters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adelaide_Hall" title="Adelaide Hall">Adelaide Hall</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Florence_Mills" title="Florence Mills">Florence Mills</a> and bandleaders <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington" title="Duke Ellington">Duke Ellington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fletcher_Henderson" title="Fletcher Henderson">Fletcher Henderson</a> were extremely talented, skillful, competitive and inspirational. They laid great parts of the foundations for future musicians of their genre.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Duke Ellington gained popularity during the Harlem Renaissance. According to Charles Garrett, "The resulting portrait of Ellington reveals him to be not only the gifted composer, bandleader, and musician we have come to know, but also an earthly person with basic desires, weaknesses, and eccentricities."<sup id="cite_ref-MUSEcullen_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MUSEcullen-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ellington did not let his popularity get to him. He remained calm and focused on his music. </p><p>During this period, the musical style of blacks was becoming more and more attractive to whites. White novelists, dramatists and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their works. Composers (including <a href="/wiki/William_Grant_Still" title="William Grant Still">William Grant Still</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_L._Dawson_(composer)" title="William L. Dawson (composer)">William L. Dawson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florence_Price" title="Florence Price">Florence Price</a>) used poems written by African-American poets in their songs, and would implement the rhythms, harmonies and melodies of African-American music—such as <a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirituals" title="Spirituals">spirituals</a> and jazz—into their concert pieces. African Americans began to merge with whites into the classical world of <a href="/wiki/Musical_composition" title="Musical composition">musical composition</a>. The first African-American male to gain wide recognition as a concert artist in both his region and internationally was <a href="/wiki/Roland_Hayes" title="Roland Hayes">Roland Hayes</a>. He trained with Arthur Calhoun in <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattanooga">Chattanooga</a>, and at Fisk University in <a href="/wiki/Nashville" class="mw-redirect" title="Nashville">Nashville</a>. Later, he studied with Arthur Hubbard in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and with <a href="/wiki/George_Henschel" title="George Henschel">George Henschel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amanda_Ira_Aldridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Amanda Ira Aldridge">Amanda Ira Aldridge</a> in <a href="/wiki/London,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="London, England">London, England</a>. Hayes began singing in public as a student, and he toured with the <a href="/wiki/Fisk_Jubilee_Singers" title="Fisk Jubilee Singers">Fisk Jubilee Singers</a> in 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Musical_theatre">Musical theatre</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Run_Little_Chillun_by_Hall_Johnson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Run_Little_Chillun_by_Hall_Johnson.jpg/150px-Run_Little_Chillun_by_Hall_Johnson.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Run_Little_Chillun_by_Hall_Johnson.jpg/225px-Run_Little_Chillun_by_Hall_Johnson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Run_Little_Chillun_by_Hall_Johnson.jpg/299px-Run_Little_Chillun_by_Hall_Johnson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="947" /></a><figcaption>Poster for Run, Little Chillun</figcaption></figure> <p>According to James Vernon Hatch and Leo Hamalian, all-black review, <i><a href="/wiki/Run,_Little_Chillun" title="Run, Little Chillun">Run, Little Chillun</a></i>, is considered one of the most successful musical dramas of the Harlem Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3></div> <p>During the Harlem Renaissance, the African-American clothing scene took a dramatic turn from the prim and proper many young women preferred, from short skirts and silk stockings to <a href="/wiki/Drop-waisted_dress" class="mw-redirect" title="Drop-waisted dress">drop-waisted dresses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cloche_hat" title="Cloche hat">cloche hats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women wore loose-fitted garments and accessorized with long strand pearl bead necklaces, <a href="/wiki/Feather_boa" class="mw-redirect" title="Feather boa">feather boas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cigarette_holder" title="Cigarette holder">cigarette holders</a>. The fashion of the Harlem Renaissance was used to convey elegance and flamboyancy and needed to be created with the vibrant dance style of the 1920s in mind.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular by the 1930s was a trendy, egret-trimmed beret. </p><p>Men wore loose suits that led to the later style known as the "<a href="/wiki/Zoot_suit" title="Zoot suit">Zoot</a>", which consisted of wide-legged, high-waisted, peg-top trousers, and a long coat with padded shoulders and wide lapels. Men also wore wide-brimmed hats, colored socks,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> white gloves and velvet-collared <a href="/wiki/Chesterfield_coat" title="Chesterfield coat">Chesterfield coats</a>. During this period, African Americans expressed respect for their heritage through a fad for leopard-skin coats, indicating the power of the African animal. </p><p>While performing in Paris during the height of the Renaissance, the extraordinarily successful black dancer <a href="/wiki/Josephine_Baker" title="Josephine Baker">Josephine Baker</a> was a major fashion trendsetter for black and white women alike. Her gowns from the couturier <a href="/wiki/Jean_Patou" title="Jean Patou">Jean Patou</a> were copied, especially her stage costumes, which <i>Vogue</i> magazine called "startling". Josephine Baker is also credited for highlighting the "art deco" fashion era after she performed the "Danse Sauvage". During this Paris performance, she adorned a skirt made of string and artificial bananas. <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Moses" title="Ethel Moses">Ethel Moses</a> was another popular black performer. Moses starred in silent films in the 1920s and 1930s and was recognizable by her signature bob hairstyle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photography">Photography</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Van_Der_Zee" title="James Van Der Zee">James Van Der Zee</a>'s photography played an important role in shaping and documenting the cultural and social life of Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance. His photographs were instrumental in shaping the image and identity of the African-American community during the Harlem Renaissance. His work documented the achievements of cultural figures and helped to challenge stereotypes and racist attitudes,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in turn promoted pride and dignity among African Americans in Harlem and beyond. </p><p>Van Der Zee's studio was not just a place for taking photographs; it was also a social and cultural hub for Harlem residents.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People would come to his studio not only to have their portraits taken, but also to socialize and to participate in the community events that he hosted. Van Der Zee's studio played an important role in the cultural life of Harlem during the early 20th century, and helped to foster a sense of community and pride among its residents. </p><p>Some notable persons photographed are <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)</a>, a black nationalist organization that promoted <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a> and economic independence for African Americans. Other notable black persons he photographed are <a href="/wiki/Countee_Cullen" title="Countee Cullen">Countee Cullen</a>, a poet and writer who was associated with the Harlem Renaissance; <a href="/wiki/Josephine_Baker" title="Josephine Baker">Josephine Baker</a>, a dancer and entertainer who became famous in France and was known for her provocative performances; <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, a sociologist, historian and civil rights activist who was a leading figure in the African-American community in the early 20th century; <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, a poet, novelist and playwright who was one of the most important writers of the Harlem Renaissance; and <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker" title="Madam C. J. Walker">Madam C.J. Walker</a>, an entrepreneur and philanthropist who was one of the first African-American women to become a self-made millionaire. </p><p>Van Der Zee's work gained renewed attention in the 1960s and 1970s, when interest in the Harlem Renaissance was revived. Van Der Zee's photographs have been featured in numerous exhibitions over the years. One notable exhibition was "Harlem on My Mind: Cultural Capital of Black America, 1900–1968,"<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was organized by <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">the Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> in 1969. The exhibit included over 300 photographs, many of which were by Van Der Zee, and was one of the first major exhibitions to focus on the cultural achievements of African Americans in Harlem. </p><p>Van Der Zee's work was the eyes of Harlem. His photographs are recognized as important documents of African-American life and culture during the early 20th century. They serve as a visual record of the achievements of the Harlem Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kelli Jones called him "the official chronicler of the Harlem Renaissance."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His portraits of writers, musicians, artists and other cultural figures helped to promote their work and bring attention to the vibrant creative scene known as Harlem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Painting">Painting</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Douglas_(artist)" title="Aaron Douglas (artist)">Aaron Douglas</a>, born in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> in 1899 and often referred to as the "Father of African-American Art", is one of the most influential painters of the Harlem Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through his paintings that utilize color, shape, and line, Douglas creates a collapsing of time as he merges the past, present, and future of American-American history. Fragmentation of the picture plane, geometry, and hard-edge abstraction are present in most of his paintings during the Harlem Renaissance. Douglas drew inspiration from both ancient Egyptian and Native American motifs.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sculpting">Sculpting</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Augusta_Savage" title="Augusta Savage">Augusta Savage</a>, born in Florida in 1892, was a culture, advocate, and teacher during the Harlem Renaissance who put black everyday people at the forefront of her works. In 1932, Savage founded the Savage Studio of Arts and Crafts, providing free art classes in painting, printmaking, and sculpting. She secured government funding for the school to train youths and adults. Known as a leading light within the Harlem community, Savage encouraged artists to seek financial compensation for their works, which led to the start of the Harlem Artist Guild in 1935. Augusta Savage was the only African American commissioned to create an exhibit for the 1939 World Fair in New York, where she showcased her piece <i>Lift Every Voice and Sing</i>, which quickly became one of the most popular pieces within the fair.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics_and_themes">Characteristics and themes</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D._Gillespie,_J._Lewis,_C._Payne,_M._Davis,_R._Brown.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A jazz combo playing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/D._Gillespie%2C_J._Lewis%2C_C._Payne%2C_M._Davis%2C_R._Brown.jpg/220px-D._Gillespie%2C_J._Lewis%2C_C._Payne%2C_M._Davis%2C_R._Brown.