CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Submarine communications cable - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"530baa1a-5bde-4bb2-9b64-d579a54aa4e3","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Submarine_communications_cable","wgTitle":"Submarine communications cable","wgCurRevisionId":1259177014,"wgRevisionId":1259177014,"wgArticleId":45206,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from December 2018","Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles with dead external links from January 2024","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use mdy dates from October 2022","All articles with vague or ambiguous time","Vague or ambiguous time from June 2014", "Commons category link is on Wikidata","Commons category link is locally defined","Coastal construction","Submarine communications cables","Telecommunications equipment","History of telecommunications"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Submarine_communications_cable","wgRelevantArticleId":45206,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[], "wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q506572","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready", "ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg/1200px-Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="920"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg/800px-Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="613"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg/640px-Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="491"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Submarine communications cable - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Submarine_communications_cable rootpage-Submarine_communications_cable skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Submarine+communications+cable" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Submarine+communications+cable" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Submarine+communications+cable" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Submarine+communications+cable" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_successful_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_successful_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>First successful trials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_successful_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_commercial_cables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_commercial_cables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>First commercial cables</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_commercial_cables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimean_War_(1853–1856)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimean_War_(1853–1856)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Crimean War (1853–1856)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimean_War_(1853–1856)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transatlantic_telegraph_cable"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Transatlantic telegraph cable</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transatlantic_telegraph_cable-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_dominance_of_early_cable" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_dominance_of_early_cable"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>British dominance of early cable</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_dominance_of_early_cable-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cable_to_India,_Singapore,_East_Asia_and_Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cable_to_India,_Singapore,_East_Asia_and_Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Cable to India, Singapore, East Asia and Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cable_to_India,_Singapore,_East_Asia_and_Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Submarine_cables_across_the_Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Submarine_cables_across_the_Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Submarine cables across the Pacific</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Submarine_cables_across_the_Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bandwidth_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bandwidth_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Bandwidth problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bandwidth_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transatlantic_telephony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transatlantic_telephony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Transatlantic telephony</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transatlantic_telephony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Other uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Optical_telecommunications_cables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_telecommunications_cables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Optical telecommunications cables</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_telecommunications_cables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance_of_submarine_cables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_of_submarine_cables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Importance of submarine cables</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_of_submarine_cables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investment_and_finances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investment_and_finances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Investment and finances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investment_and_finances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antarctica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antarctica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Antarctica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antarctica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arctic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arctic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Arctic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arctic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cable_repair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cable_repair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Cable repair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cable_repair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence_gathering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence_gathering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Intelligence gathering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence_gathering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Environmental impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Environmental impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alteration_of_the_seabed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alteration_of_the_seabed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Alteration of the seabed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alteration_of_the_seabed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entanglement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entanglement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Entanglement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entanglement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_risk_of_fishing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_risk_of_fishing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The risk of fishing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_risk_of_fishing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_waves_and_electromagnetic_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_waves_and_electromagnetic_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Sound waves and electromagnetic waves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_waves_and_electromagnetic_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Maps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Submarine communications cable</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="كبل اتصالات بحري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كبل اتصالات بحري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sualt%C4%B1_kommunikasiya_kabeli" title="Sualtı kommunikasiya kabeli – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sualtı kommunikasiya kabeli" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2" title="সাবমেরিন কমিউনিকেশন্স ক্যাবল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাবমেরিন কমিউনিকেশন্স ক্যাবল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Подводен комуникационен кабел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Подводен комуникационен кабел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_de_comunicacions_submar%C3%AD" title="Cable de comunicacions submarí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cable de comunicacions submarí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podmo%C5%99sk%C3%BD_kabel" title="Podmořský kabel – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Podmořský kabel" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8kabel" title="Søkabel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Søkabel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seekabel" title="Seekabel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Seekabel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B2%CF%81%CF%8D%CF%87%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BB%CF%8E%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Υποβρύχιο καλώδιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υποβρύχιο καλώδιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_submarino" title="Cable submarino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cable submarino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsaspeko_kable" title="Itsaspeko kable – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itsaspeko kable" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کابل ارتباطی زیردریایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کابل ارتباطی زیردریایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A2ble_sous-marin" title="Câble sous-marin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Câble sous-marin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%A0%80_%ED%86%B5%EC%8B%A0_%EC%BC%80%EC%9D%B4%EB%B8%94" title="해저 통신 케이블 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해저 통신 케이블" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%83%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B2" title="अंतःसमुद्री केबल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंतःसमुद्री केबल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabel_komunikasi_bawah_laut" title="Kabel komunikasi bawah laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kabel komunikasi bawah laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A6strengur" title="Sæstrengur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sæstrengur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavo_sottomarino" title="Cavo sottomarino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cavo sottomarino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%91%D7%9C_%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%AA%D7%AA-%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99" title="כבל תקשורת תת-ימי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כבל תקשורת תת-ימי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A5%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="წყალქვეშა საკომუნიკაციო სადენი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="წყალქვეშა საკომუნიკაციო სადენი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Су асты коммуникациялық кабель – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Су асты коммуникациялық кабель" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebo_ya_baharini_ya_mawasiliano" title="Kebo ya baharini ya mawasiliano – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kebo ya baharini ya mawasiliano" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="അന്തർസമുദ്ര കേബിൾ നിക്ഷേപണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അന്തർസമുദ്ര കേബിൾ നിക്ഷേപണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onderzeekabel" title="Onderzeekabel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Onderzeekabel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BA%95%E3%82%B1%E3%83%BC%E3%83%96%E3%83%AB" title="海底ケーブル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海底ケーブル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B8kabel" title="Sjøkabel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sjøkabel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podmorski_kabel_telekomunikacyjny" title="Podmorski kabel telekomunikacyjny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Podmorski kabel telekomunikacyjny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabo_submarino" title="Cabo submarino – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cabo submarino" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Подводный коммуникационный кабель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Подводный коммуникационный кабель" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undersea_cable" title="Undersea cable – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Undersea cable" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="بحري تار – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بحري تار" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podmorski_komunikacijski_kabel" title="Podmorski komunikacijski kabel – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Podmorski komunikacijski kabel" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabel_Telekomunikasi_Jero_Laut" title="Kabel Telekomunikasi Jero Laut – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kabel Telekomunikasi Jero