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id="toc-Exoneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exoneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Exoneration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exoneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-report" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-report"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Self-report</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-report-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contributing_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contributing_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Contributing factors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contributing_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Faulty_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Faulty_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Faulty analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Faulty_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overconfident_experts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overconfident_experts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Overconfident experts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overconfident_experts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-False_confessions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#False_confessions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>False confessions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-False_confessions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coercive_interrogation_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coercive_interrogation_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Coercive interrogation techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coercive_interrogation_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perjury_and_false_accusations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perjury_and_false_accusations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Perjury and false accusations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perjury_and_false_accusations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosecutorial_misconduct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosecutorial_misconduct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Prosecutorial misconduct</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosecutorial_misconduct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_bias_and_cognitive_distortions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_bias_and_cognitive_distortions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Role of bias and cognitive distortions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_bias_and_cognitive_distortions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noble_cause_corruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noble_cause_corruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Noble cause corruption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noble_cause_corruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plea_bargaining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plea_bargaining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Plea bargaining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plea_bargaining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compensation_for_wrongful_conviction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation_for_wrongful_conviction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Compensation for wrongful conviction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation_for_wrongful_conviction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>By country</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_country-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By country subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.1</span> <span>England, Wales and Northern Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.2</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Specific_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Specific cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Miscarriage of justice</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Съдебна грешка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Съдебна грешка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justi%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_omyl" title="Justiční omyl – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Justiční omyl" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camweinyddiad_cyfiawnder" title="Camweinyddiad cyfiawnder – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Camweinyddiad cyfiawnder" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justitsmord" title="Justitsmord – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Justitsmord" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justizirrtum" title="Justizirrtum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Justizirrtum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Δικαστική πλάνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δικαστική πλάνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_judicial" title="Error judicial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Error judicial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erreur_judiciaire" title="Erreur judiciaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Erreur judiciaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%AC%ED%8C%90%EC%9D%98_%EC%98%A4%EC%8B%AC" title="재판의 오심 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="재판의 오심" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogre%C5%A1na_promjena_prava" title="Pogrešna promjena prava – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pogrešna promjena prava" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errore_giudiziario" title="Errore giudiziario – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Errore giudiziario" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9F" title="עיוות דין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עיוות דין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%85_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Неуспех на правда – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Неуспех на правда" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justiti%C3%ABle_dwaling" title="Justitiële dwaling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Justitiële dwaling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justismord" title="Justismord – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Justismord" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justismord" title="Justismord – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Justismord" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erro_judicial" title="Erro judicial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Erro judicial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Судебная ошибка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Судебная ошибка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscarriage_of_justice" title="Miscarriage of justice – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Miscarriage of justice" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justi%C4%8Dn%C3%BD_omyl" title="Justičný omyl – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Justičný omyl" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Неоснована осуда – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Неоснована осуда" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikeusmurha" title="Oikeusmurha – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oikeusmurha" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justitiemord" title="Justitiemord – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Justitiemord" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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title="Exoneration">Exoneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitual_offender" title="Habitual offender">Habitual offender</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Miscarriage of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardon" title="Pardon">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_offender_registry" title="Sex offender registry">Sex offender registry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_violent_predator_laws" title="Sexually violent predator laws">Sexually violent predator laws</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related areas of law</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminal_defenses" title="Category:Criminal defenses">Criminal defenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Portals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.75em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>1</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of the United States">US courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>2</small></sup> Not in <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">English/Welsh courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>3</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Scotland" title="Courts of Scotland">Scottish courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>4</small></sup> English/Welsh courts</span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>5</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of Canada">Canadian courts</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><sup><small>6</small></sup> <a href="/wiki/Courts_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of the United Kingdom">UK courts</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminal_procedure_(trial)" title="Template:Criminal procedure (trial)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminal_procedure_(trial)" title="Template talk:Criminal procedure (trial)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal_procedure_(trial)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal procedure (trial)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timothy_Evans_Grave.