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/D._Gillespie%2C_J._Lewis%2C_C._Payne%2C_M._Davis%2C_R._Brown.jpg/330px-D._Gillespie%2C_J._Lewis%2C_C._Payne%2C_M._Davis%2C_R._Brown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/D._Gillespie%2C_J._Lewis%2C_C._Payne%2C_M._Davis%2C_R._Brown.jpg/440px-D._Gillespie%2C_J._Lewis%2C_C._Payne%2C_M._Davis%2C_R._Brown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1009" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Trumpeter <a href="/wiki/Dizzy_Gillespie" title="Dizzy Gillespie">Dizzy Gillespie</a> is emblematic of the mixture of high class society, popular art, and virtuosity of <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the <a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a>, who through intellect and production of literature, art and music could challenge the pervading <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes">stereotypes</a> to promote <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> politics, and <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">racial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">social integration</a>. The creation of art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race. </p><p>There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged from the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, it encompassed a wide variety of cultural elements and styles, including a <a href="/wiki/Pan-African" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-African">Pan-African</a> perspective, "high-culture" and "low-culture" or "low-life", from the traditional form of music to the blues and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature such as <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a> and the new form of <a href="/wiki/Jazz_poetry" title="Jazz poetry">jazz poetry</a>. This duality meant that numerous African-American artists came into conflict with conservatives in the black intelligentsia, who took issue with certain depictions of black life. </p><p>Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African-American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a>, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North. </p><p>The Harlem Renaissance was one of primarily African-American involvement. It rested on a support system of black patrons and black-owned businesses and publications. However, it also depended on the patronage of white Americans, such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten" title="Carl Van Vechten">Carl Van Vechten</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Osgood_Mason" title="Charlotte Osgood Mason">Charlotte Osgood Mason</a>, who provided various forms of assistance, opening doors which otherwise might have remained closed to the publication of work outside the black American community. This support often took the form of <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a> or <a href="/wiki/Publication" title="Publication">publication</a>. Carl Van Vechten was one of the most noteworthy white Americans involved with the Harlem Renaissance. He allowed for assistance to the black American community because he wanted racial sameness. </p><p>There were other whites interested in so-called "<a href="/wiki/Primitive_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive culture">primitive</a>" cultures, as many whites viewed black American culture at that time, and wanted to see such "primitivism" in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. As with most fads, some people may have been exploited in the rush for publicity. </p><p>Interest in African-American lives also generated experimental but lasting collaborative work, such as the all-black productions of <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a>'s opera <i><a href="/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess" title="Porgy and Bess">Porgy and Bess</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Virgil_Thomson" title="Virgil Thomson">Virgil Thomson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Stein" title="Gertrude Stein">Gertrude Stein</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Saints_in_Three_Acts" title="Four Saints in Three Acts">Four Saints in Three Acts</a></i>. In both productions the choral conductor <a href="/wiki/Eva_Jessye" title="Eva Jessye">Eva Jessye</a> was part of the creative team. Her choir was featured in <i>Four Saints</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The music world also found white band leaders defying racist attitudes to include the best and the brightest African-American stars of music and song in their productions. </p><p>The African Americans used art to prove their <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humanity</a> and demand for <a href="/wiki/Racial_equality" title="Racial equality">equality</a>. The Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to be published by mainstream houses. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. The new fiction attracted a great amount of attention from the nation at large. Among authors who became nationally known were <a href="/wiki/Jean_Toomer" title="Jean Toomer">Jean Toomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jessie_Fauset" class="mw-redirect" title="Jessie Fauset">Jessie Fauset</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alain_Locke" class="mw-redirect" title="Alain Locke">Alain Locke</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Omar_Al_Amiri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Omar Al Amiri (page does not exist)">Omar Al Amiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eric_D._Walrond" title="Eric D. Walrond">Eric D. Walrond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bruce_Nugent" title="Richard Bruce Nugent">Richard Bruce Nugent</a> (1906–1987), who wrote "Smoke, Lilies, and Jade", made an important contribution, especially in relation to experimental form and LGBT themes in the period.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the post-World War II protest movement of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights movement">Civil Rights movement</a>. Moreover, many black artists who rose to creative maturity afterward were inspired by this literary movement. </p><p>The Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement, as it possessed a certain sociological development—particularly through a new racial consciousness—through ethnic pride, as seen in the <a href="/wiki/Back_to_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Back to Africa">Back to Africa</a> movement led by Jamaican <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>. At the same time, a different expression of ethnic pride, promoted by <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, introduced the notion of the "<a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">talented tenth</a>". Du Bois wrote of the Talented Tenth: </p> <blockquote><p>The <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Negro</a> race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, then, among Negroes must first of all deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the problem of developing the best of this race that they may guide the mass away from the contamination and death of the worst.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>These "talented tenth" were considered the finest examples of the worth of black Americans as a response to the rampant racism of the period. No particular leadership was assigned to the talented tenth, but they were to be emulated. In both literature and popular discussion, complex ideas such as Du Bois's concept of "twoness" (dualism) were introduced (see <i><a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a></i>; 1903).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Du Bois explored a divided awareness of one's identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness. This exploration was later revived during the <a href="/wiki/Black_Pride" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pride">Black Pride</a> movement of the early 1970s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_new_black_identity">A new black identity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LangstonHughes_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/LangstonHughes_crop.jpg/220px-LangstonHughes_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/LangstonHughes_crop.jpg/330px-LangstonHughes_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/LangstonHughes_crop.jpg/440px-LangstonHughes_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="935" data-file-height="1168" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, communist novelist and poet, photographed by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten" title="Carl Van Vechten">Carl Van Vechten</a>, 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the black experience clearly within the corpus of <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural history</a>. Not only through an explosion of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, but on a <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociological</a> level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance redefined how America, and the world, viewed African Americans. The migration of Southern blacks to the North changed the image of the African American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness, and African Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally. </p><p>The progress—both symbolic and real—during this period became a point of reference from which the African-American community gained a spirit of <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> that provided a growing sense of both black urbanity and <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black militancy</a>, as well as a foundation for the community to build upon for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights">Civil Rights</a> struggles in the 1950s and 1960s. </p><p>The urban setting of rapidly developing Harlem provided a venue for African Americans of all backgrounds to appreciate the variety of black life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and culture. For instance, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the artistic and intellectual imagination, which freed blacks from the establishment of past condition. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung forth in the form of a united racial identity. </p><p>However, there was some pressure within certain groups of the Harlem Renaissance to adopt sentiments of conservative white America in order to be taken seriously by the mainstream. The result being that queer culture, while far-more accepted in Harlem than most places in the country at the time, was most fully lived out in the smoky dark lights of bars, nightclubs and cabarets in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was within these venues that the blues music scene boomed, and, since it had not yet gained recognition within popular culture, queer artists used it as a way to express themselves honestly.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even though there were factions within the Renaissance that were accepting of queer culture/lifestyles, one could still be arrested for engaging in homosexual acts. Many people, including author <a href="/wiki/Alice_Dunbar_Nelson" title="Alice Dunbar Nelson">Alice Dunbar Nelson</a> and "The Mother of Blues" <a href="/wiki/Ma_Rainey" title="Ma Rainey">Gertrude "Ma" Rainey</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had husbands but were romantically linked to other women as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_and_the_LGBTQ_community">Women and the LGBTQ community</h3></div> <p>During the Harlem Renaissance, various well-known figures, including <a href="/wiki/Claude_Mckay" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Mckay">Claude Mckay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Waters" title="Ethel Waters">Ethel Waters</a>, are believed to have had private same-gender relationships, although this aspect of their lives remained undisclosed to the public during that era.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Harlem music scene, places such as the Cotton Club and Rockland Palace routinely held <a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">gay</a> drag shows in addition to <a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">straight</a> performances. <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">Lesbian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bisexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bisexual">bisexual</a> women performers, such as blues singers <a href="/wiki/Gladys_Bentley" title="Gladys Bentley">Gladys Bentley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bessie_Smith" title="Bessie Smith">Bessie Smith</a>, were a part of this cultural movement, which contributed to a renewed interest in African-American culture among the black community and introduced it to a wider audience.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although women's contributions to culture were often overlooked at the time, contemporary <a href="/wiki/Black_feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Black feminist">black feminist</a> critics have endeavored to re-evaluate and recognize the cultural production of women during the Harlem Renaissance. Authors such as <a href="/wiki/Nella_Larsen" title="Nella Larsen">Nella Larsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jessie_Fauset" class="mw-redirect" title="Jessie Fauset">Jessie Fauset</a> have gained renewed critical acclaim for their work from modern perspectives.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Blues singer <a href="/wiki/Ma_Rainey" title="Ma Rainey">Gertrude "Ma" Rainey</a> was known to dress in traditionally male clothing, and her blues lyrics often reflected her sexual proclivities for women, which was extremely radical at the time. Ma Rainey was also the first person to introduce blues music into <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rainey's protégé, <a href="/wiki/Bessie_Smith" title="Bessie Smith">Bessie Smith</a>, was another artist who used the blues as a way to express unapologetic views on same-gender relations, with such lines as "When you see two women walking hand in hand, just look em' over and try to understand: They'll go to those parties – have the lights down low – only those parties where women can go."