Laut" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merikaapeli" title="Merikaapeli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Merikaapeli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B6kabel" title="Sjökabel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sjökabel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3" title="เคเบิลใต้น้ำ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เคเบิลใต้น้ำ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Підводний комунікаційний кабель – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Підводний комунікаційний кабель" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavo_sotomarin" title="Cavo sotomarin – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Cavo sotomarin" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BA%95%E9%9B%BB%E7%BA%9C" title="海底電纜 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海底電纜" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q506572#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Submarine_communications_cable" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Submarine_communications_cable" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Submarine_communications_cable" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&oldid=1259177014" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Submarine_communications_cable&id=1259177014&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSubmarine_communications_cable"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSubmarine_communications_cable"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Submarine_communications_cable&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Submarine_communications_cables" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q506572" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transoceanic communication line placed on the seabed</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg/300px-Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg/450px-Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg/600px-Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)" title="Cross section (geometry)">cross section</a> of the shore-end of a modern submarine communications cable.<br /> 1 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C0D483; color:black;"> </span> – <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">Polyethylene</a><br /> 2 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#A493DC; color:black;"> </span> – <a href="/wiki/BoPET" title="BoPET">Mylar</a> tape<br /> 3 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#89B0D1; color:black;"> </span> – Stranded <a href="/wiki/Wire_rope" title="Wire rope">steel wires</a><br /> 4 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C9C9C9; color:black;"> </span> – <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a> water barrier<br /> 5 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#A6A6A6; color:black;"> </span> – <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate</a><br /> 6 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#E5AA5A; color:black;"> </span> – <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> or aluminium tube<br /> 7 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#E5D56D; color:black;"> </span> – <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">Petroleum jelly</a><br /> 8 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#EEEEFF; color:black;"> </span> – <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fibers</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France_Telecom_Marine_Rene_Descartes_p1150247.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/France_Telecom_Marine_Rene_Descartes_p1150247.jpg/220px-France_Telecom_Marine_Rene_Descartes_p1150247.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/France_Telecom_Marine_Rene_Descartes_p1150247.jpg/330px-France_Telecom_Marine_Rene_Descartes_p1150247.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/France_Telecom_Marine_Rene_Descartes_p1150247.jpg/440px-France_Telecom_Marine_Rene_Descartes_p1150247.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Submarine cables are laid using special <a href="/wiki/Cable_layer" title="Cable layer">cable layer</a> ships, such as the modern <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_(ship)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="René Descartes (ship) (page does not exist)">René Descartes</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_(c%C3%A2blier)" class="extiw" title="fr:René Descartes (câblier)">fr</a>]</span></i>, operated by <a href="/wiki/Orange_Marine" title="Orange Marine">Orange Marine</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>submarine communications cable</b> is a cable laid on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a> between land-based stations to carry <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a> signals across stretches of ocean and sea. The first submarine communications cables were laid beginning in the 1850s and carried <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a> traffic, establishing the first instant telecommunications links between continents, such as the first <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph cable</a> which became operational on 16 August 1858. </p><p>Submarine cables first connected all the world's <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> (except <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>) when <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> was connected to <a href="/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territory" title="Darwin, Northern Territory">Darwin, Northern Territory</a>, Australia, in 1871 in anticipation of the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Overland_Telegraph_Line" title="Australian Overland Telegraph Line">Australian Overland Telegraph Line</a> in 1872 connecting to <a href="/wiki/Adelaide,_South_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Adelaide, South Australia">Adelaide, South Australia</a> and thence to the rest of Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsequent generations of cables carried <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a> traffic, then <a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">data communications</a> traffic. These early cables used copper wires in their cores, but modern cables use <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a> technology to carry <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital data</a>, which includes telephone, <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> and private data traffic. Modern cables are typically about 25 mm (1 in) in diameter and weigh around 1.4 tonnes per kilometre (2.5 short tons per mile; 2.2 long tons per mile) for the deep-sea sections which comprise the majority of the run, although larger and heavier cables are used for shallow-water sections near shore.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables">Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_successful_trials">First successful trials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First successful trials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/William_Fothergill_Cooke" title="William Fothergill Cooke">William Cooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a> had introduced their <a href="/wiki/Cooke_and_Wheatstone_telegraph" title="Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph">working telegraph</a> in 1839, the idea of a submarine line across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> began to be thought of as a possible triumph of the future. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a> proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">India rubber</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the water of <a href="/wiki/New_York_Harbor" title="New York Harbor">New York Harbor</a>, and telegraphed through it. The following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in <a href="/wiki/Swansea_Bay" title="Swansea Bay">Swansea Bay</a>. A good <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Insulator (electrical)">insulator</a> to cover the wire and prevent the electric current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line. <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">India rubber</a> had been tried by <a href="/wiki/Moritz_von_Jacobi" title="Moritz von Jacobi">Moritz von Jacobi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineer</a>, as far back as the early 19th century. </p><p>Another insulating gum which could be melted by heat and readily applied to wire made its appearance in 1842. <a href="/wiki/Gutta-percha" title="Gutta-percha">Gutta-percha</a>, the adhesive juice of the <i><a href="/wiki/Palaquium_gutta" title="Palaquium gutta">Palaquium gutta</a></i> tree, was introduced to Europe by <a href="/wiki/William_Montgomerie" title="William Montgomerie">William Montgomerie</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgeon</a> in the service of the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">British East India Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26–27">: 26–27 </span></sup> Twenty years earlier, Montgomerie had seen whips made of gutta-percha in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, and he believed that it would be useful in the fabrication of surgical apparatus. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from <a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a> to <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1847 <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Siemens" title="Carl Wilhelm Siemens">William Siemens</a>, then an officer in the army of Prussia, laid the first successful underwater cable using gutta percha insulation, across the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> between <a href="/wiki/Deutz,_Cologne" title="Deutz, Cologne">Deutz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1849, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Vincent_Walker" title="Charles Vincent Walker">Charles Vincent Walker</a>, electrician to the <a href="/wiki/South_Eastern_Railway_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="South Eastern Railway (UK)">South Eastern Railway</a>, submerged 3 km (2 mi) of wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from <a href="/wiki/Folkestone" title="Folkestone">Folkestone</a>, which was tested successfully.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26–27">: 26–27 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_commercial_cables">First commercial cables</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First commercial cables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Co._Limited_3_shilling_stamp_c._1862_remaindered_without_control_number.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Co._Limited_3_shilling_stamp_c._1862_remaindered_without_control_number.jpg/220px-British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Co._Limited_3_shilling_stamp_c._1862_remaindered_without_control_number.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Co._Limited_3_shilling_stamp_c._1862_remaindered_without_control_number.jpg/330px-British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Co._Limited_3_shilling_stamp_c._1862_remaindered_without_control_number.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Co._Limited_3_shilling_stamp_c._1862_remaindered_without_control_number.jpg/440px-British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Co._Limited_3_shilling_stamp_c._1862_remaindered_without_control_number.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="1102" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_stamp" title="Telegraph stamp">telegraph stamp</a> of the British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Co. Limited (c. 1862).</figcaption></figure> <p>In August 1850, having earlier obtained a concession from the French government, <a href="/wiki/John_Watkins_Brett" title="John Watkins Brett">John Watkins Brett</a>'s <a href="/wiki/English_Channel_Submarine_Telegraph_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company">English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company</a> laid the first line across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, using the converted <a href="/wiki/Tugboat" title="Tugboat">tugboat</a> <i>Goliath</i>. It was simply a copper wire coated with <a href="/wiki/Gutta-percha" title="Gutta-percha">gutta-percha</a>, without any other protection, and was not successful.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 192–193">: 192–193 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the experiment served to secure renewal of the concession, and in September 1851, a protected core, or true, cable was laid by the reconstituted <a href="/wiki/Submarine_Telegraph_Company" title="Submarine Telegraph Company">Submarine Telegraph Company</a> from a government <a href="/wiki/Hulk_(ship_type)" title="Hulk (ship type)">hulk</a>, <i>Blazer</i>, which was towed across the Channel.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 192–193">: 192–193 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brett_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brett-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1853, more successful cables were laid, linking Great Britain with <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, and crossing <a href="/wiki/The_Belts" class="mw-redirect" title="The Belts">The Belts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 361">: 361 </span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/British_%26_Irish_Magnetic_Telegraph_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company">British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company</a> completed the first successful Irish link on May 23 between <a href="/wiki/Portpatrick" title="Portpatrick">Portpatrick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donaghadee" title="Donaghadee">Donaghadee</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Collier_(ship)" title="Collier (ship)">collier</a> <i>William Hutt</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 34–36">: 34–36 </span></sup> The same ship was used for the link from Dover to <a href="/wiki/Ostend" title="Ostend">Ostend</a> in Belgium, by the Submarine Telegraph Company.