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Timothy_Evans_Grave.JPG/220px-Timothy_Evans_Grave.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Timothy_Evans_Grave.JPG/330px-Timothy_Evans_Grave.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Timothy_Evans_Grave.JPG/440px-Timothy_Evans_Grave.JPG 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption>The headstone of <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Evans" title="Timothy Evans">Timothy Evans</a>, who was wrongfully convicted and executed for two murders that had been committed by his neighbour <a href="/wiki/John_Christie_(serial_killer)" title="John Christie (serial killer)">John Christie</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>miscarriage of justice</b> occurs when an unfair outcome occurs in a <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">criminal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">civil proceeding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-US-miscarriage_of_justice_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US-miscarriage_of_justice-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the conviction and punishment of a person for a <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> they <a href="/wiki/Actual_innocence" title="Actual innocence">did not commit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Black's_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Black's-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Miscarriages are also known as wrongful convictions. Innocent people have sometimes ended up in prison for years before their conviction has eventually been overturned. They may be exonerated if new evidence comes to light or it is determined that the police or prosecutor committed some kind of misconduct at the original trial. In some jurisdictions this leads to the payment of compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Academic studies have found that the main factors contributing to miscarriages of justice are: <a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_identification" title="Eyewitness identification">eyewitness misidentification</a>; faulty <a href="/wiki/Forensic_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic analysis">forensic analysis</a>; <a href="/wiki/False_confessions" class="mw-redirect" title="False confessions">false confessions</a> by vulnerable suspects; <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a> and lies stated by <a href="/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">witnesses</a>; <a href="/wiki/Police_misconduct" title="Police misconduct">misconduct by police</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prosecutorial_misconduct" title="Prosecutorial misconduct">prosecutors</a> or <a href="/wiki/Judicial_misconduct" title="Judicial misconduct">judges</a>; and/or <a href="/wiki/Ineffective_assistance_of_counsel" title="Ineffective assistance of counsel">ineffective assistance of counsel</a> (e.g., inadequate <a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">defense</a> strategies by the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a>'s or <a href="/wiki/Respondent" title="Respondent">respondent</a>'s legal team). </p><p>Some prosecutors' offices undertake <b>conviction integrity reviews</b> to prevent, identify, and correct wrongful convictions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevalence">Prevalence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prevalence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two main methods for estimating the prevalence of wrongful convictions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exoneration">Exoneration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Exoneration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first is the number of <a href="/wiki/Exonerations_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonerations in the United States">exonerations</a> where the guilty verdict has been vacated or annulled by a judge or higher court after new evidence has been brought forward proving the "guilty" person is, in fact, innocent. Since 1989, the <a href="/wiki/Innocence_Project" title="Innocence Project">Innocence Project</a> has helped overturn 375 convictions of American prisoners with updated DNA evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, DNA testing occurs in only 5 to 10% of all criminal cases, and exonerations achieved by the Innocence Project are limited to murder and rape cases. This raises the possibility that there may be many more wrongful convictions for which there is no evidence available to exonerate the defendant. Studies cited by the Innocence Project estimate that between 2.3% and 5% of all prisoners in the U.S. are innocent.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a more recent study looking at convictions in the state of Virginia during the 1970s and 1980s and matching them to later DNA analysis estimates a rate of wrongful conviction at 11.6%.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 study published in <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i> made a conservative estimate that 4.1% of inmates awaiting execution on death row in the United States are innocent.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-report">Self-report</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Self-report"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second method for estimating wrongful convictions involves self-report. Researchers ask prisoners whether they have ever confessed to a crime which they did not commit. Self-report allows examination of any and all crimes where wrongful conviction may have occurred, not just murder and rape cases where DNA is available. Two Icelandic studies based on self-report conducted ten years apart found the rates of false confession to be 12.2% and 24.4% respectively. These figures provide a proxy for miscarriages of justice because erroneous confessions are likely to lead to wrongful convictions.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more recent Scottish study found the rate of self-reported false confessions among a group of inmates in one prison was 33.4%.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Up to 10,000 people may be wrongfully convicted of serious crimes in the United States each year.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Professor Boaz Sangero of the College of Law and Business in <a href="/wiki/Ramat_Gan" title="Ramat Gan">Ramat Gan</a>, most wrongful convictions in Israel relate to less serious crimes than major felonies such as rape and murder, as judicial systems are less careful in dealing with those cases.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contributing_factors">Contributing factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contributing factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Academics believe that six main factors contribute to miscarriages of justice.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include eyewitness misidentification, faulty forensic analysis, false confessions by vulnerable suspects, perjury and lies told by witnesses, misconduct by police, prosecutors or judges and inadequate defense strategies put forward by the defendant's legal team.<sup id="cite_ref-scholarworks.sjsu.edu_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scholarworks.sjsu.edu-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unreliability_of_eyewitness_testimony">Unreliability of eyewitness testimony</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Unreliability of eyewitness testimony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_identification" title="Eyewitness identification">Eyewitness</a> identifications are notoriously unreliable, contributing to 70% of wrongful convictions.<sup id="cite_ref-scholarworks.sjsu.edu_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scholarworks.sjsu.edu-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 1970s, psychologists studying memory formation and retention found that the way police lineups are conducted can alter an eyewitness's memory of the suspect and this often leads to <a href="/wiki/Mistaken_identity" title="Mistaken identity">misidentification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Witnesses also have considerable difficulty making accurate identifications with suspects from different ethnic groups such that "the rate of mistaken identification is significantly higher than most people tend to believe".<sup id="cite_ref-Testifying_with_Confidence_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Testifying_with_Confidence-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a>, a leading researcher in the field, says memory is so unreliable "the end result can be a highly confident witness testifying in a persuasive manner at trial about a detail that is completely false".