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rainey, Smith, and artist <a href="/wiki/Lucille_Bogan" title="Lucille Bogan">Lucille Bogan</a> were collectively known as "The Big Three of the Blues".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gladys_Bentley_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Gladys_Bentley_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Blues singer <a href="/wiki/Gladys_Bentley" title="Gladys Bentley">Gladys Bentley</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Another prominent blues singer was Gladys Bentley, who was known to <a href="/wiki/Cross-dress" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-dress">cross-dress</a>. Bentley was the club owner of Clam House on 133rd Street in Harlem, which was a hub for <a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">queer</a> patrons. The <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Lodge_Ball" title="Hamilton Lodge Ball">Hamilton Lodge</a> in Harlem hosted an annual drag ball, drawing thousands of people to watch young men dance in drag. Though there were <a href="/wiki/Safe_space" title="Safe space">safe spaces</a> within Harlem, there were prominent voices, such as that of Abyssinian Baptist Church's minister <a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Sr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Sr.">Adam Clayton Powell Sr.</a>, who actively opposed homosexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Harlem Renaissance was instrumental in fostering the "New Negro" movement, an endeavor by African Americans to redefine their identity free from degrading stereotypes. The Neo-New Negro movement further challenged racial definitions, stereotypes, and gender norms and roles, seeking to address normative sexuality and sexism in American society.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These ideas received some pushback, particularly regarding sexual freedom for women,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was seen as confirming the stereotype that black women were sexually uninhibited. Some members of the black bourgeoisie saw this as hindering the overall progress of the black community and fueling racist sentiments. Yet queer culture and artists defined major portions of the Harlem Renaissance; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates_Jr." title="Henry Louis Gates Jr.">Henry Louis Gates Jr.</a>, in a 1993 essay titled "The Black Man's Burden", wrote that the Harlem Renaissance "was surely as gay as it was black".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_the_movement">Criticism of the movement</h3></div> <p>Many critics point out that the Harlem Renaissance could not escape its <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> in its attempt to create a new one, or sufficiently separate from the foundational elements of white, European culture. Often Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">racial consciousness</a>, resorted to mimicry of their white counterparts by adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This "mimicry" may also be called <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilation</a>, as that is typically what minority members of any <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a> must do in order to fit social norms created by that construct's majority.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could be seen as a reason that the artistic and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did not overcome the presence of white-American values and did not reject these values.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro", as the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a success.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2020)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The literature appealed to the African-American <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> and to whites. Magazines such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a></i>, a monthly journal of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, and <i>Opportunity</i>, an official publication of the <a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a>, employed Harlem Renaissance writers on their editorial staffs, published poetry and short stories by black writers, and promoted African-American literature through articles, reviews and annual literary prizes. However, as important as these literary outlets were, the Renaissance relied heavily on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> did not oppose the relationship between black writers and white publishers, but he was critical of works such as <a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a>'s bestselling <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> <i>Home to Harlem</i> (1928) for appealing to the "prurient demand[s]" of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness".<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Langston Hughes spoke for most of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926) that black artists intended to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hughes in his writings also returned to the theme of racial passing, but, during the Harlem Renaissance, he began to explore the topic of homosexuality and homophobia. He began to use disruptive language in his writings. He explored this topic because it was a theme that during this time period was not discussed.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>African-American musicians and writers were among mixed audiences as well, having experienced positive and negative outcomes throughout the New Negro Movement. For musicians, Harlem, New York's cabarets and nightclubs shined a light on black performers and allowed for black residents to enjoy music and dancing. However, some of the most popular clubs (that showcased black musicians) were <i>exclusively</i> for white audiences; one of the most famous white-only nightclubs in Harlem was the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Club" title="Cotton Club">Cotton Club</a>, where popular black musicians like <a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington" title="Duke Ellington">Duke Ellington</a> frequently performed.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, the black musicians who appeared at these white-only clubs became far more successful and became a part of the mainstream music scene.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Similarly, black writers were given the opportunity to shine once the New Negro Movement gained traction as short stories, novels and poems by black authors began taking form and getting into various print publications in the 1910s and 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-Werner_2017_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Werner_2017-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although a seemingly good way to establish their identities and culture, many authors note how hard it was for any of their work to actually go anywhere. Writer <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Chesnutt" title="Charles W. Chesnutt">Charles Chesnutt</a> in 1877, for example, notes that there was no indication of his race alongside his publication in <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> (at the publisher's request).<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes_1968_60–68_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes_1968_60–68-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A prominent factor in the New Negro's struggle was that their work had been made out to be "different" or "exotic" to white audiences, making a necessity for black writers to appeal to them and compete with each other to get their work out.<sup id="cite_ref-Werner_2017_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Werner_2017-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Famous black author and poet <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a> explained that black-authored works were placed in a similar fashion to those of oriental or foreign origin, only being used occasionally in comparison to their white-made counterparts: Once a spot for a black work was "taken", black authors had to look elsewhere to publish.<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes_1968_60–68_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes_1968_60–68-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain aspects of the Harlem Renaissance were accepted without debate, and without scrutiny. One of these was the future of the "New Negro". Artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance echoed American <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressivism</a> in its faith in democratic reform, in its belief in art and literature as agents of change, and in its almost uncritical belief in itself and its future. This progressivist worldview rendered black intellectuals—just like their white counterparts—unprepared for the rude shock of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and the Harlem Renaissance ended abruptly because of naïve assumptions about the centrality of culture, unrelated to <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economic</a> and social realities.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_associated_with_the_Harlem_Renaissance">Works associated with the Harlem Renaissance</h2></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Blackbirds_of_1928" title="Blackbirds of 1928">Blackbirds of 1928</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Harlem_Renaissance" title="Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance">Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance</a></i> (book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Negro:_The_Life_of_Alain_Locke" title="The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke">The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuffle_Along" title="Shuffle Along">Shuffle Along</a></i>, musical</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Untitled_(The_Birth)" title="Untitled (The Birth)">Untitled (The Birth)</a></i>, painting</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_(opera)" title="Voodoo (opera)">Voodoo (opera)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/When_Washington_Was_in_Vogue" title="When Washington Was in Vogue">When Washington Was in Vogue</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_in_Art" title="The Negro in Art">The Negro in Art</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taboo_(1922_play)" title="Taboo (1922 play)">Taboo (1922 play)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/There%27ll_Be_Some_Changes_Made" title="There'll Be Some Changes Made">There'll Be Some Changes Made</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style 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/></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:1920s" title="Portal:1920s">1920s portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saxo_Boca1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Saxo_Boca1.JPG/27px-Saxo_Boca1.JPG" decoding="async" width="27" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Saxo_Boca1.JPG/40px-Saxo_Boca1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Saxo_Boca1.JPG/53px-Saxo_Boca1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="230" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Jazz" title="Portal:Jazz">Jazz portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a>, 1960s and 1970s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Renaissance_in_D.C." title="Black Renaissance in D.C.">Black Renaissance in D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Black_Renaissance" title="Chicago Black Renaissance">Chicago Black Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_entertainers_of_the_Harlem_Renaissance" title="List of female entertainers of the Harlem Renaissance">List of female entertainers of the Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_figures_from_the_Harlem_Renaissance" title="List of figures from the Harlem Renaissance">List of figures from the Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niggerati" title="Niggerati">Niggerati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harmon_Foundation_award_for_distinguished_achievement_among_Negroes" class="mw-redirect" title="William E. Harmon Foundation award for distinguished achievement among Negroes">William E. Harmon Foundation award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_and_tan_clubs" title="Black and tan clubs">Black and tan clubs</a>, nightclubs featuring black performers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Club" title="Cotton Club">Cotton Club</a>, nightclub</li></ul> <p><b>General:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">African-American art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">African-American culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">List of African-American visual artists</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20240321-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20240321_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChambersMay-Curry2024" class="citation news cs1">Chambers, Veronica; May-Curry, Michelle (21 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/21/arts/harlem-renaissance-dinner-1924-anniversary.html">"The Dinner Party That Started the Harlem Renaissance"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20240321101849/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/21/arts/harlem-renaissance-dinner-1924-anniversary.