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 192–193">: 192–193 </span></sup> Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Electric_%26_International_Telegraph_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric & International Telegraph Company">Electric & International Telegraph Company</a> completed two cables across the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Orford_Ness" title="Orford Ness">Orford Ness</a> to <a href="/wiki/Scheveningen" title="Scheveningen">Scheveningen</a>, the Netherlands. These cables were laid by <i>Monarch</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">paddle steamer</a> which later became the first vessel with permanent cable-laying equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-Haigh_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 195">: 195 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1858, the steamship <i>Elba</i> was used to lay a telegraph cable from <a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> to <a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a>, on to <a href="/wiki/Alderney" title="Alderney">Alderney</a> and then to <a href="/wiki/Weymouth,_Dorset" title="Weymouth, Dorset">Weymouth</a>, the cable being completed successfully in September of that year. Problems soon developed with eleven breaks occurring by 1860 due to storms, tidal and sand movements, and wear on rocks. A report to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1860 set out the problems to assist in future cable-laying operations.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimean_War_(1853–1856)"><span id="Crimean_War_.281853.E2.80.931856.29"></span>Crimean War (1853–1856)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Crimean War (1853–1856)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> various forms of <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a> played a major role; this was a first. At the start of the campaign there was a telegraph link at Bucharest connected to London. In the winter of 1854 the French extended the telegraph link to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast. In April 1855 the British laid an underwater cable from Varna to the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean peninsula">Crimean peninsula</a> so that news of the Crimean War could reach London in a handful of hours.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transatlantic_telegraph_cable">Transatlantic telegraph cable</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Transatlantic telegraph cable"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">Transatlantic telegraph cable</a></div> <p>The first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_West_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus West Field">Cyrus West Field</a>, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project; it was plagued with problems from the outset, and was in operation for only a month. Subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 with the world's largest steamship, the <a href="/wiki/SS_Great_Eastern" title="SS Great Eastern">SS <i>Great Eastern</i></a>, used a more advanced technology and produced the first successful transatlantic cable. <i>Great Eastern</i> later went on to lay the first cable reaching to India from Aden, Yemen, in 1870. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_dominance_of_early_cable">British dominance of early cable</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: British dominance of early cable"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Telegraph_QE3_19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Telegraph_QE3_19.jpg/250px-Telegraph_QE3_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Telegraph_QE3_19.jpg/375px-Telegraph_QE3_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Telegraph_QE3_19.jpg/500px-Telegraph_QE3_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3110" data-file-height="2266" /></a><figcaption>Operators in the submarine telegraph cable room at the <a href="/wiki/General_Post_Office" title="General Post Office">GPO</a>'s Central Telegraph Office in London c. 1898</figcaption></figure> <p>From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a>. The British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay and maintain these cables. In terms of demand, <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Britain's vast colonial empire</a> led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the British government. Many of Britain's colonies had significant populations of European settlers, making news about them of interest to the general public in the home country. </p><p>British officials believed that depending on telegraph lines that passed through non-British territory posed a security risk, as lines could be cut and messages could be interrupted during wartime. They sought the creation of a worldwide network within the empire, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/All_Red_Line" title="All Red Line">All Red Line</a>, and conversely prepared strategies to quickly interrupt enemy communications.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy197110_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy197110-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain's very first action after declaring war on Germany in World War I was to have the <a href="/wiki/CS_Alert_(1890)" title="CS Alert (1890)">cable ship <i>Alert</i></a> (not the CS <i><a href="/wiki/Telconia" class="mw-redirect" title="Telconia">Telconia</a></i> as frequently reported)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cut the five cables linking Germany with France, Spain and the Azores, and through them, North America.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, the only way Germany could communicate was by wireless, and that meant that <a href="/wiki/Room_40" title="Room 40">Room 40</a> could listen in. </p><p>The submarine cables were an economic benefit to trading companies, because owners of ships could communicate with captains when they reached their destination and give directions as to where to go next to pick up cargo based on reported pricing and supply information. The British government had obvious uses for the cables in maintaining administrative communications with governors throughout its empire, as well as in engaging other nations diplomatically and communicating with its military units in wartime. The geographic location of British territory was also an advantage as it included both Ireland on the east side of the Atlantic Ocean and Newfoundland in North America on the west side, making for the shortest route across the ocean, which reduced costs significantly. </p><p>A few facts put this dominance of the industry in perspective. In 1896, there were 30 cable-laying ships in the world, 24 of which were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy197110_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy197110-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cable_to_India,_Singapore,_East_Asia_and_Australia"><span id="Cable_to_India.2C_Singapore.2C_East_Asia_and_Australia"></span>Cable to India, Singapore, East Asia and Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cable to India, Singapore, East Asia and Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1901_Eastern_Telegraph_cables.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1901_Eastern_Telegraph_cables.png/250px-1901_Eastern_Telegraph_cables.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1901_Eastern_Telegraph_cables.png/375px-1901_Eastern_Telegraph_cables.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1901_Eastern_Telegraph_cables.png/500px-1901_Eastern_Telegraph_cables.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1458" /></a><figcaption>Eastern Telegraph Company network in 1901. Dotted lines across the Pacific indicate planned cables laid in 1902–03.</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, British cable expanded eastward, into the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. An 1863 cable to Bombay (now <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>), India, provided a crucial link to <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1870, Bombay was linked to London via submarine cable in a combined operation by four cable companies, at the behest of the British Government. In 1872, these four companies were combined to form the mammoth globe-spanning <a href="/wiki/Cable_%26_Wireless_plc" title="Cable & Wireless plc">Eastern Telegraph Company</a>, owned by <a href="/wiki/John_Pender" title="John Pender">John Pender</a>. A spin-off from Eastern Telegraph Company was a second sister company, the Eastern Extension, China and Australasia Telegraph Company, commonly known simply as "the Extension." In 1872, Australia was linked by cable to Bombay via Singapore and China and in 1876, the cable linked the British Empire from London to New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Submarine_cables_across_the_Pacific">Submarine cables across the Pacific</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Submarine cables across the Pacific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first trans-Pacific cables providing telegraph service were completed in 1902 and 1903, linking the US mainland to <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> in 1902 and <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji were also linked in 1902 with the trans-Pacific segment of the <a href="/wiki/All_Red_Line" title="All Red Line">All Red Line</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japan was connected into the system in 1906. Service beyond Midway Atoll was abandoned in 1941 due to World War II, but the remainder stayed in operation until 1951 when the FCC gave permission to cease operations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first trans-Pacific telephone cable was laid from Hawaii to Japan in 1964, with an extension from Guam to The Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 1964, the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Pacific_Cable_System" title="Commonwealth Pacific Cable System">Commonwealth Pacific Cable System</a> (COMPAC), with 80 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic from Sydney to Vancouver, and in 1967, the South East Asia Commonwealth (SEACOM) system, with 160 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic. This system used microwave radio from Sydney to Cairns (Queensland), cable running from <a href="/wiki/Cairns" title="Cairns">Cairns</a> to <a href="/wiki/Madang" title="Madang">Madang</a> (<a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>), <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kota_Kinabalu" title="Kota Kinabalu">Kota Kinabalu</a> (capital of <a href="/wiki/Sabah" title="Sabah">Sabah</a>, Malaysia), <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, then overland by microwave radio to <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a>. In 1991, the <a href="/wiki/NPC_(cable_system)" title="NPC (cable system)">North Pacific Cable system</a> was the first regenerative system (i.e., with <a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">repeaters</a>) to completely cross the Pacific from the US mainland to Japan. The US portion of NPC was manufactured in Portland, Oregon, from 1989 to 1991 at STC Submarine Systems, and later <a href="/wiki/Alcatel_Submarine_Networks" title="Alcatel Submarine Networks">Alcatel Submarine Networks</a>. The system was laid by Cable & Wireless Marine on the <i><a href="/wiki/Cable_Ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable Ship">CS</a> Cable Venture</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction">Construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01035,_New_York,_Verlegen_von_Unterseekabel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01035%2C_New_York%2C_Verlegen_von_Unterseekabel.jpg/250px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01035%2C_New_York%2C_Verlegen_von_Unterseekabel.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01035%2C_New_York%2C_Verlegen_von_Unterseekabel.jpg/375px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01035%2C_New_York%2C_Verlegen_von_Unterseekabel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01035%2C_New_York%2C_Verlegen_von_Unterseekabel.jpg/500px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-01035%2C_New_York%2C_Verlegen_von_Unterseekabel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Landing of an Italy-USA cable (4,704 nautical miles long), on <a href="/wiki/Rockaway_Beach,_Queens" title="Rockaway Beach, Queens">Rockaway Beach, Queens</a>, New York, January 1925.</figcaption></figure> <p>Transatlantic cables of the 19th century consisted of an outer layer of iron and later steel wire, wrapping India rubber, wrapping <a href="/wiki/Gutta-percha" title="Gutta-percha">gutta-percha</a>, which surrounded a multi-stranded copper wire at the core. The portions closest to each shore landing had additional protective armour wires. Gutta-percha, a natural polymer similar to rubber, had nearly ideal properties for insulating submarine cables, with the exception of a rather high <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a> constant which made cable <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitance</a> high. <a href="/wiki/William_Thomas_Henley" title="William Thomas Henley">William Thomas Henley</a> had developed a machine in 1837 for covering wires with silk or cotton thread that he developed into a wire wrapping capability for submarine cable with a factory in 1857 that became W.T. Henley's Telegraph Works Co., Ltd.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bright_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bright-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/India_Rubber,_Gutta_Percha_and_Telegraph_Works_Company" title="India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company">India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company</a>, established by the Silver family and giving that <a href="/wiki/Silvertown" title="Silvertown">name to a section of London</a>, furnished cores to Henley's as well as eventually making and laying finished cable.