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forensic_mistakes">Forensic mistakes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Forensic mistakes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contamination">Contamination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wrongful convictions can also occur when items which become evidence at crime scenes become contaminated in the process of packaging, collection and transportation to a secured facility or laboratory. Contamination can be introduced unintentionally by material that was not present when the crime was committed by anyone entering the crime scene after the event - by uninvolved <a href="/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">witnesses</a> who may become <a href="/wiki/Suspect" title="Suspect">suspects</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Emergency_responders" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency responders">emergency responders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firefighter" title="Firefighter">fire fighters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Police_officer" title="Police officer">police officers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crime_scene" title="Crime scene">crime scene</a> investigators themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If proper protocols are not followed, evidence can also be contaminated when it is being analyzed or stored. A miscarriage of justice can occur when procedures to prevent contamination are not carried out carefully and accurately.<sup id="cite_ref-Giannelli_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giannelli-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Faulty_analysis">Faulty analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Faulty analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Innocence Project says 44% of wrongful convictions are the result of faulty forensic analysis. This occurs when forensic experts inadvertently or deliberately misrepresent the significance, validity or reliability of scientific evidence. Over the years, misrepresentations have been made in the arenas of <a href="/wiki/Serological" class="mw-redirect" title="Serological">serological</a> analysis, microscopic hair comparison, and the analysis of bite marks, shoe prints, soil, fiber, and fingerprints.<sup id="cite_ref-scholarworks.sjsu.edu_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scholarworks.sjsu.edu-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Overconfident_experts">Overconfident experts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Overconfident experts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Overly confident testimony by <a href="/wiki/Expert_witness" title="Expert witness">expert witnesses</a> can also lead to miscarriages of justice. The credibility of expert witnesses depends on numerous factors - in particular, their credentials, personal likability and self-confidence which all impact on how believable they are. The confidence with which experts present their evidence has also been noted to influence jurors, who tend to assume that a witness who is anxious or nervous is lying.<sup id="cite_ref-Testifying_with_Confidence_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Testifying_with_Confidence-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manner in which experts testify may have a greater impact on judges and lawyers who prefer experts who provide clear, unequivocal conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The credentials and reputation of the expert also have a significant impact on juries. For example, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Smith_(pathologist)" title="Charles Smith (pathologist)">Charles Smith</a> was head of the Ontario Pediatric Forensic Pathology Unit from 1982 and the most highly regarded specialist in his field.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His testimony led to the convictions of thirteen women whose children died in unexplained circumstance before it came to light that he had "a thing against people who hurt children", and "was on a crusade and acted more like a prosecutor" than a pathologist. An inquiry into his conduct concluded in October 2008 that Smith "actively misled" his superiors, "made false and misleading statements" in court and exaggerated his expertise in trials.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="False_confessions">False confessions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: False confessions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/False_confession" title="False confession">False confession</a></div> <p>The possibility that innocent people would admit to a crime they did not commit seems unlikely - and yet this occurs so often, the Innocence Project found false confessions contribute to approximately 25% of wrongful convictions in murder and rape cases.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain suspects are more vulnerable to making a false confession under police pressure. This includes individuals who are <a href="/wiki/False_confession#Intellectual_impairment" title="False confession">intellectually impaired</a>, and those who suffer from <a href="/wiki/False_confession#Mental_illness" title="False confession">mental illness</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kassin" title="Saul Kassin">Saul Kassin</a>, a leading expert on false confessions, says that young people are also particularly vulnerable to confessing, especially when stressed, tired, or traumatized.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coercive_interrogation_techniques">Coercive interrogation techniques</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Coercive interrogation techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Reid_technique" title="Reid technique">Reid technique</a></div> <p>Police often use coercive manipulation techniques when conducting interrogations in hopes of obtaining a confession. In the United States, one of these is known as the <a href="/wiki/Reid_Technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Reid Technique">Reid Technique</a> after the officer who developed it, John Reid. Introduced in the 1940s and 50s, the strategy relies on deception, coercion and aggressive confrontation to secure confessions. It became the leading interrogation method used by law enforcement throughout the United States and has led to many confessions by innocent people.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2014, this technique was still popular with police interrogators even though the strategy produces less information from suspects, provides fewer true confessions and more <a href="/wiki/False_confessions" class="mw-redirect" title="False confessions">false confessions</a> than less confrontational interviewing techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perjury_and_false_accusations">Perjury and false accusations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Perjury and false accusations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Witnesses in police investigations may lie for a variety of reasons including: personal ill-will towards the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a>, the desire to be paid, the desire to get a deal from prosecutors or police, or an effort to deflect attention from a person's own involvement in a crime. An innocent person is more likely to be convicted when one or more witnesses have an incentive to testify, and those incentives are not disclosed to the jury.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations" title="National Registry of Exonerations">National Registry of Exonerations</a>, 57% of cases where the convicted person was eventually exonerated involves perjury or false accusations.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosecutorial_misconduct">Prosecutorial misconduct</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Prosecutorial misconduct"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prosecutorial_misconduct" title="Prosecutorial misconduct">Prosecutorial misconduct</a></div> <p>This occurs in numerous ways including the concealment or destruction of exculpatory evidence; the failure to disclose exculpatory evidence to the defence; the failure to reveal that certain witnesses have been paid to testify; and the planting of incriminating evidence. An Innocence Project study found that 25% of DNA exonerations involved testimony that was known to be false by the police and another 11% involved the undisclosed use of coerced witness testimony.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, over one third of these wrongful convictions involved prosecutorial misconduct. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_bias_and_cognitive_distortions">Role of bias and cognitive distortions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Role of bias and cognitive distortions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a> is a psychological phenomenon whereby people tend to seek and interpret information in ways that support existing beliefs. Two inter-related mechanisms tend to operate: it begins with a biased interpretation of whatever information is available, followed by selectively searching for information which supports this interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-researchgate.net_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-researchgate.net-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In police investigations, this comes into play when detectives identify a suspect early in an investigation, come to believe he or she is guilty, and then ignore or downplay other evidence that points to someone else or doesn't fit their hypothesis about what occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of factors contribute to this process. First, police officers often have heavy workloads and, in high-profile cases, often come under considerable pressure to catch the perpetrator as soon as possible. This may encourage a rush to judgement - in a process described by psychologists as involving a high need for <a href="/wiki/Closure_(psychology)" title="Closure (psychology)">cognitive closure</a> (NFC) - the desire for a clear-cut solution which avoids confusion and ambiguity.