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Dinner+Party+That+Started+the+Harlem+Renaissance&rft.date=2024-03-21&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Veronica&rft.au=May-Curry%2C+Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2024%2F03%2F21%2Farts%2Fharlem-renaissance-dinner-1924-anniversary.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://myloc.gov/Exhibitions/naacp/newnegromovement/Pages/default.aspx">"NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130801052539/http://myloc.gov/Exhibitions/naacp/newnegromovement/Pages/default.aspx">Archived</a> 1 August 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Library of Congress.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121006022705/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/08/magazine/harlem-in-the-jazz-age.html?src=pm">"Harlem in the Jazz Age"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 8 February 1987. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/08/magazine/harlem-in-the-jazz-age.html">the original</a> on 6 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Harlem+in+the+Jazz+Age&rft.date=1987-02-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F02%2F08%2Fmagazine%2Fharlem-in-the-jazz-age.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotter,_Holland1998" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Holland_Cotter" title="Holland Cotter">Cotter, Holland</a> (24 May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121006022921/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/24/arts/art-a-1920-s-flowering-that-didn-t-disappear.html?src=pm">"ART; A 1920s Flowering That Didn't Disappear"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/24/arts/art-a-1920-s-flowering-that-didn-t-disappear.html">the original</a> on 6 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=ART%3B+A+1920s+Flowering+That+Didn%27t+Disappear&rft.date=1998-05-24&rft.au=Cotter%2C+Holland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1998%2F05%2F24%2Farts%2Fart-a-1920-s-flowering-that-didn-t-disappear.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610081415/http://www.jcu.edu/harlem/French_Connection/page_1.htm">"French Connection"</a>. <i>Harlem Renaissance</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jcu.edu/harlem/French_Connection/page_1.htm">the original</a> on 10 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harlem+Renaissance&rft.atitle=French+Connection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jcu.edu%2Fharlem%2FFrench_Connection%2Fpage_1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirka1995" class="citation news cs1">Kirka, Danica (1 January 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-01-01-op-15135-story.html">"Los Angeles Times Interview : Dorothy West : A Voice of Harlem Renaissance Talks of Past--But Values the Now"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234106/http://articles.latimes.com/1995-01-01/opinion/op-15135_1_harlem-renaissance">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Los+Angeles+Times+Interview+%3A+Dorothy+West+%3A+A+Voice+of+Harlem+Renaissance+Talks+of+Past--But+Values+the+Now&rft.date=1995-01-01&rft.aulast=Kirka&rft.aufirst=Danica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1995-01-01-op-15135-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchinson" class="citation web cs1">Hutchinson, George. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080519090808/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/255397/Harlem-Renaissance">"Harlem Renaissance"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/255397/Harlem-Renaissance">the original</a> on 19 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Harlem+Renaissance&rft.aulast=Hutchinson&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F255397%2FHarlem-Renaissance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MUSEcullen-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MUSEcullen_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MUSEcullen_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Project MUSE – Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Case of Countee Cullen." Project MUSE – Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Case of Countee Cullen. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 April 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-klanactspeeches-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-klanactspeeches_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006143608/http://www.law.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/KlanActSpeeches.pdf">"Speeches of African-American Representatives Addressing the Ku Klux Klan Bill of 1871"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. NYU Law. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/KlanActSpeeches.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Speeches+of+African-American+Representatives+Addressing+the+Ku+Klux+Klan+Bill+of+1871&rft.pub=NYU+Law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.nyu.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FKlanActSpeeches.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper_Davis" class="citation web cs1">Cooper Davis, Peggy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.nyu.edu/neglectedvoices">"Neglected Voices"</a>. NYU Law.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neglected+Voices&rft.pub=NYU+Law&rft.aulast=Cooper+Davis&rft.aufirst=Peggy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.nyu.edu%2Fneglectedvoices&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGruder2021" class="citation book cs1">McGruder, Kevin (2 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7312/mcgr19892"><i>Philip Payton</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7312%2Fmcgr19892">10.7312/mcgr19892</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231552875" title="Special:BookSources/9780231552875"><bdi>9780231552875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+Payton&rft.date=2021-09-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7312%2Fmcgr19892&rft.isbn=9780231552875&rft.aulast=McGruder&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.7312%2Fmcgr19892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1998" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Clyde (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentarres0000wood"><i>Development Arrested</i></a></span>. New York and London: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781859848111" title="Special:BookSources/9781859848111"><bdi>9781859848111</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+Arrested&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781859848111&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Clyde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentarres0000wood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackmon2009" class="citation book cs1">Blackmon, Douglas A. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>288. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-3488-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-3488-4"><bdi>978-1-4165-3488-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/76168045">76168045</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+The+Shoulders+of+Giants+%3A+My+Journey+Through+the+Harlem+Renaissance&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E288&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F76168045&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-3488-4&rft.aulast=Abdul-Jabbar&rft.aufirst=Kareem&rft.au=Obstfeld%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171022004852/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/a-culture-of-change/">"A Culture of Change - Boundless US History"</a>. 26 February 2024. 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Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03597-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03597-3"><bdi>978-0-674-03597-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Condemnation+of+Blackness%3A+Race%2C+Crime%2C+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Urban+America&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03597-3&rft.aulast=Muhammad&rft.aufirst=Khalil+Gibran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americacomesalive.com/2015/02/05/harlem-hellfighters-black-soldiers-world-war/">"Harlem Hellfighters: Black Soldiers in World War I"</a>. <i>America Comes Alive</i>. 5 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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McKay">McKay, Nellie Y.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Gates">Henry Louis Gates</a> (eds), <i>The Norton Anthology of African American Literature</i>, New York: Norton, 1997, p. 931.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKay1917" class="citation journal cs1">McKay, Claude (October 1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140505202714/http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?id=1349201359578127&view=mjp_object">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Seven Arts</i>. <b>2</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">741–</span>742. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Amsterdam+News&rft.atitle=The+Harlem+Renaissance&rft.date=2017-02-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famsterdamnews.com%2Fnews%2F2017%2F02%2F09%2Fharlem-renaissance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181123215016/https://www.loa.org/news-and-views/849-library-of-america-interviews-rafia-zafar-about-the-harlem-renaissance">"Library of America interviews Rafia Zafar about the Harlem Renaissance"</a>. <i>Library of America</i>. 26 August 2011. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+America&rft.atitle=Library+of+America+interviews+Rafia+Zafar+about+the+Harlem+Renaissance&rft.date=2011-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loa.org%2Fnews-and-views%2F849-library-of-america-interviews-rafia-zafar-about-the-harlem-renaissance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoets" class="citation web cs1">Poets, Academy of American Poets. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://poets.org/poet/fenton-johnson">"About Fenton Johnson"</a>. <i>Poets</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Poets&rft.atitle=About+Fenton+Johnson&rft.aulast=Poets&rft.aufirst=Academy+of+American+Poets&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpoets.org%2Fpoet%2Ffenton-johnson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoundation2021" class="citation web cs1">Foundation, Poetry (13 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/fenton-johnson">"Fenton Johnson"</a>. <i>Poetry Foundation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Wirth, Thomas H.; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gayrebelofharlem0000nuge"><i>Gay Rebel of the Harlem Renaissance : Selections from the Work of Richard Bruce Nugent</i></a></span>. Durham [N.C.]: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822328865" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822328865"><bdi>978-0822328865</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48691374">48691374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gay+Rebel+of+the+Harlem+Renaissance+%3A+Selections+from+the+Work+of+Richard+Bruce+Nugent&rft.place=Durham+%5BN.C.%5D&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48691374&rft.isbn=978-0822328865&rft.aulast=Nugent&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgayrebelofharlem0000nuge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=174">W.E.B. Du Bois, "The Talented Tenth" (text)</a>, Sep 1903, TeachingAmericanHistory.org, Ashland University, accessed 3 Sep 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It was possible for blacks to have intellectual discussions on whether black people had a future in America, and the Harlem Renaissance reflected such sociopolitical concerns.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHix2013" class="citation web cs1">Hix, Lisa (9 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/singing-the-lesbian-blues-in-1920s-harlem/">"Singing the Lesbian Blues in 1920s Harlem"</a>. <i>Collectors Weekly</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collectors+Weekly&rft.atitle=Singing+the+Lesbian+Blues+in+1920s+Harlem&rft.date=2013-07-09&rft.aulast=Hix&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.collectorsweekly.com%2Farticles%2Fsinging-the-lesbian-blues-in-1920s-harlem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTenoria2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tenoria, Samantha (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160331162940/http://www.urop.uci.edu/journal/journal10/06_tenorio.pdf">"Women-Loving Women: Queering Black Urban Space during the Harlem Renaissance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The University of California, Irvine (UCI) Undergraduate Research Journal</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+UCI+Undergraduate+Research+Journal&rft.atitle=Women-Loving+Women%3A+Queering+Black+Urban+Space+during+the+Harlem+Renaissance&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Tenrio&rft.aufirst=Samantha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.urop.uci.edu%2Fjournal%2Fjournal10%2F06_tenorio.