<sup id="cite_ref-Bright_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bright-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1870 <a href="/wiki/William_Hooper_(chemist)" title="William Hooper (chemist)">William Hooper</a> established <a href="/wiki/Hooper%27s_Telegraph_Works" title="Hooper's Telegraph Works">Hooper's Telegraph Works</a> to manufacture his patented <a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">vulcanized rubber</a> core, at first to furnish other makers of finished cable, that began to compete with the gutta-percha cores. The company later expanded into complete cable manufacture and cable laying, including the building of the first cable ship specifically designed to lay transatlantic cables.<sup id="cite_ref-Bright_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bright-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gutta-percha and rubber were not replaced as a cable insulation until <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> was introduced in the 1930s. Even then, the material was only available to the military and the first submarine cable using it was not laid until 1945 during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1920s, the American military experimented with rubber-insulated cables as an alternative to gutta-percha, since American interests controlled significant supplies of rubber but did not have easy access to gutta-percha manufacturers. The 1926 development by <a href="/wiki/John_T._Blake" title="John T. Blake">John T. Blake</a> of deproteinized rubber improved the impermeability of cables to water.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many early cables suffered from attack by sea life. The insulation could be eaten, for instance, by species of <a href="/wiki/Teredo_(bivalve)" title="Teredo (bivalve)"><i>Teredo</i></a> (shipworm) and <i><a href="/wiki/Xylophaga" title="Xylophaga">Xylophaga</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">Hemp</a> laid between the <a href="/wiki/Steel_wire_armoured_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel wire armoured cable">steel wire armouring</a> gave pests a route to eat their way in. Damaged armouring, which was not uncommon, also provided an entrance. Cases of <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a> biting cables and attacks by <a href="/wiki/Sawfish" title="Sawfish">sawfish</a> have been recorded. In one case in 1873, a whale damaged the Persian Gulf Cable between <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gwadar" title="Gwadar">Gwadar</a>. The whale was apparently attempting to use the cable to clean off <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacles</a> at a point where the cable descended over a steep drop. The unfortunate whale got its tail entangled in loops of cable and drowned. The cable repair ship <i>Amber Witch</i> was only able to winch up the cable with difficulty, weighed down as it was with the dead whale's body.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bandwidth_problems">Bandwidth problems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bandwidth problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early long-distance submarine telegraph cables exhibited formidable electrical problems. Unlike modern cables, the technology of the 19th century did not allow for in-line <a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">repeater</a> <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifiers</a> in the cable. Large <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltages</a> were used to attempt to overcome the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">electrical resistance</a> of their tremendous length but the cables' distributed <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">inductance</a> combined to distort the telegraph pulses in the line, reducing the cable's <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a>, severely limiting the <a href="/wiki/Bit_rate" title="Bit rate">data rate</a> for telegraph operation to 10–12 <a href="/wiki/Words_per_minute" title="Words per minute">words per minute</a>. </p><p>As early as 1816, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ronalds" title="Francis Ronalds">Francis Ronalds</a> had observed that electric signals were slowed in passing through an insulated wire or core laid underground, and outlined the cause to be induction, using the analogy of a long <a href="/wiki/Leyden_jar" title="Leyden jar">Leyden jar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same effect was noticed by <a href="/wiki/Latimer_Clark" class="mw-redirect" title="Latimer Clark">Latimer Clark</a> (1853) on cores immersed in water, and particularly on the lengthy cable between England and The Hague. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> showed that the effect was caused by capacitance between the wire and the <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)" title="Ground (electricity)">earth</a> (or water) surrounding it. Faraday had noticed that when a wire is charged from a battery (for example when pressing a telegraph key), the <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> in the wire induces an opposite charge in the water as it travels along. In 1831, Faraday described this effect in what is now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction" title="Faraday's law of induction">Faraday's law of induction</a>. As the two charges attract each other, the exciting charge is retarded. The core acts as a <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a> distributed along the length of the cable which, coupled with the resistance and <a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">inductance</a> of the cable, limits the speed at which a <a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signal</a> travels through the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction">conductor</a> of the cable. </p><p>Early cable designs failed to analyse these effects correctly. Famously, <a href="/wiki/E.O.W._Whitehouse" class="mw-redirect" title="E.O.W. Whitehouse">E.O.W. Whitehouse</a> had dismissed the problems and insisted that a transatlantic cable was feasible. When he subsequently became chief electrician of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Telegraph_Company" title="Atlantic Telegraph Company">Atlantic Telegraph Company</a>, he became involved in a public dispute with <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson</a>. Whitehouse believed that, with enough voltage, any cable could be driven. Thomson believed that his <a href="/wiki/Law_of_squares" title="Law of squares">law of squares</a> showed that retardation could not be overcome by a higher voltage. His recommendation was a larger cable. Because of the excessive voltages recommended by Whitehouse, Cyrus West Field's first transatlantic cable never worked reliably, and eventually <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">short circuited</a> to the ocean when Whitehouse increased the voltage beyond the cable design limit. </p><p>Thomson designed a complex electric-field generator that minimized current by <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonating</a> the cable, and a sensitive light-beam <a href="/wiki/Mirror_galvanometer" title="Mirror galvanometer">mirror galvanometer</a> for detecting the faint telegraph signals. Thomson became wealthy on the royalties of these, and several related inventions. Thomson was elevated to <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> for his contributions in this area, chiefly an accurate <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> of the cable, which permitted design of the equipment for accurate telegraphy. The effects of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity" title="Atmospheric electricity">atmospheric electricity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetic field">geomagnetic field</a> on submarine cables also motivated many of the <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">early polar expeditions</a>. </p><p>Thomson had produced a mathematical analysis of propagation of electrical signals into telegraph cables based on their capacitance and resistance, but since long submarine cables operated at slow rates, he did not include the effects of inductance. By the 1890s, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a> had produced the modern general form of the <a href="/wiki/Telegrapher%27s_equations" title="Telegrapher's equations">telegrapher's equations</a>, which included the effects of inductance and which were essential to extending the theory of <a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">transmission lines</a> to the higher <a href="/wiki/Frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequencies">frequencies</a> required for high-speed data and voice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transatlantic_telephony">Transatlantic telephony</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Transatlantic telephony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submarine_Telephone_Cables_PICT8182_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Submarine_Telephone_Cables_PICT8182_1.JPG/220px-Submarine_Telephone_Cables_PICT8182_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Submarine_Telephone_Cables_PICT8182_1.JPG/330px-Submarine_Telephone_Cables_PICT8182_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Submarine_Telephone_Cables_PICT8182_1.JPG/440px-Submarine_Telephone_Cables_PICT8182_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1958" data-file-height="1468" /></a><figcaption>Submarine communication cables crossing the Scottish shore at Scad Head on <a href="/wiki/Hoy,_Orkney" title="Hoy, Orkney">Hoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>While laying a transatlantic telephone cable was seriously considered from the 1920s, the technology required for economically feasible telecommunications was not developed until the 1940s. A first attempt to lay a "<a href="/wiki/Pupinize" class="mw-redirect" title="Pupinize">pupinized</a>" telephone cable—one with loading coils added at regular intervals—failed in the early 1930s due to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/TAT-1" title="TAT-1">TAT-1</a> (Transatlantic No. 1) was the first <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telephone_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Transatlantic telephone cable">transatlantic telephone cable</a> system. Between 1955 and 1956, cable was laid between Gallanach Bay, near <a href="/wiki/Oban" title="Oban">Oban</a>, Scotland and <a href="/wiki/Clarenville,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarenville, Newfoundland and Labrador">Clarenville, Newfoundland and Labrador</a>, in Canada. It was inaugurated on September 25, 1956, initially carrying 36 telephone channels. </p><p>In the 1960s, transoceanic cables were <a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">coaxial cables</a> that transmitted <a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">frequency-multiplexed voiceband signals</a>. A high-voltage direct current on the inner conductor powered repeaters (two-way amplifiers placed at intervals along the cable). The first-generation repeaters remain among the most reliable <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> amplifiers ever designed.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later ones were transistorized. Many of these cables are still usable, but have been abandoned because their capacity is too small to be commercially viable. Some have been used as scientific instruments to measure earthquake waves and other geomagnetic events.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_uses">Other uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1942, <a href="/wiki/Siemens_Brothers" title="Siemens Brothers">Siemens Brothers</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Charlton" class="mw-redirect" title="New Charlton">New Charlton</a>, London, in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK">National Physical Laboratory</a>, adapted submarine communications cable technology to create the world's first submarine oil pipeline in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pluto" title="Operation Pluto">Operation Pluto</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. </p><p>Active fiber-optic cables may be useful in detecting seismic events which alter cable polarization.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_telecommunications_cables">Optical telecommunications cables</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Optical telecommunications cables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.submarinecablemap.com/">Map</a> of sea cables (regularly updated)</td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submarine_cable_map_umap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Submarine_cable_map_umap.png/300px-Submarine_cable_map_umap.