<sup id="cite_ref-researchgate.net_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-researchgate.net-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Second, after spending considerable time and resources trying to build a case against a particular suspect, it becomes difficult for police to admit they may be going down the wrong track. The embarrassment and loss of prestige that follows from admitting erroneous decisions may motivate investigators to continue down a chosen path and disregard evidence that points in a different direction.<sup id="cite_ref-researchgate.net_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-researchgate.net-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Third, criminal investigations are generally theory-driven activities. Investigators tend to evaluate evidence based on their preliminary theories or hypotheses about how, and by whom, a crime was committed. Because of the pressures described above, such hypotheses are sometimes based on the expectations and preconceptions of the investigators rather than on solid facts. A study in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Investigative_Psychology_and_Offender_Profiling" title="Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling">Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling</a> found that "criminal investigations which aim at generating evidence confirming an ill-founded hypothesis pose serious threats both to the security of innocent citizens and to the effectiveness of the law-enforcement system".<sup id="cite_ref-researchgate.net_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-researchgate.net-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noble_cause_corruption">Noble cause corruption</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Noble cause corruption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Noble_cause_corruption" title="Noble cause corruption">Noble cause corruption</a></div> <p>Police may become convinced a particular suspect is guilty but not have sufficient evidence to prove it. Sometimes they may plant evidence in order to secure a conviction because they believe it is in the public interest, or that there is a greater good, in convicting a particular person. In other words, they believe that the ends (or the outcome) justifies the means. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Noble_cause_corruption" title="Noble cause corruption">noble cause corruption</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plea_bargaining">Plea bargaining</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Plea bargaining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plea_bargain" title="Plea bargain">Plea bargain</a></div> <p>Another technique used by police is <a href="/wiki/Plea_bargain" title="Plea bargain">plea bargaining</a> whereby the <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> provides a concession to the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a> in exchange for a <a href="/wiki/Plea" title="Plea">plea</a> of guilt. This generally occurs when the defendant pleads guilty to a less serious charge, or to one of several charges, in return for the dismissal of the main charge; or it may mean that the defendant pleads guilty to the main charge in return for a more lenient sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compensation_for_wrongful_conviction">Compensation for wrongful conviction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Compensation for wrongful conviction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Article 14(6) of the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> (ICCPR) states that when a miscarriage of justice has occurred and the defendant's conviction has been reversed or they have been pardoned, "the person who has suffered punishment as a result of such conviction shall be compensated according to law". The right to compensation is also authorized by Article 3 of Protocol No. 7 to the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Human_Rights_and_Fundamental_Freedoms" class="mw-redirect" title="European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms">European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms</a> and Article 10 of the <a href="/wiki/American_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="American Convention on Human Rights">American Convention on Human Rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many jurisdictions worldwide provide some kind of remedy for those wrongfully convicted.<sup id="cite_ref-Jasiński_Kremens_2023_p._36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jasiński_Kremens_2023_p.-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As victims often face a variety of severe negative psychological, social, and financial consequences, they may be offered an opportunity to seek financial compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-JustResearch_Edition_no.13_2005_d515_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JustResearch_Edition_no.13_2005_d515-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most jurisdictions require a separate inquiry post-exoneration to determine the degree of compensation the victim is entitled to. While most societies agree that a person who did not commit a crime and served a long imprisonment is entitled to significant compensation, it may not be justified, for example, to award compensation to a person who is still believed to have committed a <i>prima facie</i> criminal act but whose conviction was overturned due to technicalities. </p><p>Four broad approaches allow for the payment of compensation following a miscarriage of justice: tort liability in common law; claims for a breach of constitutional or human rights; statutory relief where specific legislation exists to compensate individuals who are wrongfully convicted; and non-statutory relief by way of <a href="/wiki/Ex-gratia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-gratia">ex-gratia</a> schemes based on the largesse of the government. </p><p>In a study of different approaches to the payment of compensation in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, only the US and the UK have statutory schemes in place.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, the federal government, the District of Columbia, and 38 states have such legislation on their <a href="/wiki/Statutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutes">statutes</a>. Twelve states have no laws requiring compensation to be paid.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, each state differs widely in regard to eligibility requirements, maximum payments, issues concerning factual innocence, the burden of proof, the behavior of the claimant which contributed to the (now overturned) conviction, and the claimant's prior criminal history. In some states, statutes of limitations also applies.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The significant benefits of statutory schemes is that they provide money and services in compensation to individuals who have been wrongfully convicted without regard to fault or blame; they do not require claimants to prove how the prosecution or police committed their mistakes.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications">Implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of miscarriage of justice has important implications for <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_review" title="Standard of review">standard of review</a>, in that an <a href="/wiki/Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">appellate court</a> will often only exercise its <a href="/wiki/Discretion" title="Discretion">discretion</a> to correct a <a href="/wiki/Plain_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Plain error">plain error</a> when a miscarriage of justice (or "manifest injustice") would otherwise occur. </p><p>The risk of miscarriages of justice is often cited as a cause to eliminate the death penalty. When condemned persons are executed before they are determined to have been wrongly convicted, the effect of that miscarriage of justice is irreversible. Wrongly executed people nevertheless occasionally receive posthumous <a href="/wiki/Pardon" title="Pardon">pardons</a>—which essentially <a href="/wiki/Void_(law)" title="Void (law)">void</a> the conviction—or have their convictions quashed. </p><p>Even when a wrongly convicted person is not executed, years in prison can have a substantial, irreversible effect on the person and their family. The risk of miscarriage of justice is therefore also an argument against long sentences, like a life sentence, and cruel prison conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences">Consequences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wrongful convictions appear at first to be "rightful" arrests and subsequent convictions, and also include a public statement about a particular crime having occurred, as well as a particular individual or individuals having committed that crime. If the conviction turns out to be a miscarriage of justice, then one or both of these statements is ultimately deemed to be false.