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarber" class="citation web cs1">Garber, Eric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110417002354/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug97/blues/garber.html">"A Spectacle in Color: The Lesbian and Gay Subculture of Jazz Age Harlem"</a>. <i>American Studies at the University of Virginia</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Studies+at+the+University+of+Virginia&rft.atitle=A+Spectacle+in+Color%3A+The+Lesbian+and+Gay+Subculture+of+Jazz+Age+Harlem&rft.aulast=Garber&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxroads.virginia.edu%2F~ug97%2Fblues%2Fgarber.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadesky2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Radesky, Carolyn (2019). "Harlem Renaissance". In Chiang, Howard (ed.). <i>Global encyclopedia of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) history</i>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199760862" title="Special:BookSources/9780199760862"><bdi>9780199760862</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Langston+Hughes%3A+Volume+I%3A+1902-1941%2C+I%2C+Too%2C+Sing+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001-11-26&rft.isbn=9780199760862&rft.aulast=Rampersad&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DozgiGh5QAVEC%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Death of Langston Hughes." Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Death of Langston Hughes. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 April 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2012" class="citation book cs1">Davis, John S. (2012). <i>Historical dictionary of jazz</i>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810878983" title="Special:BookSources/9780810878983"><bdi>9780810878983</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/812621902">812621902</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+dictionary+of+jazz&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F812621902&rft.isbn=9780810878983&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Werner_2017-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Werner_2017_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Werner_2017_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWernerGolphinReisman2017" class="citation cs2">Werner, Craig; Golphin, Vincent F. A.; Reisman, Rosemary M. Canfield (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=5&sid=86cdab56-52d9-4633-81e2-608fd986e3df@sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU=#AN=125599059&db=ers">"African American Poetry"</a>, <i>Salem Press Encyclopedia of Literature</i>, Salem Press<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2019</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=African+American+Poetry&rft.btitle=Salem+Press+Encyclopedia+of+Literature&rft.pub=Salem+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft.au=Golphin%2C+Vincent+F.+A.&rft.au=Reisman%2C+Rosemary+M.+Canfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feds.a.ebscohost.com%2Feds%2Fdetail%2Fdetail%3Fvid%3D5%26sid%3D86cdab56-52d9-4633-81e2-608fd986e3df%40sessionmgr103%26bdata%3DJnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3D%23AN%3D125599059%26db%3Ders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holmes_1968_60–68-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes_1968_60–68_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holmes_1968_60–68_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes1968" class="citation journal cs1">Holmes, Eugene C. (1968). "Alain Locke and the New Negro Movement". <i>Negro American Literature Forum</i>. <b>2</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">60–</span>68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3041375">10.2307/3041375</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-2480">0028-2480</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3041375">3041375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Negro+American+Literature+Forum&rft.atitle=Alain+Locke+and+the+New+Negro+Movement&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=1968&rft.issn=0028-2480&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3041375%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3041375&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Eugene+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPawłowska2014" class="citation journal cs1">Pawłowska, Aneta (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=413440">"The Ambivalence of African-American Culture. The New Negro Art in the interwar period"</a>. <i>Art Inquiry</i>. <b>16</b>: 190 – via Google Scholar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+Inquiry&rft.atitle=The+Ambivalence+of+African-American+Culture.+The+New+Negro+Art+in+the+interwar+period&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=190&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Paw%C5%82owska&rft.aufirst=Aneta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D413440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shawn_Amos" title="Shawn Amos">Amos, Shawn</a>, compiler. <i>Rhapsodies in Black: Words and Music of the Harlem Renaissance</i>. Los Angeles: Rhino Records, 2000. 4 Compact Discs.</li> <li>Andrews, William L.; Frances S. Foster; <a href="/wiki/Trudier_Harris" title="Trudier Harris">Trudier Harris</a>, eds. <i>The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature</i>. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4028-9296-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4028-9296-9">1-4028-9296-9</a></li> <li>Bean, Annemarie. <i>A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements</i>. London: Routledge, 1999; pp. vii + 360.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Greaves" title="William Greaves">Greaves, William</a> documentary <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=From_These_Roots_(documentary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="From These Roots (documentary) (page does not exist)">From These Roots</a></i>.</li> <li>Hicklin, Fannie Ella Frazier. "The American Negro Playwright, 1920–1964". PhD Dissertation, Department of Speech, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wisconsin">University of Wisconsin</a>, 1965. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms 65–6217.</li> <li>Huggins, Nathan. <i>Harlem Renaissance</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1973. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-501665-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-501665-3">0-19-501665-3</a></li> <li>Hughes, Langston. <i>The Big Sea</i>. New York: Knopf, 1940.</li> <li>Hutchinson, George. <i>The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a>, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-37263-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-37263-8">0-674-37263-8</a></li> <li>Lewis, David Levering, ed. <i>The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Penguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking Penguin">Viking Penguin</a>, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-017036-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-017036-7">0-14-017036-7</a></li> <li>Lewis, David Levering. <i>When Harlem Was in Vogue</i>. New York: Penguin, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-026334-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-026334-9">0-14-026334-9</a></li> <li>Ostrom, Hans. <i>A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia</i>. Westport: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>, 2002.</li> <li>Ostrom, Hans and J. David Macey, eds. <i>The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature</i>. 5 volumes. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005.</li> <li>Patton, Venetria K., and Maureen Honey, eds. <i>Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>, 2006.</li> <li>Perry, Jeffrey B. <i>A Hubert Harrison Reader</i>. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2001.</li> <li>Perry, Jeffrey B. <i>Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883–1918</i>. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.</li> <li>Powell, Richard, and David A. Bailey, eds. <i>Rhapsodies in Black: Art of the Harlem Renaissance</i>. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 1997.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Rampersad" title="Arnold Rampersad">Rampersad, Arnold</a>. <i>The Life of Langston Hughes</i>. 2 volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 and 1988.</li> <li>Robertson, Stephen, et al., "Disorderly Houses: Residences, Privacy, and the Surveillance of Sexuality in 1920s Harlem", <i>Journal of the History of Sexuality</i>, 21 (September 2012), 443–66.</li> <li>Soto, Michael, ed. <i>Teaching The Harlem Renaissance</i>. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.</li> <li>Tracy, Steven C. <i>Langston Hughes and the Blues</i>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Watson_(author)" title="Steven Watson (author)">Watson, Steven</a>. <i>The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Culture, 1920–1930</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_Books" title="Pantheon Books">Pantheon Books</a>, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-75889-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-75889-5">0-679-75889-5</a></li> <li>Williams, Iain Cameron. "Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall". Continuum Int. Publishing, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826458939" title="Special:BookSources/0826458939">0826458939</a></li> <li>Wintz, Cary D. <i>Black Culture and the Harlem Renaissance</i>. Houston: Rice University Press, 1988.</li> <li>Wintz, Cary D. <i>Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance</i>. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <ul><li>Brown, Linda Rae (1990). "William Grant Still, Florence Price, and William Dawson: Echoes of the Harlem Renaissance". In Samuel A. Floyd, Jr (ed.), <i>Black Music in the Harlem Renaissance</i>, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, pp. 71–86.</li> <li>Buck, Christopher (2013). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bahai-library.com/buck_america-mosaic_harlem_renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></i> in: <i>The American Mosaic: The African American Experience</i>. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.</li> <li>Evans, Curtis J. (2008), <i>The Burden of Black Religion</i>, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532931-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532931-5">978-0-19-532931-5</a></li> <li>Johnson, Michael K. (2019), <i>Can't Stand Still: Taylor Gordon and the Harlem Renaissance</i>. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781496821966" title="Special:BookSources/9781496821966">9781496821966</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/jah/article-abstract/107/2/517/5907722?redirectedFrom=fulltext">online</a>)</li> <li>King, Shannon (2015). <i>Whose Harlem Is This, Anyway? Community Politics and Grassroots Activism during the New Negro Era</i>. New York University Press.</li> <li>Lassieur, Alison. (2013). <i>The Harlem Renaissance: An Interactive History Adventure</i>, North Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781476536095" title="Special:BookSources/9781476536095">9781476536095</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denise_Murrell" title="Denise Murrell">Murrell, Denise</a> (2018). <i>Posing Modernity: The Black Model from <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Manet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Matisse</a> to Today</i>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.</li> <li>Murrell, Denise, ed. (2024). <i>The Harlem Renaissance and Transatlantic Modernism</i>. Exh. cat. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. ISBN 9781588397737</li> <li>Padva, Gilad (2014). "Black Nostalgia: Poetry, Ethnicity, and Homoeroticism in <i>Looking for Langston</i> and <i>Brother to Brother</i>". In Padva, Gilad, <i>Queer Nostalgia in Cinema and Pop Culture</i>, pp. 199–226. Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</li> <li>Wall, Cheryl A. (2016). <i>The Harlem Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Wintz, Cary D., and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Paul Finkelman</a> (2012). <i>Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance</i>. London: Routledge.