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Submarine_cable_map_umap.png/450px-Submarine_cable_map_umap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Submarine_cable_map_umap.png/600px-Submarine_cable_map_umap.png 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>World map showing submarine cables in 2015</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber-optic cables</a> were developed. The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was <a href="/wiki/TAT-8" title="TAT-8">TAT-8</a>, which went into operation in 1988. A fiber-optic cable comprises multiple pairs of fibers. Each pair has one fiber in each direction. TAT-8 had two operational pairs and one backup pair. Except for very short lines, fiber-optic submarine cables include repeaters at regular intervals. </p><p>Modern optical fiber repeaters use a solid-state <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a>, usually an <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier#Doped_fiber_amplifiers" title="Optical amplifier">erbium-doped fiber amplifier</a> (EDFA). Each repeater contains separate equipment for each fiber. These comprise signal reforming, error measurement and controls. A solid-state laser dispatches the signal into the next length of fiber. The solid-state laser excites a short length of doped fiber that itself acts as a laser amplifier. As the light passes through the fiber, it is amplified. This system also permits <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">wavelength-division multiplexing</a>, which dramatically increases the capacity of the fiber. EDFA amplifiers were first used in submarine cables in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Repeaters are powered by a constant direct current passed down the conductor near the centre of the cable, so all repeaters in a cable are in series. Power feed equipment is installed at the terminal stations. Typically both ends share the current generation with one end providing a positive voltage and the other a negative voltage. A <a href="/wiki/Virtual_ground" title="Virtual ground">virtual earth</a> point exists roughly halfway along the cable under normal operation. The amplifiers or repeaters derive their power from the potential difference across them. The voltage passed down the cable is often anywhere from 3000 to 15,000VDC at a current of up to 1,100mA, with the current increasing with decreasing voltage; the current at 10,000VDC is up to 1,650mA. Hence the total amount of power sent into the cable is often up to 16.5 kW.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The optic fiber used in undersea cables is chosen for its exceptional clarity, permitting runs of more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) between repeaters to minimize the number of amplifiers and the distortion they cause. Unrepeated cables are cheaper than repeated cables and their maximum transmission distance is limited, although this has increased over the years; in 2014 unrepeated cables of up to 380 kilometres (240 mi) in length were in service; however these require unpowered repeaters to be positioned every 100 km.<sup id="cite_ref-art_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-art-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submarine_cable_repeater_SVG.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Submarine_cable_repeater_SVG.svg/300px-Submarine_cable_repeater_SVG.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Submarine_cable_repeater_SVG.svg/450px-Submarine_cable_repeater_SVG.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Submarine_cable_repeater_SVG.svg/600px-Submarine_cable_repeater_SVG.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of an optical submarine cable repeater</figcaption></figure> <p>The rising demand for these fiber-optic cables outpaced the capacity of providers such as AT&T.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (June 2014)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> Having to shift traffic to satellites resulted in lower-quality signals. To address this issue, AT&T had to improve its cable-laying abilities. It invested $100 million in producing two specialized fiber-optic cable laying vessels. These included laboratories in the ships for splicing cable and testing its electrical properties. Such field monitoring is important because the glass of fiber-optic cable is less malleable than the copper cable that had been formerly used. The ships are equipped with <a href="/wiki/Bow_thruster" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow thruster">thrusters</a> that increase maneuverability. This capability is important because fiber-optic cable must be laid straight from the stern, which was another factor that copper-cable-laying ships did not have to contend with.<sup id="cite_ref-keith_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keith-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally, submarine cables were simple point-to-point connections. With the development of <a href="/wiki/Submarine_branching_unit" title="Submarine branching unit">submarine branching units</a> (SBUs), more than one destination could be served by a single cable system. Modern cable systems now usually have their fibers arranged in a <a href="/wiki/Self-healing_ring" title="Self-healing ring">self-healing ring</a> to increase their redundancy, with the submarine sections following different paths on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">ocean floor</a>. One reason for this development was that the capacity of cable systems had become so large that it was not possible to completely back up a cable system with satellite capacity, so it became necessary to provide sufficient terrestrial backup capability. Not all telecommunications organizations wish to take advantage of this capability, so modern cable systems may have dual <a href="/wiki/Cable_landing_point" title="Cable landing point">landing points</a> in some countries (where back-up capability is required) and only single landing points in other countries where back-up capability is either not required, the capacity to the country is small enough to be backed up by other means, or having backup is regarded as too expensive. </p><p>A further redundant-path development over and above the self-healing rings approach is the <a href="/wiki/Mesh_networking" title="Mesh networking">mesh network</a> whereby fast switching equipment is used to transfer services between network paths with little to no effect on higher-level protocols if a path becomes inoperable. As more paths become available to use between two points, it is less likely that one or two simultaneous failures will prevent end-to-end service. </p><p>As of 2012, operators had "successfully demonstrated long-term, error-free transmission at 100 Gbps across Atlantic Ocean" routes of up to 6,000 km (3,700 mi),<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning a typical cable can move tens of <a href="/wiki/Terabits" class="mw-redirect" title="Terabits">terabits</a> per second overseas. Speeds improved rapidly in the previous few years, with 40 Gbit/s having been offered on that route only three years earlier in August 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Switching and all-by-sea routing commonly increases the distance and thus the round trip latency by more than 50%. For example, the round trip delay (RTD) or latency of the fastest transatlantic connections is under 60 ms, close to the theoretical optimum for an all-sea route. While in theory, a <a href="/wiki/Great_circle_route" class="mw-redirect" title="Great circle route">great circle route</a> (GCP) between London and New York City is only 5,600 km (3,500 mi),<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this requires several land masses (<a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island" title="Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a> and the isthmus connecting <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>) to be traversed, as well as the extremely tidal <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy" title="Bay of Fundy">Bay of Fundy</a> and a land route along <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>' north shore from <a href="/wiki/Gloucester,_Massachusetts" title="Gloucester, Massachusetts">Gloucester</a> to <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and through fairly built up areas to <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a> itself. In theory, using this partial land route could result in round trip times below 40 ms (which is the speed of light minimum time), and not counting switching. Along routes with less land in the way, round trip times can approach <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> minimums in the long term. </p><p>The type of optical fiber used in unrepeated and very long cables is often PCSF (pure silica core) due to its low loss of 0.172 dB per kilometer when carrying a 1550 nm wavelength laser light. The large chromatic dispersion of PCSF means that its use requires transmission and receiving equipment designed with this in mind; this property can also be used to reduce interference when transmitting multiple channels through a single fiber using <a href="/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">wavelength division multiplexing</a> (WDM), which allows for multiple optical carrier channels to be transmitted through a single fiber, each carrying its own information.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> WDM is limited by the optical bandwidth of the amplifiers used to transmit data through the cable and by the spacing between the frequencies of the optical carriers; however this minimum spacing is also limited, with the minimum spacing often being 50 GHz (0.4 nm). The use of WDM can reduce the maximum length of the cable although this can be overcome by designing equipment with this in mind. </p><p>Optical post amplifiers, used to increase the strength of the signal generated by the optical transmitter often use a diode-pumped erbium-doped fiber laser. The diode is often a high power 980 or 1480 nm laser diode. This setup allows for an amplification of up to +24dBm in an affordable manner. Using an erbium-ytterbium doped fiber instead allows for a gain of +33dBm, however again the amount of power that can be fed into the fiber is limited. In single carrier configurations the dominating limitation is self phase modulation induced by the <a href="/wiki/Kerr_effect" title="Kerr effect">Kerr effect</a> which limits the amplification to +18 dBm per fiber. In WDM configurations the limitation due to crossphase modulation becomes predominant instead. Optical pre-amplifiers are often used to negate the thermal noise of the receiver. Pumping the pre-amplifier with a 980 nm laser leads to a noise of at most 3.5 dB, with a noise of 5 dB usually obtained with a 1480 nm laser. The noise has to be filtered using optical filters. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Raman_amplification" title="Raman amplification">Raman amplification</a> can be used to extend the reach or the capacity of an unrepeatered cable, by launching 2 frequencies into a single fiber; one carrying data signals at 1550 nm, and the other pumping them at 1450 nm. Launching a pump frequency (pump laser light) at a power of just one watt leads to an increase in reach of 45 km or a 6-fold increase in capacity. </p><p>Another way to increase the reach of a cable is by using unpowered repeaters called remote optical pre-amplifiers (ROPAs); these still make a cable count as unrepeatered since the repeaters do not require electrical power but they do require a pump laser light to be transmitted alongside the data carried by the cable; the pump light and the data are often transmitted in physically separate fibers. The ROPA contains a doped fiber that uses the pump light (often a 1480 nm laser light) to amplify the data signals carried on the rest of the fibers.<sup id="cite_ref-art_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-art-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>WDM or wavelength division multiplexing was first implemented in submarine fiber optic cables from the 1990s to the 2000s,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by DWDM or <a href="/wiki/Wavelength_division_multiplexing#Dense_WDM" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelength division multiplexing">dense wavelength division mulltiplexing</a> around 2007. Each fiber can carry 30 wavelengths at a time. SDM or spatial division multiplexing submarine cables have at least 12 fiber pairs which is an increase from the maximum of 8 pairs found in conventional submarine cables, and submarine cables with up to 24 fiber pairs have been deployed.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The type of modulation employed in a submarine cable can have a major impact in its capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SDM is combined with DWDM to improve capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The open cable concept allows for the design of a submarine cable independently of the transponders that will be used to transmit data through the cable.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SLTE (Submarine Line Terminal Equipment) has transponders and a ROADM (<a href="/wiki/Reconfigurable_optical_add-drop_multiplexer" title="Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer">Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer</a>) used for handling the signals in the cable<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> via software control. The ROADM is used to improve the reliability of the cable by allowing it to operate even if it has faults.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This equipment is located inside a cable landing station (CLS). C-OTDR (Coherent Optical Time Domain Reflectometry) is used in submarine cables to detect the location of cable faults.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wet plant of a submarine cable comprises the cable itself, branching units, repeaters and possibly OADMs (<a href="/wiki/Optical_add-drop_multiplexer" title="Optical add-drop multiplexer">Optical add-drop multiplexers</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Importance_of_submarine_cables">Importance of submarine cables</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Importance of submarine cables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Currently 99% of the data traffic that is crossing oceans is carried by undersea cables.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reliability of submarine cables is high, especially when (as noted above) multiple paths are available in the event of a cable break. Also, the total carrying capacity of submarine cables is in the <a href="/wiki/Terabits" class="mw-redirect" title="Terabits">terabits</a> per second, while satellites typically offer only 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Megabits" class="mw-redirect" title="Megabits">megabits</a> per second and display higher <a href="/wiki/Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)">latency</a>. However, a typical multi-terabit, transoceanic submarine cable system costs several hundred million dollars to construct.