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cases where a large-scale audience is unknowingly witness to a miscarriage of justice, the news-consuming public may develop false beliefs about the nature of crime itself. It may also cause the public to falsely believe that certain types of crime exist, or that certain types of people tend to commit these crimes, or that certain crimes are more commonly prevalent than they actually are. Thus, wrongful convictions can ultimately mold a society's popular beliefs about crime. Because our understanding of crime is socially constructed, it has been shaped by many factors other than its actual occurrence.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mass media may also be faulted for distorting the public perception of crime by over-representing certain races and genders as criminals and victims, and for highlighting more sensational and invigorating types of crimes as being more newsworthy. The way a media presents crime-related issues may have an influence not only on a society's fear of crime but also on its beliefs about the causes of criminal behavior and desirability of one or another approach to crime control.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, this may have a significant impact on critical public beliefs about emerging forms of crime such as cybercrime, global crime, and terrorism.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some wrongfully sanctioned people join organizations like the <a href="/wiki/Innocence_Project" title="Innocence Project">Innocence Project</a> and <a href="/wiki/Witness_to_Innocence" title="Witness to Innocence">Witness to Innocence</a> to publicly share their stories, as a way to counteract these media distortions and to advocate for various types of criminal justice reform.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are unfavorable psychological effects to those who were wrongfully sanctioned, even in the absence of any public knowledge. In an experiment, participants significantly reduced their pro-social behavior after being wrongfully sanctioned. As a consequence there were negative effects for the entire group.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extent of wrongful sanctions varies between societies.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a crime occurs and the wrong person is convicted for it, the actual perpetrator goes free and often goes on to commit additional crimes, including hundreds of cases of violent crime.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 study estimated that "the wrong‐person wrongful convictions that occur annually [in the United States] may lead to more than 41,000 additional crimes".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: By country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of miscarriages of justice in Canada have led to reforms of the country's criminal justice system. In 1959, 14-year-old <a href="/wiki/Steven_Truscott" title="Steven Truscott">Steven Truscott</a> was convicted of raping and murdering a 12-year-old girl. Originally sentenced to death by <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanging</a>, his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. He was released on parole in 1969, and was freed from his parole restrictions in 1974. In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Ontario_Court_of_Appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontario Court of Appeal">Ontario Court of Appeal</a> overturned Truscott's conviction, based on a reexamination of forensic evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Truscott_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Truscott-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government of Ontario awarded him <a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">$</a>6.5 million in compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Marshall_Jr." title="Donald Marshall Jr.">Donald Marshall Jr.</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mi'kmaq people">Mi'kmaq</a> man, was wrongly convicted of murder. Marshall spent 11 years in jail before being acquitted in 1983.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case led to questions about the fairness of the Canadian justice system, especially given that Marshall was an <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_peoples_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal peoples in Canada">Aboriginal</a>: as the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation</a> put it, "The name Donald Marshall is almost synonymous with 'wrongful conviction' and the fight for native justice in Canada."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall received a lifetime pension of <a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">$</a>1.5 million in compensation<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his conviction resulted in changes to the <a href="/wiki/Canada_Evidence_Act" title="Canada Evidence Act">Canada Evidence Act</a> so that any evidence obtained by the prosecution must be presented to the defense on disclosure. </p><p>In 1970, <a href="/wiki/David_Milgaard" title="David Milgaard">David Milgaard</a> was wrongfully convicted for the rape and murder of <a href="/wiki/Gail_Miller_(murder_victim)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gail Miller (murder victim)">Gail Miller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was released in 1992 and compensated <a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">$</a>10 million by the Saskatchewan government after having spent 23 years in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After being tied to it by DNA evidence, serial rapist <a href="/wiki/Larry_Fisher_(murderer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry Fisher (murderer)">Larry Fisher</a> was convicted of the murder in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1992, <a href="/wiki/Guy_Paul_Morin" title="Guy Paul Morin">Guy Paul Morin</a> was convicted of the 1984 rape and murder of a 9-year-old girl and was sentenced to life imprisonment. In 1995, new testing of DNA evidence showed Morin could not have been the murderer, and the Ontario Court of Appeal overturned his conviction.<sup id="cite_ref-canenc_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canenc-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case has been described as "a compendium of official error—from inaccurate eyewitness testimony and police tunnel vision, to scientific bungling and the suppression of evidence."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morin received <a href="/wiki/Canadian_dollar" title="Canadian dollar">$</a>1.25 million in compensation from the Ontario government.<sup id="cite_ref-canenc_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canenc-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of wrongful convictions were uncovered in the 2010s which had a large impact on the judicial system and undermined public trust in the Chinese justice system.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhao Zuohai was one of the wrongful convictions, who had to serve 10 years in prison for a murder he did not commit. The alleged victim that he murdered had returned home and he was released from prison. While he was being released from prison he shared some chilling news. Zuohai shared with the police officers and officials that while he was being taken into custody he repeatedly experienced torture because they were trying to extract a confession from Zuohai. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Tortora" title="Enzo Tortora">Enzo Tortora</a>, a TV host on national <a href="/wiki/RAI" title="RAI">RAI</a> television, was accused of being a member of the <a href="/wiki/Camorra" title="Camorra">Camorra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug_trafficking" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug trafficking">drug trafficking</a>. He was arrested in 1983, and sentenced to ten years in jail in 1985, but acquitted of all charges on appeal in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-flo301008_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flo301008-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In response to two overturned cases, the Schiedammerpark murder case and the Putten murder, the Netherlands created the "Posthumus I committee" which analyzed what had gone wrong in the Schiedammerpark murder case. The committee concluded that <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> led the police to ignore and misinterpret scientific evidence, specifically DNA. Subsequently, the Posthumus II committee investigated whether injustice occurred in similar cases. The committee received 25 applications from concerned and involved scientists and selected three for further investigation: the <a href="/wiki/Lucia_de_Berk" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucia de Berk">Lucia de Berk</a> case, the Ina Post case, and the Enschede incest case. In those three cases, independent researchers (professors <a href="/wiki/Willem_Albert_Wagenaar" title="Willem Albert Wagenaar">Wagenaar</a>, van Koppen, Israëls, Crombag, and Derksen) concluded that confirmation bias and misuse of complex scientific evidence led to miscarriages of justice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1978" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Constitution of 1978">Constitution of Spain</a> guarantees compensation in cases of miscarriage of justice. This includes those who have been acquitted of their charges or if their case has been dismissed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United Kingdom a jailed person, whose conviction is quashed, might be paid <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">compensation</a> for the time they were incarcerated. This is currently limited by statute to a maximum sum of £1,000,000 for those who have been incarcerated for more than ten years and £500,000 for any other cases,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 2007 and 2023 there could be deductions for the cost of food and accommodation during that time.