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style 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height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Harlem_Renaissance" class="extiw" title="c:category:Harlem Renaissance">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Harlem_Renaissance" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Harlem Renaissance">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_New_York_State/Modern_New_York#The_Harlem_Renaissance" class="extiw" title="b:History of New York State/Modern New York">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q829895" class="extiw" title="d:Q829895">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/harlem/harlem.html">"A Guide to Harlem Renaissance Materials"</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryan_Carter" class="citation web cs1">Bryan Carter (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220201164438/https://www.evl.uic.edu/cavern/harlem/">"Virtual Harlem"</a>. University of Illinois at Chicago, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Visualization_Laboratory" title="Electronic Visualization Laboratory">Electronic Visualization Laboratory</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.evl.uic.edu/cavern/harlem/">the original</a> on 1 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Virtual+Harlem&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+at+Chicago%2C+Electronic+Visualization+Laboratory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.evl.uic.edu%2Fcavern%2Fharlem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarlem+Renaissance" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.authorsden.com/visit/viewarticle.asp?id=62700&AuthorID=25279">"The Approaching 100th Anniversary of the Harlem Renaissance"</a>, by HR historian <a href="/wiki/Aberjhani" title="Aberjhani">Aberjhani</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51780394">Underneath A Harlem Moon</a> by Iain Cameron Williams <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-5893-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-5893-9">0-8264-5893-9</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/article-summary/harlem-rennaisance_magazine_article_1922#.XtB8tWhKizl"><i>I'd Like to Show You Harlem</i> – by Rollin Lynde Hartt, <i>The Independent</i>, April, 1921</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23636">Collection: "Artists of the Harlem Renaissance"</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Art" title="University of Michigan Museum of Art">University of Michigan Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/the-harlem-renaissance-and-transatlantic-modernism">The Harlem Renaissance and Transatlantic Modernism</a> Exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, February 25 – July 28, 2024.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/spotlight/harlem-renaissance?searchResultPosition=1">Articles in <i>The New York Times</i> on the Harlem Renaissance, including on the 2024 exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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Grant Still"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:William_Grant_Still" title="Special:EditPage/Template:William Grant Still"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="William_Grant_Still330" class="fn" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/William_Grant_Still" title="William Grant Still">William Grant Still</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/William_Grant_Still#Selected_compositions" title="William Grant Still">List of compositions</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operas (9)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Blue_Steel_(Still)" title="Blue Steel (Still)">Blue Steel</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Troubled_Island" title="Troubled Island">Troubled Island</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Bayou_Legend" title="A Bayou Legend">A Bayou Legend</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Highway_1,_USA_(Still)" title="Highway 1, USA (Still)">Highway 1, USA</a></i> (1962)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ballets (4)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Guiablesse_(ballet)" title="La Guiablesse (ballet)">La Guiablesse</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sahdji_(ballet)" title="Sahdji (ballet)">Sahdji</a></i> (1930)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lenox_Avenue_(Still)" title="Lenox Avenue (Still)">Lenox Avenue</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miss_Sally%27s_Party" title="Miss Sally's Party">Miss Sally's Party</a></i> (1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symphonies (5)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-American_Symphony" title="Afro-American Symphony">Symphony No. 1 <i>"Afro-American"</i></a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._2_(Still)" title="Symphony No. 2 (Still)">Symphony No. 2 <i>"Song of a New Race"</i></a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._3_(Still)" title="Symphony No. 3 (Still)">Symphony No. 3 <i>"The Sunday Symphony"</i></a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._4_(Still)" title="Symphony No. 4 (Still)">Symphony No. 4 <i>"Autochthonous"</i></a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symphony_No._5_(Still)" title="Symphony No. 5 (Still)">Symphony No. 5 <i>"Western Hemisphere"</i></a> (1945; rev 1970)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concertos</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks vcard navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Piano5" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Piano</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/James_P._Johnson#Composer" title="James P. Johnson">Yamekaw, a Negro Rhapsody</a></i> (1928; arr.Still)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaintuck%27_(Still)" title="Kaintuck' (Still)">Kaintuck'</a></i> (1935)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orchestra works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Saint_Louis_Blues_(song)" title="Saint Louis Blues (song)">Saint Louis Blues</a></i> (1916; arr.Still)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hesitation_Blues" title="Hesitation Blues">Hesitating Blues</a></i> (1916; arr.Still)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Darker_America_(Still)" title="Darker America (Still)">Darker America</a></i> (1924)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Still)" title="Africa (Still)">Africa</a></i> (1930)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Scene_(Still)" title="The American Scene (Still)">The American Scene</a></i> (1957)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chamber music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Still)" title="Africa (Still)">Africa</a></i> (1930)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Visions" title="Three Visions">Three Visions</a></i> (1935) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Visions" title="Three Visions">Summerland</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miniatures_(Still)" title="Miniatures (Still)">Miniatures</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miniatures_(Still)" title="Miniatures (Still)">Trio (1948)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miniatures_(Still)" title="Miniatures (Still)">Quintet (1963)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Piano music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaintuck_(Still)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaintuck (Still)">Kaintuck</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Visions" title="Three Visions">Three Visions</a></i> (1935) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Visions" title="Three Visions">Dark Horsemen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Visions" title="Three Visions">Summerland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Three_Visions" title="Three Visions">Radiant Pinnacle</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Grant_Still#Selected_compositions" title="William Grant Still">List of compositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verna_Arvey" title="Verna Arvey">Verna Arvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Whitefield_Chadwick" title="George Whitefield Chadwick">George Whitefield Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._C._Handy" title="W. C. Handy">W. C. Handy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Johnson" title="James P. Johnson">James P. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgard_Var%C3%A8se" title="Edgard Varèse">Edgard Varèse</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin_Conservatory_of_Music" title="Oberlin Conservatory of Music">Oberlin Conservatory of Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilberforce_University" title="Wilberforce University">Wilberforce University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Compositions_by_William_Grant_Still" title="Category:Compositions by William Grant Still">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnic_groups_in_New_York_City204" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnicity_in_New_York_City" title="Template:Ethnicity in New York City"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnicity_in_New_York_City" title="Template talk:Ethnicity in New York City"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity_in_New_York_City" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity in New York City"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnic_groups_in_New_York_City204" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_New_York_City" title="Demographic history of New York City">Ethnic groups</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancestries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_New_York_City#Arab" title="Demographics of New York City">Arabs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="Syrian Americans in New York City">Syrians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_New_York_City#African_diaspora" title="Demographics of New York City">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Jews_in_New_York_City" title="Black Jews in New York City">Black Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Brazil,_Manhattan" title="Little Brazil, Manhattan">Brazilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans_in_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian Americans in New York City">Asians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_people_in_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese people in New York City">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipinos_in_the_New_York_metropolitan_area" title="Filipinos in the New York metropolitan area">Filipinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indians_in_the_New_York_City_metropolitan_area" title="Indians in the New York City metropolitan area">Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_New_York_City" title="Japanese in New York City">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Koreans in New York City">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_people_in_New_York_City" title="Taiwanese people in New York City">Taiwanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_New_York_City#European" title="Demographics of New York City">Europeans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="Belarusian Americans in New York City">Belarusians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="Dutch Americans in New York City">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_New_York_City#German" title="Demographics of New York City">Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="Irish Americans in New York City">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_New_York_City" title="Italians in New York City">Italians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="Russian Americans in New York City">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="Ukrainian Americans in New York City">Ukrainians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_immigration_to_New_York_City" title="Caribbean immigration to New York City">Caribbeans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_New_York_City#Hispanics" title="Demographics of New York City">Hispanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_New_York_City" title="Puerto Ricans in New York City">Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicans_in_New_York_City" title="Dominicans in New York City">Dominicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexicans_in_New_York_City" title="Mexicans in New York City">Mexicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_New_York_City#Salvadoran" title="Demographics of New York City">Salvadorans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_York_City" title="History of the Jews in New York City">Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Jews_in_New_York_City" title="Black Jews in New York City">Black Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_New_York_City" title="Romani people in New York City">Romani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_ethnic_enclaves" title="New York City ethnic enclaves">Ethnic enclaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Avenue_(Brooklyn)" title="Eighth Avenue (Brooklyn)">8th Avenue/Lapskaus Blvd.