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of these cables' cost and usefulness, they are highly valued not only by the corporations building and operating them for profit, but also by national governments. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian government">Australian government</a> considers its submarine cable systems to be "vital to the national economy". Accordingly, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Communications_and_Media_Authority" title="Australian Communications and Media Authority">Australian Communications and Media Authority</a> (ACMA) has created protection zones that restrict activities that could potentially damage cables linking Australia to the rest of the world. The ACMA also regulates all projects to install new submarine cables.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Submarine cables are important to the modern military as well as private enterprise. The <a href="/wiki/US_military" class="mw-redirect" title="US military">US military</a>, for example, uses the submarine cable network for data transfer from conflict zones to command staff in the United States. Interruption of the cable network during intense operations could have direct consequences for the military on the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investment_and_finances">Investment and finances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Investment and finances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_undersea_cables_v44.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Modern fiber-optic cable around Africa's coast." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/African_undersea_cables_v44.jpg/220px-African_undersea_cables_v44.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/African_undersea_cables_v44.jpg/330px-African_undersea_cables_v44.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/African_undersea_cables_v44.jpg/440px-African_undersea_cables_v44.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2466" data-file-height="2332" /></a><figcaption>A map of active and anticipated submarine communications cables servicing the African continent in 2020.</figcaption></figure> <p>Almost all fiber-optic cables from TAT-8 in 1988 until approximately 1997 were constructed by consortia of operators. For example, TAT-8 counted 35 participants including most major international carriers at the time such as <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">AT&T Corporation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two privately financed, non-consortium cables were constructed in the late 1990s, which preceded a massive, speculative rush to construct privately financed cables that peaked in more than $22 billion worth of investment between 1999 and 2001. This was followed by the bankruptcy and reorganization of cable operators such as <a href="/wiki/Global_Crossing" title="Global Crossing">Global Crossing</a>, <a href="/wiki/360networks" title="360networks">360networks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiber-Optic_Link_Around_the_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe">FLAG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worldcom" class="mw-redirect" title="Worldcom">Worldcom</a>, and Asia Global Crossing. <a href="/wiki/Tata_Communications" title="Tata Communications">Tata Communications</a>' Global Network (TGN) is the only wholly owned fiber network circling the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most cables in the 20th century crossed the Atlantic Ocean, to connect the United States and Europe. However, capacity in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> was much expanded starting in the 1990s. For example, between 1998 and 2003, approximately 70% of undersea fiber-optic cable was laid in the Pacific. This is in part a response to the emerging significance of Asian markets in the global economy.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After decades of heavy investment in already developed markets such as the transatlantic and transpacific routes, efforts increased in the 21st century to expand the submarine cable network to serve the <a href="/wiki/Developing_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing World">developing world</a>. For instance, in July 2009, an underwater fiber-optic cable line plugged <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> into the broader Internet. The company that provided this new cable was <a href="/wiki/SEACOM_(African_cable_system)" title="SEACOM (African cable system)">SEACOM</a>, which is 75% owned by East African and South African investors.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project was delayed by a month due to increased <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a> along the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Investments in cables present a commercial risk because cables cover 6,200 km of ocean floor, cross submarine mountain ranges and rifts. Because of this most companies only purchase capacity after the cable is finished.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antarctica">Antarctica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Antarctica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> is the only continent not yet reached by a submarine telecommunications cable. Phone, video, and e-mail traffic must be relayed to the rest of the world via <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a> links that have limited availability and capacity. Bases on the continent itself are able to communicate with one another via <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, but this is only a local network. To be a viable alternative, a fiber-optic cable would have to be able to withstand temperatures of −80 °C (−112 °F) as well as massive strain from ice flowing up to 10 metres (33 ft) per year. Thus, plugging into the larger Internet backbone with the high bandwidth afforded by fiber-optic cable is still an as-yet infeasible economic and technical challenge in the Antarctic.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arctic">Arctic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Arctic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several projects are underway in the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> including 12,650 km "<a href="/wiki/Polar_Express_(cable_system)" title="Polar Express (cable system)">Polar Express</a>" <sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 14,500 km <a href="/wiki/Far_North_Fiber" title="Far North Fiber">Far North Fiber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cable_repair">Cable repair</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cable repair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Submarine_cable_repair_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Submarine_cable_repair_animation.gif/220px-Submarine_cable_repair_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Submarine_cable_repair_animation.gif/330px-Submarine_cable_repair_animation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Submarine_cable_repair_animation.gif/440px-Submarine_cable_repair_animation.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An animation showing a method used to repair submarine communications cables.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cables can be broken by <a href="/wiki/Trawling" title="Trawling">fishing trawlers</a>, anchors, earthquakes, <a href="/wiki/Turbidity_current" title="Turbidity current">turbidity currents</a>, and even shark bites.<sup id="cite_ref-dangerstocables_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dangerstocables-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on surveying breaks in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, it was found that between 1959 and 1996, fewer than 9% were due to natural events. In response to this threat to the communications network, the practice of cable burial has developed. The average incidence of cable faults was 3.7 per 1,000 km (620 mi) per year from 1959 to 1979. That rate was reduced to 0.44 faults per 1,000 km per year after 1985, due to widespread burial of cable starting in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, cable breaks are by no means a thing of the past, with more than 50 repairs a year in the Atlantic alone,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and significant breaks in <a href="/wiki/2006_Hengchun_earthquake#Disruption_in_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="2006 Hengchun earthquake">2006</a>, <a href="/wiki/2008_submarine_cable_disruption" title="2008 submarine cable disruption">2008</a>, 2009 and <a href="/wiki/2011_submarine_cable_disruption" title="2011 submarine cable disruption">2011</a>. </p><p>The propensity for fishing trawler nets to cause cable faults may well have been exploited during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. For example, in February 1959, a series of 12 breaks occurred in five American trans-Atlantic communications cables. In response, a United States naval vessel, the <a href="/wiki/USS_Roy_O._Hale_(DE-336)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Roy O. Hale (DE-336)">USS <i>Roy O. Hale</i></a>, detained and investigated the Soviet trawler <i>Novorosiysk</i>. A review of the ship's log indicated it had been in the region of each of the cables when they broke. Broken sections of cable were also found on the deck of the <i>Novorosiysk</i>. It appeared that the cables had been dragged along by the ship's nets, and then cut once they were pulled up onto the deck to release the nets. The Soviet Union's stance on the investigation was that it was unjustified, but the United States cited the <a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Submarine_Telegraph_Cables" title="Convention for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables">Convention for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables</a> of 1884 to which Russia had signed (prior to the formation of the Soviet Union) as evidence of violation of international protocol.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shore stations can locate a break in a cable by electrical measurements, such as through <a href="/wiki/Spread-spectrum_time-domain_reflectometry" title="Spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry">spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry</a> (SSTDR), a type of <a href="/wiki/Time-domain_reflectometer" title="Time-domain reflectometer">time-domain reflectometry</a> that can be used in live environments very quickly. Presently, SSTDR can collect a complete data set in 20 ms.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spread spectrum signals are sent down the wire and then the reflected signal is observed. It is then correlated with the copy of the sent signal and algorithms are applied to the shape and timing of the signals to locate the break. </p><p>A cable repair ship will be sent to the location to drop a marker buoy near the break. Several types of <a href="/wiki/Grapple_(tool)" title="Grapple (tool)">grapples</a> are used depending on the situation. If the sea bed in question is sandy, a grapple with rigid prongs is used to plough under the surface and catch the cable. If the cable is on a rocky sea surface, the grapple is more flexible, with hooks along its length so that it can adjust to the changing surface.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In especially deep water, the cable may not be strong enough to lift as a single unit, so a special grapple that cuts the cable soon after it has been hooked is used and only one length of cable is brought to the surface at a time, whereupon a new section is spliced in.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The repaired cable is longer than the original, so the excess is deliberately laid in a "U" shape on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Submersible" title="Submersible">submersible</a> can be used to repair cables that lie in shallower waters. </p><p>A number of ports near important cable routes became homes to specialized cable repair ships. <a href="/wiki/Halifax_Regional_Municipality" class="mw-redirect" title="Halifax Regional Municipality">Halifax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, was home to a half dozen such vessels for most of the 20th century including long-lived vessels such as the <a href="/wiki/Cable_Ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable Ship">CS</a> <i>Cyrus West Field</i>, CS <i>Minia</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/CS_Mackay-Bennett" title="CS Mackay-Bennett">CS Mackay-Bennett</a></i>. The latter two were contracted to recover victims from the <a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Titanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinking of the RMS Titanic">sinking of the RMS <i>Titanic</i></a>. The crews of these vessels developed many new techniques and devices to repair and improve cable laying, such as the "<a href="/wiki/Pipe-and-cable-laying_plough" title="Pipe-and-cable-laying plough">plough</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intelligence_gathering">Intelligence gathering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Intelligence gathering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Underwater cables, which cannot be kept under constant surveillance, have tempted intelligence-gathering organizations since the late 19th century. Frequently at the beginning of wars, nations have cut the cables of the other sides to redirect the information flow into cables that were being monitored. The most ambitious efforts occurred in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when British and German forces systematically attempted to destroy the others' worldwide communications systems by cutting their cables with surface ships or submarines.