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/Category:Overturned_convictions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom">Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom</a>. </p><p>Richard Foster, the Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Cases_Review_Commission" title="Criminal Cases Review Commission">Criminal Cases Review Commission</a> (CCRC), reported in October 2018 that the single biggest cause of miscarriage of justice was the failure to disclose vital evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major factor leading to the abolition of capital punishment for murder in the United Kingdom was the case of <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Evans" title="Timothy Evans">Timothy Evans</a>, who was executed in 1950 after being wrongfully convicted of a murder that had been committed by his neighbour. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland"><span id="England.2C_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland"></span>England, Wales and Northern Ireland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: England, Wales and Northern Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paddy_Hill_-_the_Birmingham_Six.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Paddy_Hill_-_the_Birmingham_Six.jpg/220px-Paddy_Hill_-_the_Birmingham_Six.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Paddy_Hill_-_the_Birmingham_Six.jpg/330px-Paddy_Hill_-_the_Birmingham_Six.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Paddy_Hill_-_the_Birmingham_Six.jpg/440px-Paddy_Hill_-_the_Birmingham_Six.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Paddy Hill from the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Six" title="Birmingham Six">Birmingham Six</a> in 2015. He is seen here addressing an audience as to his advocacy in fighting miscarriages of justice.</figcaption></figure> <p>Until 2005, the parole system assumed all convicted persons were guilty, and poorly handled those who were not. To be paroled, a convicted person had to sign a document in which, among other things, they confessed to the crime for which they were convicted. Someone who refused to sign this declaration spent longer in jail than someone who signed it. Some wrongly convicted people, such as the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Six" title="Birmingham Six">Birmingham Six</a>, were refused parole for this reason. In 2005 the system changed, and began to parole prisoners who never admitted guilt. </p><p>English law has no official means of correcting a "perverse" verdict (conviction of a defendant on the basis of insufficient evidence). Appeals are based exclusively on new evidence or errors by the judge or prosecution (but not the defence), or jury irregularities. A reversal occurred, however, in the 1930s when <a href="/wiki/William_Herbert_Wallace" title="William Herbert Wallace">William Herbert Wallace</a> was exonerated of the murder of his wife. There is no right to a trial <i>without</i> jury (except during the troubles in Northern Ireland or in the case where there is a significant risk of jury-tampering, such as organised crime cases, when a judge or judges presided without a jury). </p><p>During the early 1990s, a series of high-profile cases turned out to be miscarriages of justice. Many resulted from police fabricating evidence to convict people they thought were guilty, or simply to get a high conviction rate. The <a href="/wiki/West_Midlands_Serious_Crime_Squad" title="West Midlands Serious Crime Squad">West Midlands Serious Crime Squad</a> became notorious for such practices, and was disbanded in 1989. In 1997 the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Cases_Review_Commission" title="Criminal Cases Review Commission">Criminal Cases Review Commission</a><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was established specifically to examine possible miscarriages of justice. However, it still requires either strong new evidence of innocence, or new proof of a legal error by the judge or prosecution. For example, merely insisting on one's innocence, asserting the jury made an error, or stating there was not enough evidence to prove guilt, is not enough. It is not possible to question the jury's decision or query on what matters it was based. The waiting list for cases to be considered for review is at least two years on average.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 2002, the Northern Ireland Court of Appeal made an exception to who could avail of the right to a fair trial in <i>R v Walsh</i>: <i>"... if a defendant has been denied a fair trial it will almost be inevitable that the conviction will be regarded unsafe, the present case in our view constitutes an exception to the general rule. ... the conviction is to be regarded as safe, even if a breach of Article 6(1) were held to have occurred in the present case."</i><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/Christy_Walsh_(Case)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christy Walsh (Case)">Christy Walsh (Case)</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Appeal_(Scotland)_Act_1927" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal Appeal (Scotland) Act 1927">Criminal Appeal (Scotland) Act 1927</a> (<a href="/wiki/17_%26_18_Geo._5" class="mw-redirect" title="17 & 18 Geo. 5">17 & 18 Geo. 5</a>. c. 26) increased the jurisdiction of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Court_of_Criminal_Appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Court of Criminal Appeal">Scottish Court of Criminal Appeal</a> following the miscarriage of justice surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Oscar_Slater" class="mw-redirect" title="Trial of Oscar Slater">Trial of Oscar Slater</a>. </p><p>Reflecting <a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scotland's own legal system</a>, which differs from that of the rest of the United Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Criminal_Cases_Review_Commission" title="Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission">Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission</a> (SCCRC) was established in April 1999. All cases accepted by the SCCRC are subjected to a robust and thoroughly impartial review before a decision on whether or not to refer to the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary" title="High Court of Justiciary">High Court of Justiciary</a> is taken. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tombstone_arizona_graveyard_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Tombstone_arizona_graveyard_1.jpg/170px-Tombstone_arizona_graveyard_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Tombstone_arizona_graveyard_1.jpg/255px-Tombstone_arizona_graveyard_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Tombstone_arizona_graveyard_1.jpg/340px-Tombstone_arizona_graveyard_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>Gravestone of George Johnson who was unjustly hanged in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In June 2012, the <a href="/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations" title="National Registry of Exonerations">National Registry of Exonerations</a>, a joint project of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School" title="University of Michigan Law School">University of Michigan Law School</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University_Pritzker_School_of_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law">Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law</a>, initially reported 873 individual exonerations in the U.S. from January 1989 through February 2012; the report called this number "tiny" in a country with <a href="/wiki/United_States_incarceration_rate" title="United States incarceration rate">2.3 million people in prisons and jails</a>, but asserted that there are far more false convictions than exonerations.<sup id="cite_ref-UMichLaw20120622_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UMichLaw20120622-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2015, the number of individual exonerations was reported as 1,733, with 2015 having the highest annual number of exonerations since 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2019, the number had risen to 1,934 individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 20 individuals have been exonerated while on death row due to DNA evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2020 report by the National Registry of Exonerations, official misconduct contributed to 54% of all wrong convictions. The study only counted misconduct when it directly contributed to the convictions, such as the generation of false evidence or concealment of evidence of innocence.