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astoria,_Queens" title="Astoria, Queens">Astoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Avenue" title="Arthur Avenue">Arthur Avenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Ridge,_Brooklyn" title="Bay Ridge, Brooklyn">Bay Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedford%E2%80%93Stuyvesant,_Brooklyn" title="Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn">Bed–Stuy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bensonhurst,_Brooklyn" title="Bensonhurst, Brooklyn">Bensonhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borough_Park,_Brooklyn" title="Borough Park, Brooklyn">Borough Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brighton_Beach" title="Brighton Beach">Brighton Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinatowns_in_the_United_States#New_York" title="Chinatowns in the United States">Chinatowns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinatowns_in_Brooklyn" title="Chinatowns in Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinatowns_in_Queens" title="Chinatowns in Queens">Queens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinatown,_Manhattan" title="Chinatown, Manhattan">Manhattan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Heights,_Brooklyn" title="Crown Heights, Brooklyn">Crown Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Hill,_Manhattan" title="Rose Hill, Manhattan">Curry Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyker_Heights,_Brooklyn" title="Dyker Heights, Brooklyn">Dyker Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmhurst,_Queens" title="Elmhurst, Queens">Elmhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatbush,_Brooklyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Flatbush, Brooklyn">Flatbush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hell%27s_Kitchen,_Manhattan" title="Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan">Hell's Kitchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Beach,_Queens" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard Beach, Queens">Howard Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Harlem" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Harlem">Italian Harlem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_Heights,_Queens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackson Heights, Queens">Jackson Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaica,_Queens" title="Jamaica, Queens">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreatown" title="Koreatown">Koreatowns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koreatown,_Manhattan" title="Koreatown, Manhattan">Manhattan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreatown,_Queens" title="Koreatown, Queens">Queens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Petit Senegal">Le Petit Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Australia" title="Little Australia">Little Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Brazil,_Manhattan" title="Little Brazil, Manhattan">Little Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astoria,_Queens#Ethnic_heritage" title="Astoria, Queens">Little Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Fuzhou" title="Little Fuzhou">Little Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Germany,_Manhattan" title="Little Germany, Manhattan">Little Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Italy,_Manhattan" title="Little Italy, Manhattan">Little Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipinos_in_the_New_York_metropolitan_area" title="Filipinos in the New York metropolitan area">Little Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenpoint,_Brooklyn#Demographics" title="Greenpoint, Brooklyn">Little Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowery#Little_Saigon" title="Bowery">Little Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Spain,_Manhattan" title="Little Spain, Manhattan">Little Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Syria,_Manhattan" title="Little Syria, Manhattan">Little Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet_City,_Manhattan#Loisaida" title="Alphabet City, Manhattan">Loisaida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Park,_Bronx" title="Morris Park, Bronx">Morris Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_Park,_Queens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozone Park, Queens">Ozone Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Harlem" title="East Harlem">Spanish Harlem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunset_Park,_Brooklyn" title="Sunset Park, Brooklyn">Sunset Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Heights,_Manhattan" title="Washington Heights, Manhattan">Washington Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williamsburg,_Brooklyn" title="Williamsburg, Brooklyn">Williamsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorkville,_Manhattan" title="Yorkville, Manhattan">Yorkville</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Burial_Ground_National_Monument" title="African Burial Ground National Monument">African Burial Ground National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Citizens%27_Benevolent_Society" title="Bohemian Citizens' Benevolent Society">Bohemian Citizens' Benevolent Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Museo_del_Barrio" title="El Museo del Barrio">El Museo del Barrio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_Society_of_America" title="Hispanic Society of America">Hispanic Society of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-American_Arts_Council" title="Indo-American Arts Council">Indo-American Arts Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Repertory_Theatre" title="Irish Repertory Theatre">Irish Repertory Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Asian_Film_Festival" title="New York Asian Film Festival">New York Asian Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Filipino_Film_Festival" title="New York Filipino Film Festival">New York Filipino Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_Week_in_New_York" title="Wales Week in New York">Wales Week in New York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Day" title="Brazilian Day">Brazilian Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Day_Parade" title="Dominican Day Parade">Dominican Day Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feast_of_San_Gennaro" title="Feast of San Gennaro">Feast of San Gennaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German-American_Steuben_Parade" class="mw-redirect" title="German-American Steuben Parade">German-American Steuben Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Day_Parade" title="Korean Day Parade">Korean Day Parade</a></li> <li>NY Persian Parade</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Independence_Day_Parade" title="Philippine Independence Day Parade">Philippine Independence Day Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Day_Parade" title="Puerto Rican Day Parade">Puerto Rican Day Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_Day_Parade" title="Pulaski Day Parade">Pulaski Day Parade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Slave_Revolt_of_1712" title="New York Slave Revolt of 1712">New York Slave Revolt of 1712</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Conspiracy_of_1741" title="New York Conspiracy of 1741">New York Conspiracy of 1741</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_New_York_City_teachers%27_strike" title="1968 New York City teachers' strike">1968 New York City teachers' strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Heights_riot" title="Crown Heights riot">Crown Heights riots of 1991</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuyorican_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuyorican Movement">Nuyorican Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun" class="mw-redirect" title="Asahi Shimbun">Asahi Shimbun</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/China_Daily" title="China Daily">China Daily</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/El_Diario_La_Prensa" title="El Diario La Prensa">El Diario La Prensa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Forward" title="The Forward">The Forward</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Freie_Arbeiter_Stimme" class="mw-redirect" title="Freie Arbeiter Stimme">Freie Arbeiter Stimme</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Il_Progresso_Italo-Americano" title="Il Progresso Italo-Americano">Il Progresso Italo-Americano</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/India_Abroad" title="India Abroad">India Abroad</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irish_Voice" title="Irish Voice">Irish Voice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Little_India_(magazine)" title="Little India (magazine)">Little India</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Korea_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Korea Times">Korea Times</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Yorker_Staats-Zeitung" title="New Yorker Staats-Zeitung">New Yorker Staats-Zeitung</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nowy_Dziennik" title="Nowy Dziennik">Nowy Dziennik</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proletar" title="Proletar">Proletar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sing_Tao_Daily" title="Sing Tao Daily">Sing Tao Daily</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Star_(Bangladesh)" title="The Daily Star (Bangladesh)">The Daily Star</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epoch_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch Times">Epoch Times</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Irish_Echo" title="The Irish Echo">The Irish Echo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Journal" title="World Journal">World Journal</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_New_York_City" title="Illegal immigration to New York City">Undocumented immigrants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Schools_of_poetry189" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Schools_of_poetry" title="Template:Schools of poetry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Schools_of_poetry" title="Template talk:Schools of poetry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Schools_of_poetry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Schools of poetry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Schools_of_poetry189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_poetry_groups_and_movements" title="List of poetry groups and movements">Schools</a> of <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acmeist_poetry" title="Acmeist poetry">Acmeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhmatova%27s_Orphans" title="Akhmatova's Orphans">Akhmatova's Orphans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angry_Penguins" title="Angry Penguins">Angry Penguins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auden_Group" title="Auden Group">Auden Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beat_Generation" title="Beat Generation">The Beats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Mountain_poets" title="Black Mountain poets">Black Mountain poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Poetry_Revival" title="British Poetry Revival">British Poetry Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_poets" title="Cairo poets">Cairo poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castalian_Band" title="Castalian Band">Castalian Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_poet" title="Cavalier poet">Cavalier poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhayavaad" class="mw-redirect" title="Chhayavaad">Chhayavaad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graveyard_poets" title="Graveyard poets">Churchyard poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptismo" title="Conceptismo">Conceptismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_poetry" title="Confessional poetry">Confessionalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A9olit%C3%A9" title="Créolité">Créolité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubo-Futurism" title="Cubo-Futurism">Cubo-Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culteranismo" title="Culteranismo">Culteranismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclic_Poets" title="Cyclic Poets">Cyclic Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_image" title="Deep image">Deep image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Della_Cruscans" title="Della Cruscans">Della Cruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolce_Stil_Novo" title="Dolce Stil Novo">Dolce Stil Novo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dymock_poets" title="Dymock poets">Dymock poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopoetry" title="Ecopoetry">Ecopoetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ego-Futurism" title="Ego-Futurism">Ego-Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_poets_of_Elan" class="mw-redirect" title="The poets of Elan">The poets of Elan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flarf_poetry" title="Flarf poetry">Flarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitives_(poets)" title="Fugitives (poets)">Fugitives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garip" title="Garip">Garip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consistori_del_Gay_Saber" title="Consistori del Gay Saber">Gay Saber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_%2727" title="Generation of '27">Generation of '27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Generation_of_the_%2730s" title="Category:Generation of the '30s">Generation of the '30s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_%2798" title="Generation of '98">Generation of '98</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_poets" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian poets">Georgian poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goliard" class="mw-redirect" title="Goliard">Goliard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Group_(literature)" title="The Group (literature)">The Group</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Aesthetes" title="Harvard Aesthetes">Harvard Aesthetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungry_generation" title="Hungry generation">Hungry generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaginism" title="Imaginism">Imaginism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagism" title="Imagism">Imagism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informationist_poetry" title="Informationist poetry">Informationist poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0kinci_Yeni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="İkinci Yeni (page does not exist)">İkinci Yeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindyworobak_Movement" title="Jindyworobak Movement">Jindyworobaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_poets" title="Language poets">Language poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinism" title="Marinism">Marinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_poetry" title="Martian poetry">Martian poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misty_Poets" title="Misty Poets">Misty Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry" title="Modernist poetry">Modernist poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Movement_(literature)" title="The Movement (literature)">The Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoteric" title="Neoteric">Neotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_American_Poetry_1945%E2%80%931960" title="The New American Poetry 1945–1960">New American Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Apocalyptics" title="New Apocalyptics">New Apocalyptics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Formalism" title="New Formalism">New Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_School_(art)" title="New York School (art)">New York School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberiu" title="Oberiu">Oberiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivist_poets" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivist poets">Objectivists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Others_(art_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Others (art group)">Others</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parnassianism" title="Parnassianism">Parnassian poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Pl%C3%A9iade" title="La Pléiade">La Pléiade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A9cieuses" title="Précieuses">Précieuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhymers%27_Club" title="Rhymers' Club">Rhymers' Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Renaissance" title="San Francisco Renaissance">San Francisco Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Renaissance" title="Scottish Renaissance">Scottish Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_School" title="Sicilian School">Sicilian School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Ben_(literary_group)" title="Sons of Ben (literary group)">Sons of Ben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians" title="Southern Agrarians">Southern Agrarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spasmodic_poets" title="Spasmodic poets">Spasmodic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sung_poetry" title="Sung poetry">Sung poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranian poetry">Uranian poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zutiste" title="Zutiste">Zutiste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Quill_and_ink.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/16px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/24px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Quill_and_ink.svg/32px-Quill_and_ink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="152" data-file-height="152" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Poetry" title="Portal:Poetry">Poetry portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Harlem267" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Harlem" title="Template:Harlem"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Harlem" title="Template talk:Harlem"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Harlem" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Harlem"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Harlem267" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Harlem" title="Crime in Harlem">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Harlem" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of Harlem">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Harlem" title="Education in Harlem">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Harlem" title="History of Harlem">History</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_shot_in_Harlem" title="List of films shot in Harlem">List of films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neighborhoods_in_Harlem" title="List of neighborhoods in Harlem">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Harlem" title="List of people from Harlem">List of people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subsections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Harlem" title="East Harlem">East Harlem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Heights,_Manhattan" title="Hamilton Heights, Manhattan">Hamilton Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleasant_Avenue" title="Pleasant Avenue">Italian Harlem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Petit Senegal">Le Petit Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattanville,_Manhattan" title="Manhattanville, Manhattan">Manhattanville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Hill,_Manhattan" title="Sugar Hill, Manhattan">Sugar Hill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Designated<br />landmarks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/369th_Regiment_Armory" title="369th Regiment Armory">369th Regiment Armory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_Baptist_Church" title="Abyssinian Baptist Church">Abyssinian Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_Theater" title="Apollo Theater">Apollo Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astor_Row" title="Astor Row">Astor Row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Park" title="Central Park">Central Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Meer" title="Harlem Meer">Harlem Meer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasker_Rink" title="Lasker Rink">Lasker Rink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Woods_and_North_Meadow" title="North Woods and North Meadow">North Woods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunbar_Apartments" title="Dunbar Apartments">Dunbar Apartments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Court" title="Graham Court">Graham Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Grange_National_Memorial" title="Hamilton Grange National Memorial">Hamilton Grange National Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_River_Houses" title="Harlem River Houses">Harlem River Houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_YMCA" title="Harlem YMCA">Harlem YMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotel_Theresa" title="Hotel Theresa">Hotel Theresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes_House" title="Langston Hughes House">Langston Hughes House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macombs_Dam_Bridge" title="Macombs Dam Bridge">Macombs Dam Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Avenue%E2%80%93West_120th%E2%80%93123rd_Streets_Historic_District" title="Manhattan Avenue–West 120th–123rd Streets Historic District">Manhattan Avenue–West 120th–123rd Streets Historic District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Baptist_Church_(New_York_City)" title="Metropolitan Baptist Church (New York City)">Metropolitan Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minton%27s_Playhouse" title="Minton's Playhouse">Minton's Playhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morningside_Park_(Manhattan)" title="Morningside Park (Manhattan)">Morningside Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church" title="Mother African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church">Mother African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Morris_Park_Historic_District" title="Mount Morris Park Historic District">Mount Morris Park Historic District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/115th_Street_Library" title="115th Street Library">NYPL 115th Street Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schomburg_Center_for_Research_in_Black_Culture" title="Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture">NYPL Schomburg Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Aloysius_Catholic_Church_(New_York_City)" title="St. Aloysius Catholic Church (New York City)">St. Aloysius Roman Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Andrew%27s_Episcopal_Church_(New_York_City)" title="St. Andrew's Episcopal Church (New York City)">St. Andrew's Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Nicholas_Historic_District" title="St. Nicholas Historic District">St. Nicholas Historic District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadleigh_High_School_for_Girls" title="Wadleigh High School for Girls">Wadleigh High School for Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Apartments_(New_York_City)" title="Washington Apartments (New York City)">Washington Apartments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other points<br />of interest</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr._State_Office_Building" title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr. State Office Building">Adam Clayton Powell Jr. State Office Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_Saints_Church_(Manhattan)" title="All Saints Church (Manhattan)">All Saints Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATLAH_World_Missionary_Church" title="ATLAH World Missionary Church">ATLAH World Missionary Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushman_Steps" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushman Steps">Bushman Steps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Club" title="Cotton Club">Cotton Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_Ellington_Circle" title="Duke Ellington Circle">Duke Ellington Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass_Circle" title="Frederick Douglass Circle">Frederick Douglass Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbor_Conservatory_for_the_Performing_Arts" title="Harbor Conservatory for the Performing Arts">Harbor Conservatory for the Performing Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Children%27s_Zone" title="Harlem Children's Zone">Harlem Children's Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Hospital_Center" title="Harlem Hospital Center">Harlem Hospital Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Harlem_School_of_the_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="The Harlem School of the Arts">The Harlem School of the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenox_Lounge" title="Lenox Lounge">Lenox Lounge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey_Park" title="Marcus Garvey Park">Marcus Garvey Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Fire_Watchtower" title="Harlem Fire Watchtower">Harlem Fire Watchtower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morningside_Park_(Manhattan)" title="Morningside Park (Manhattan)">Morningside Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Theatre" title="National Black Theatre">National Black Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_College_of_Podiatric_Medicine" title="New York College of Podiatric Medicine">New York College of Podiatric Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rucker_Park" title="Rucker Park">Rucker Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoy_Ballroom" title="Savoy Ballroom">Savoy Ballroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Nicholas_Houses" title="St. Nicholas Houses">St. Nicholas Houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Studio_Museum_in_Harlem" title="Studio Museum in Harlem">Studio Museum in Harlem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia%27s_Restaurant_of_Harlem" title="Sylvia's Restaurant of Harlem">Sylvia's Soul Food</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>See also:</i> Manhattan Community Boards: <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Community_Board_9" title="Manhattan Community Board 9">9</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Community_Board_10" title="Manhattan Community Board 10">10</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Community_Board_11" title="Manhattan Community Board 11">11</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans629" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans629" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Black genocide in the United States">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">LGBTQ community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel%27s_Rebellion#Gabriel_Prosser" title="Gabriel's Rebellion">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Divine#Doctrine" title="Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of Black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen" title="Cherokee Freedmen">Cherokee Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in 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href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Kansas" title="African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in 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