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At least 21 states in the U.S. do not offer compensation for wrongful imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Innocence_Project" title="Innocence Project">Innocence Project</a> works to exonerate people in the United States who have been wrongfully convicted of crime. It has estimated that 1 percent of all U.S. prisoners are innocent. With the number of incarcerated Americans being approximately 2.4 million, by that estimate as many as 20,000 people may be incarcerated as a result of wrongful conviction.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research into the issue of wrongful convictions have led to the use of methods to avoid wrongful convictions, such as <a href="/wiki/Double-blind" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-blind">double-blind</a> eyewitness identification.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leading causes of wrongful convictions in the United States include <a href="/wiki/Informant" title="Informant">snitches</a><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and unscientific forensics.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other causes include police and prosecutorial misconduct.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Race and systemic racism have been found to be a factor in wrongful convictions; a report by the <a href="/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations" title="National Registry of Exonerations">National Registry of Exonerations</a> found that, as of August 2022, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> make up 13.6% of the U.S. population, but 53% of exonerations, and that they were seven times more likely to be falsely convicted compared to White Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, <a href="/wiki/Glynn_Simmons" title="Glynn Simmons">Glynn Simmons</a> was released from prison after 48 years of prison. His imprisonment after wrongful conviction is believed to be the longest in American history.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alford_plea" title="Alford plea">Alford plea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_of_impunity" title="Error of impunity">Error of impunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusations" class="mw-redirect" title="False accusations">False accusations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_allegation_of_child_sexual_abuse" title="False allegation of child sexual abuse">False allegation of child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_confession" title="False confession">False confession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocent_prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Innocent prisoner's dilemma">Innocent prisoner's dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal abuse">Legal abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perverting_the_course_of_justice" title="Perverting the course of justice">Perverting the course of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_misconduct" title="Police misconduct">Police misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_guilt" title="Presumption of guilt">Presumption of guilt</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specific_cases">Specific cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Specific cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_miscarriage_of_justice_cases" title="List of miscarriage of justice cases">List of miscarriage of justice cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wrongful_convictions_in_the_United_States" title="List of wrongful convictions in the United States">List of wrongful convictions in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exonerated_death_row_inmates" title="List of exonerated death row inmates">List of exonerated death row inmates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-US-miscarriage_of_justice-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-US-miscarriage_of_justice_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cite.case.law/us/507/725/#p736">"United States v. Olano, 507 U.S. 725 (1993)"</a>. <i>U.S. Supreme Court</i>. Harvard Law School. April 26, 1993. p. 736. <q>In our collateral review jurisprudence, the term 'miscarriage of justice' means that the defendant is <a href="/wiki/Actual_innocence" title="Actual innocence">actually innocent</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Supreme+Court&rft.atitle=United+States+v.+Olano%2C+507+U.S.+725+%281993%29&rft.pages=736&rft.date=1993-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcite.case.law%2Fus%2F507%2F725%2F%23p736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black's-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Black's_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarner2009" class="citation book cs1">Garner, Bryan A. (June 25, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/s?search-alias=stripbooks&field-isbn=0314199497"><i>miscarriage of justice</i></a> (9th ed.). Black's Law Dictionary. p. 1088. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-314-19949-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-314-19949-2"><bdi>978-0-314-19949-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 5,</span> 2018</span>. <q>A grossly unfair outcome in a <a href="/wiki/Judicial_proceeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial proceeding">judicial proceeding</a>, as when a defendant is convicted despite a lack of evidence on an essential element of the crime. — Also termed a <i>failure of justice</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=miscarriage+of+justice&rft.pages=1088&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Black%27s+Law+Dictionary&rft.date=2009-06-25&rft.isbn=978-0-314-19949-2&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=Bryan+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fs%3Fsearch-alias%3Dstripbooks%26field-isbn%3D0314199497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://innocenceproject.org/compensating-wrongly-convicted/">Compensating The Wrongly Convicted</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113901/https://innocenceproject.org/compensating-wrongly-convicted/">Archived</a> April 5, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Innocence Project</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/Conviction-Integrity-Units.aspx">"Conviction Integrity Units"</a>. <i>www.law.umich.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.law.umich.edu&rft.atitle=Conviction+Integrity+Units&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.umich.edu%2Fspecial%2Fexoneration%2FPages%2FConviction-Integrity-Units.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://innocenceproject.org/dna-exonerations-in-the-united-states/">DNA Exonerations in the United States</a>, Innocence Project</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141110182624/http://www.innocenceproject.org/Content/How_many_innocent_people_are_there_in_prison.php">How many Innocent people are there in prison</a>, The Innocence Project, Wayback machine</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly_WalshJeanette_HussemannAbigail_FlynnJennifer_Yahner2017" class="citation report cs1">Kelly Walsh; Jeanette Hussemann; Abigail Flynn; Jennifer Yahner; Laura Golian (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/251115.pdf">Estimating the Prevalence of Wrongful Conviction</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). 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"Relationship between Prosecutorial Misconduct and Wrongful Convictions: Shaping Remedies for a Broken System". <i>Wisconsin Law Review</i>. <b>2006</b>: 399.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wisconsin+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Relationship+between+Prosecutorial+Misconduct+and+Wrongful+Convictions%3A+Shaping+Remedies+for+a+Broken+System&rft.volume=2006&rft.pages=399&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Joy&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrossPossleyOtterbourgStephens2022" class="citation report cs1">Gross, Samuel R.; Possley, Maurice; Otterbourg, Ken; Stephens, Clara; Weinstock Paredes, Jessica; O'Brien, Barbara (September 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Documents/Race%20Report%20Preview.pdf">Race and Wrongful Convictions in the United States</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). <a href="/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations" title="National Registry of Exonerations">National Registry of Exonerations</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 29,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Race+and+Wrongful+Convictions+in+the+United+States&rft.pub=National+Registry+of+Exonerations&rft.date=2022-09&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Samuel+R.&rft.au=Possley%2C+Maurice&rft.au=Otterbourg%2C+Ken&rft.au=Stephens%2C+Clara&rft.au=Weinstock+Paredes%2C+Jessica&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.umich.edu%2Fspecial%2Fexoneration%2FDocuments%2FRace%2520Report%2520Preview.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiménez2023" class="citation news cs1">Jiménez, Jesus (December 20, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/20/us/glynn-simmons-exoneration-oklahoma.html">"Man Cleared of Murder After More Than 48 Years in Prison"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 12,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Man+Cleared+of+Murder+After+More+Than+48+Years+in+Prison&rft.date=2023-12-20&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Jim%C3%A9nez&rft.aufirst=Jesus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F12%2F20%2Fus%2Fglynn-simmons-exoneration-oklahoma.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndone2023" class="citation web cs1">Andone, Dakin (December 21, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/12/21/us/glynn-simmons-declared-innocent-oklahoma/index.html">"Glynn Simmons declared innocent after serving 48 years in Oklahoma – believed to be the longest of any exoneree"</a>. <i>CNN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 6,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Glynn+Simmons+declared+innocent+after+serving+48+years+in+Oklahoma+%E2%80%93+believed+to+be+the+longest+of+any+exoneree&rft.date=2023-12-21&rft.aulast=Andone&rft.aufirst=Dakin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2023%2F12%2F21%2Fus%2Fglynn-simmons-declared-innocent-oklahoma%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_S._Medwed2022" class="citation book cs1">Daniel S. Medwed (2022). <i>Barred: Why the Innocent Can't Get Out of Prison</i>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-7591-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-7591-9"><bdi>978-1-5416-7591-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barred%3A+Why+the+Innocent+Can%27t+Get+Out+of+Prison&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-5416-7591-9&rft.au=Daniel+S.+Medwed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jed_S._Rakoff" title="Jed S. Rakoff">Jed S. Rakoff</a>, "Jailed by Bad Science", <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXVI, no. 20 (19 December 2019), pp. 79–80, 85. According to Judge Rakoff (p. 85), "forensic techniques that in their origin were simply viewed as aids to police investigations have taken on an importance in the criminal justice system that they frequently cannot support. Their results are portrayed... as possessing a degree of validity and reliability that they simply do not have." Rakoff commends (p. 85) the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> recommendation to "creat[e] an independent National Institute of Forensic Science to do the basic testing and promulgate the basic standards that would make forensic science much more genuinely scientific."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/miscarriage%20of%20justice">"Definition of <i>miscarriage of justice</i>"</a>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+miscarriage+of+justice&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fmiscarriage%2520of%2520justice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiscarriage+of+justice" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Police_corruption" title="Police corruption">Police corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malicious_prosecution" title="Malicious prosecution">Malicious prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_enforcement" title="Selective enforcement">Selective enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abuse_of_process" title="Abuse of process">Abuse of process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_misconduct" title="Attorney misconduct">Attorney misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bad_apples" title="Bad apples">Bad apples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discretion#Abuse_of_discretion" title="Discretion">Abuse of discretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrapment" title="Entrapment">Entrapment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_arrest" title="False arrest">False arrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaming_the_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaming the system">Gaming the system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_malpractice" title="Legal malpractice">Legal malpractice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_court" title="Kangaroo court">Kangaroo court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_trial" title="Show trial">Show trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_practice" title="Sharp practice">Sharp practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_tampering" title="Jury tampering">Jury tampering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witness_tampering" title="Witness tampering">Witness tampering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brady_disclosure" title="Brady disclosure">Brady disclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoliation_of_evidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoliation of evidence">Spoliation of evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_wrong" title="Civil wrong">Civil wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/False_evidence" title="False evidence">False evidence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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href="/wiki/Cross-race_effect" title="Cross-race effect">Cross-race effect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampering_with_evidence" title="Tampering with evidence">Tampering with evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frameup" title="Frameup">Frameup</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wrongful_convictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrongful convictions">Wrongful convictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wrongful_convictions_in_the_United_States" title="List of wrongful convictions in the United States">List of wrongful convictions in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exonerated_death_row_inmates" title="List of exonerated death row inmates">List of exonerated death row inmates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_miscarriage_of_justice_cases" title="List of miscarriage of justice cases">List of miscarriage of justice cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overturned_convictions_in_the_United_States" title="Overturned convictions in the United States">Overturned convictions in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongful_execution" title="Wrongful execution">Wrongful execution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Innocence_Project" title="Innocence Project">Innocence Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations" title="National Registry of Exonerations">National Registry of Exonerations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigating_Innocence" title="Investigating Innocence">Investigating Innocence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contributing factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Race_in_the_United_States_criminal_justice_system#race_and_the_death_penalty" title="Race in the United States criminal justice system">Race in the United States criminal justice system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocent_prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Innocent prisoner's dilemma">Innocent prisoner's dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_wall_of_silence" title="Blue wall of silence">Blue wall of silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">Racial profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole" title="Loophole">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineffective_assistance_of_counsel" title="Ineffective assistance of counsel">Ineffective assistance of counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor%27s_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecutor's fallacy">Prosecutor's fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Norms and remedies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exculpatory_evidence" title="Exculpatory evidence">Exculpatory evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">Right to a fair trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actual_innocence" title="Actual innocence">Actual innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocence_Protection_Act" title="Innocence Protection Act">Innocence Protection Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Batson_v._Kentucky" title="Batson v. Kentucky">Batson v. Kentucky</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_death_row_inmates_in_the_United_States" title="List of death row inmates in the United States">List of death row inmates in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/16px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/24px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&oldid=1248764529">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miscarriage_of_justice&oldid=1248764529</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Justice" title="Category:Justice">Justice</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Legal_error" title="Category:Legal error">Legal error</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_rights" title="Category:Human rights">Human rights</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abuse_of_the_legal_system" title="Category:Abuse of the legal system">Abuse of the legal system</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2023">Articles with dead external links from August 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">CS1 maint: archived copy as title</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_August_2024" title="Category:Use mdy dates from August 2024">Use mdy dates from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2011" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 October 2024, at 10:29<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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