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> (NSA) succeeded in placing wire taps on Soviet underwater communication lines in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ivy_Bells" title="Operation Ivy Bells">Operation Ivy Bells</a>. In modern times, the widespread use of <a href="/wiki/End-to-end_encryption" title="End-to-end encryption">end-to-end encryption</a> minimizes the threat of wire tapping. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_impact">Environmental impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Environmental impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The presence of cables in the oceans can be a danger to marine life. With the proliferation of cable installations and the increasing demand for inter-connectivity that today's society demands, the environmental impact is increasing. </p><p>Submarine cables can impact <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a> in a number of ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alteration_of_the_seabed">Alteration of the seabed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Alteration of the seabed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seabed ecosystems can be disturbed by the installation and maintenance of cables. The effects of cable installation are generally limited to specific areas. The intensity of disturbance depends on the installation method. </p><p>Cables are often laid in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic zone</a> of the seabed. The <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic zone</a> is the ecological region at the bottom of the sea where benthos, clams and crabs live, and where the surface sediments, which are deposits of matter and particles in the water that provide a habitat for marine species, are located. </p><p>Sediment can be damaged by cable installation by trenching with water jets or ploughing. This can lead to reworking of the sediments, altering the substrate of which they are composed. </p><p>According to several studies, the biota of the benthic zone is only slightly affected by the presence of cables. However, the presence of cables can trigger behavioral disturbances in living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main observation is that the presence of cables provides a hard substrate for anemones attachment. These organisms are found in large number around cables that run through soft sediments, which are not normally suitable for these organisms. This is also the case for <a href="/wiki/Flatfish" title="Flatfish">flatfish</a>. Although little observed, the presence of cables can also change the water temperature and therefore disturb the surrounding natural habitat. </p><p>However, these disturbances are not very persistent over time, and can stabilize within a few days. Cable operators are trying to implement measures to route cables in such a way as to avoid areas with sensitive and vulnerable ecosystems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entanglement">Entanglement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Entanglement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Entanglement of marine animals in cables is one of the main causes of cable damage. Whales and sperm whales are the main animals that entangle themselves in cables and damage them. The encounter between these animals and cables can cause injury and sometimes death. Studies carried out between 1877 and 1955 reported 16 cable ruptures caused by whale entanglement, 13 of them by sperm whales. Between 1907 and 2006, 39 such events were recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cable burial techniques are gradually being introduced to prevent such incidents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_risk_of_fishing">The risk of fishing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The risk of fishing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although submarine cables are located on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>, fishing activity can damage the cables. Fishermen using fishing techniques that involve scraping the seabed, or dragging equipment such as trawls or cages, can damage the cables, resulting in the loss of liquids and the chemical and toxic materials that make up the cables. </p><p>Areas with a high density of submarine cables have the advantage of being safer from fishing. At the expense of benthic and sedimentary zones, marine fauna is better protected in these maritime regions, thanks to limitations and bans. Studies have shown a positive effect on the fauna surrounding cable installation zones.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution">Pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Submarine cables are made of copper or <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fibers</a>, surrounded by several protective layers of plastic, wire or synthetic materials. Cables can also be composed of dielectric fluids or <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> fluids, which act as electrical insulators. These substances can be harmful to marine life.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fishing, aging cables and marine species that collide with or become entangled in cables can damage cables and spread toxic and harmful substances into the sea. However, the impact of submarine cables is limited compared with other sources of ocean pollution. </p><p>There is also a risk of releasing pollutants buried in sediments. When sediments are re-suspended due to the installation of cables, toxic substances such as hydrocarbons may be released. </p><p>Preliminary analyses can assess the level of sediment toxicity and select a cable route that avoids the remobilization and dispersion of sediment pollutants. And new, more modern techniques will make it possible to use less polluting materials for cable construction.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound_waves_and_electromagnetic_waves">Sound waves and electromagnetic waves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sound waves and electromagnetic waves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The installation and maintenance of cables requires the use of machinery and equipment that can trigger sound waves or electromagnetic waves that can disturb animals that use waves to find their bearings in space or to communicate. Underwater sound waves depend on the equipment used, the characteristics of the seabed area where the cables are located, and the relief of the area.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Underwater noise and waves can modify the behavior of certain underwater species, such as migratory behavior, disrupting communication or reproduction. Available information is that underwater noise generated by submarine cable engineering operations has limited acoustic footprint and limited duration.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathometer" title="Bathometer">Bathometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_layer" title="Cable layer">Cable layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_landing_point" title="Cable landing point">Cable landing point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_domestic_submarine_communications_cables" title="List of domestic submarine communications cables">List of domestic submarine communications cables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_submarine_communications_cables" title="List of international submarine communications cables">List of international submarine communications cables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loading_coil#Loaded_submarine_cable" title="Loading coil">Loaded submarine cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_power_cable" title="Submarine power cable">Submarine power cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_communications_cable" title="Transatlantic communications cable">Transatlantic communications cable</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anton A. Huurdeman, <i>The Worldwide History of Telecommunications</i>, pp. 136–140, John Wiley & Sons, 2003 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471205052" title="Special:BookSources/0471205052">0471205052</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160526231647/http://www.techteledata.com/how-submarine-cables-are-made-laid-operated-and-repaired/">"How Submarine Cables are Made, Laid, Operated and Repaired"</a>, TechTeleData</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-images/Technology/Pix/pictures/2008/02/01/SeaCableHi.jpg">"The internet's undersea world"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101223170755/http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-images/Technology/Pix/pictures/2008/02/01/SeaCableHi.jpg">Archived</a> 2010-12-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – annotated image, <i>The Guardian</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201131615/http://www.globusz.com/ebooks/Telegraph/00000013.htm">"[Heroes of the Telegraph – Chapter III. – Samuel Morse]"</a>. <i>Globusz</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globusz.com/ebooks/Telegraph/00000013.htm">the original</a> on 2008-12-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Globusz&rft.atitle=%5BHeroes+of+the+Telegraph+%E2%80%93+Chapter+III.+%E2%80%93+Samuel+Morse%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globusz.com%2Febooks%2FTelegraph%2F00000013.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120709103139/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_morse_timeline1.htm">"Timeline – Biography of Samuel Morse"</a>. Inventors.about.com. October 30, 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_morse_timeline1.htm">the original</a> on 2012-07-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Timeline+%E2%80%93+Biography+of+Samuel+Morse&rft.pub=Inventors.about.com&rft.date=2009-10-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finventors.about.com%2Flibrary%2Finventors%2Fbl_morse_timeline1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haigh-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haigh_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaigh1968" class="citation book cs1">Haigh, Kenneth Richardson (1968). <i>Cable Ships and Submarine Cables</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Adlard_Coles" class="mw-redirect" title="Adlard Coles">Adlard Coles</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780229973637" title="Special:BookSources/9780229973637"><bdi>9780229973637</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cable+Ships+and+Submarine+Cables&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Adlard+Coles&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9780229973637&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Richardson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuarnieri2014" class="citation journal cs1">Guarnieri, M. (2014). "The Conquest of the Atlantic". <i>IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 53–56/67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2299492">10.1109/MIE.2014.2299492</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41662509">41662509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Industrial+Electronics+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Conquest+of+the+Atlantic&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-56%2F67&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2299492&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41662509%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guarnieri&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"C William Siemens". <i>The Practical Magazine</i>. <b>5</b> (10): 219. 1875.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Practical+Magazine&rft.atitle=C+William+Siemens&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=219&rft.date=1875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The company is referred to as the English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brett-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brett_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrett1857" class="citation journal cs1">Brett, John Watkins (March 18, 1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130517155316/http://www.atlantic-cable.com/Article/Brett/index.htm">"On the Submarine Telegraph"</a>. <i>Royal Institution of Great Britain: Proceedings: Vol. II, 1854–1858</i> (transcript). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlantic-cable.com/Article/Brett/index.htm">the original</a> on 2013-05-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-05-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Royal+Institution+of+Great+Britain%3A+Proceedings%3A+Vol.+II%2C+1854%E2%80%931858&rft.atitle=On+the+Submarine+Telegraph&rft.date=1857-03-18&rft.aulast=Brett&rft.aufirst=John+Watkins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlantic-cable.com%2FArticle%2FBrett%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers</i>. p. 26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minutes+of+Proceedings+of+the+Institution+of+Civil+Engineers&rft.pages=26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Andrew2018" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Andrew (2018). <i>The Secret World: A History of Intelligence</i>. Penguin Books Limited. p. ccxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241305225" title="Special:BookSources/9780241305225"><bdi>9780241305225</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+World%3A+A+History+of+Intelligence&rft.pages=ccxiii&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780241305225&rft.au=Christopher+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kennedy197110-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy197110_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kennedy197110_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy,_P._M.1971" class="citation journal cs1">Kennedy, P. M. (October 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1971-10_86_341/page/728">"Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870–1914"</a>. <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>86</b> (341): 728–752. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Flxxxvi.cccxli.728">10.1093/ehr/lxxxvi.cccxli.728</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/563928">563928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Imperial+Cable+Communications+and+Strategy%2C+1870%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=341&rft.pages=728-752&rft.date=1971-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2Flxxxvi.cccxli.728&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F563928%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+P.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_english-historical-review_1971-10_86_341%2Fpage%2F728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, <i>In Spies We Trust: The Story of Western Intelligence</i>, page 43, Oxford University Press, 2013 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199580979" title="Special:BookSources/0199580979">0199580979</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Reed Winkler, <i>Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I</i>, pages 5–6, 289, Harvard University Press, 2008 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674033906" title="Special:BookSources/0674033906">0674033906</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Headrick, D.R., & Griset, P. (2001). "Submarine Telegraph Cables: Business and Politics, 1838–1939". <i>The Business History Review</i>, 75(3), 543–578.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080203/jsp/frontpage/story_8856997.jsp">"The Telegraph – Calcutta (Kolkata) | Frontpage | Third cable cut, but India's safe"</a>. Telegraphindia.com. February 3, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100903041957/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080203/jsp/frontpage/story_8856997.jsp">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-09-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Telegraph+%E2%80%93+Calcutta+%28Kolkata%29+%26%23124%3B+Frontpage+%26%23124%3B+Third+cable+cut%2C+but+India%27s+safe&rft.date=2008-02-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraphindia.com%2F1080203%2Fjsp%2Ffrontpage%2Fstory_8856997.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Landing the New Zealand cable", pg 3, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nelson_Mail" title="The Nelson Mail">The Colonist</a></i>, 19 February 1876</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brainyhistory.com/events/1903/july_4_1903_69271.html">"Pacific Cable (SF, Hawaii, Guam, Phil) opens, President TR sends message July 4 in History"</a>. Brainyhistory.com. July 4, 1903<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pacific+Cable+%28SF%2C+Hawaii%2C+Guam%2C+Phil%29+opens%2C+President+TR+sends+message+July+4+in+History&rft.pub=Brainyhistory.com&rft.date=1903-07-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brainyhistory.com%2Fevents%2F1903%2Fjuly_4_1903_69271.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140720185110/http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/australia-australie/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/history-histoire.aspx?lang=eng">"History of Canada-Australia Relations"</a>. Government of Canada. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/australia-australie/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/history-histoire.aspx?lang=eng">the original</a> on 2014-07-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-07-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Canada-Australia+Relations&rft.pub=Government+of+Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.canadainternational.gc.ca%2Faustralia-australie%2Fbilateral_relations_bilaterales%2Fhistory-histoire.aspx%3Flang%3Deng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atlantic-cable.com/CableCos/ComPacCable">"The Commercial Pacific Cable Company"</a>. <i>atlantic-cable.com</i>. Atlantic Cable. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160927110415/http://atlantic-cable.com/CableCos/ComPacCable">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-09-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=atlantic-cable.com&rft.atitle=The+Commercial+Pacific+Cable+Company&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatlantic-cable.com%2FCableCos%2FComPacCable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160927020609/http://ethw.org/Milestones:TPC-1_Transpacific_Cable_System,_1964">"Milestones:TPC-1 Transpacific Cable System, 1964"</a>. <i>ethw.org</i>. Engineering and Technology History WIKI. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ethw.org/Milestones:TPC-1_Transpacific_Cable_System,_1964">the original</a> on 2016-09-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ethw.org&rft.atitle=Milestones%3ATPC-1+Transpacific+Cable+System%2C+1964&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fethw.org%2FMilestones%3ATPC-1_Transpacific_Cable_System%2C_1964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co44548">"Machine used for covering wires with silk and cotton, 1837"</a>. The Science Museum Group<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Machine+used+for+covering+wires+with+silk+and+cotton%2C+1837&rft.pub=The+Science+Museum+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk%2Fobjects%2Fco44548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bright-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bright_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bright_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bright_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBright1898" class="citation book cs1">Bright, Charles (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3DfeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA157"><i>Submarine telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working</i></a>. London: C. Lockwood and son. pp. 125, 157–160, 337–339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108069489" title="Special:BookSources/9781108069489"><bdi>9781108069489</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/08003683">08003683</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Submarine+telegraphs%3A+Their+History%2C+Construction%2C+and+Working&rft.place=London&rft.pages=125%2C+157-160%2C+337-339&rft.pub=C.+Lockwood+and+son&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F08003683&rft.isbn=9781108069489&rft.aulast=Bright&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3DfeAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlover2019" class="citation web cs1">Glover, Bill (February 7, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://atlantic-cable.com/Cableships/Silvertown/index.htm">"History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications—CS Hooper/Silvertown"</a>. The Atlantic Cable<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Atlantic+Cable+%26+Undersea+Communications%E2%80%94CS+Hooper%2FSilvertown&rft.pub=The+Atlantic+Cable&rft.date=2019-02-07&rft.aulast=Glover&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fatlantic-cable.com%2FCableships%2FSilvertown%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlover2019" class="citation web cs1">Glover, Bill (December 22, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://atlantic-cable.com/CableCos/BritishMfrs/index.htm">"History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications—British Submarine Cable Manufacturing Companies"</a>. The Atlantic Cable<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Atlantic+Cable+%26+Undersea+Communications%E2%80%94British+Submarine+Cable+Manufacturing+Companies&rft.pub=The+Atlantic+Cable&rft.date=2019-12-22&rft.aulast=Glover&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fatlantic-cable.com%2FCableCos%2FBritishMfrs%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ash, Stewart, "The development of submarine cables", ch. 1 in, Burnett, Douglas R.; Beckman, Robert; Davenport, Tara M., <i>Submarine Cables: The Handbook of Law and Policy</i>, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2014 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004260320" title="Special:BookSources/9789004260320">9789004260320</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlakeBoggs,_C._R.1926" class="citation journal cs1">Blake, J. T.; Boggs, C. R. (1926). "The Absorption of Water by Rubber". <i>Industrial & Engineering Chemistry</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 224–232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fie50195a002">10.1021/ie50195a002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+%26+Engineering+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+Absorption+of+Water+by+Rubber.&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=224-232&rft.date=1926&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fie50195a002&rft.aulast=Blake&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rft.au=Boggs%2C+C.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_hwAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA311">"On Accidents to Submarine Cables"</a>, <i>Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers</i>, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 311–313, 1873</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonalds2016" class="citation book cs1">Ronalds, B.F. (2016). <i>Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph</i>. London: Imperial College Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4"><bdi>978-1-78326-917-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Francis+Ronalds%3A+Father+of+the+Electric+Telegraph&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78326-917-4&rft.aulast=Ronalds&rft.aufirst=B.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonalds2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ronalds, B.F. (February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.3079">"The Bicentennial of Francis Ronalds's Electric Telegraph"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>69</b> (2): 26–31. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PhT....69b..26R">2016PhT....69b..26R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.3079">10.1063/PT.3.3079</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=The+Bicentennial+of+Francis+Ronalds%27s+Electric+Telegraph&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=26-31&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2FPT.3.3079&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016PhT....69b..26R&rft.aulast=Ronalds&rft.aufirst=B.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252FPT.3.3079&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071213042957/http://www.iscpc.org/information/Timeline_History.htm">"Learn About Submarine Cables"</a>. International Submarine Cable Protection Committee. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iscpc.org/information/Timeline_History.htm">the original</a> on 2007-12-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Learn+About+Submarine+Cables&rft.pub=International+Submarine+Cable+Protection+Committee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iscpc.org%2Finformation%2FTimeline_History.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span>. From this page: In 1966, after ten years of service, the 1,608 tubes in the repeaters had not suffered a single failure. In fact, after more than 100 million tube-hours over all, AT&T undersea repeaters were without failure.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler,_R.A._D._ChaveF._K._DuennebierD._R._Yoerger" class="citation web cs1">Butler, R.; A. D. Chave; F. K. Duennebier; D. R. Yoerger; R. Petitt; D. Harris; F.B. Wooding; A. D. Bowen; J. Bailey; J. Jolly; E. Hobart; J. A. Hildebrand; A. H. Dodeman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whoi.edu/science/GG/DSO/H2O/EOSarticle/H2O_article_revised_9.pdf">"The Hawaii-2 Observatory (H2O)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080226234700/http://www.whoi.edu/science/GG/DSO/H2O/EOSarticle/H2O_article_revised_9.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2008-02-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hawaii-2+Observatory+%28H2O%29&rft.au=Butler%2C+R.&rft.au=A.+D.+Chave&rft.au=F.+K.+Duennebier&rft.au=D.+R.+Yoerger&rft.au=R.+Petitt&rft.au=D.+Harris&rft.au=F.B.+Wooding&rft.au=A.+D.+Bowen&rft.au=J.+Bailey&rft.au=J.+Jolly&rft.au=E.+Hobart&rft.au=J.+A.+Hildebrand&rft.au=A.+H.+Dodeman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoi.edu%2Fscience%2FGG%2FDSO%2FH2O%2FEOSarticle%2FH2O_article_revised_9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhan2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zhan, Zhongwen (February 26, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe6648">"Optical polarization–based seismic and water wave sensing on transoceanic cables"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>371</b> (6532): 931–936. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Sci...371..931Z">2021Sci...371..931Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abe6648">10.1126/science.abe6648</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33632843">33632843</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232050549">232050549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Optical+polarization%E2%80%93based+seismic+and+water+wave+sensing+on+transoceanic+cables&rft.volume=371&rft.issue=6532&rft.pages=931-936&rft.date=2021-02-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abe6648&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232050549%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33632843&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Sci...371..931Z&rft.aulast=Zhan&rft.aufirst=Zhongwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abe6648&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaulknerHarmer1999" class="citation book cs1">Faulkner, D. W.; Harmer, Alan (May 10, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rutYPgFCwaUC&dq=submarine+wet+plant&pg=PA163"><i>Core Networks and Network Management</i></a>. IOS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5199-497-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5199-497-1"><bdi>978-90-5199-497-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Core+Networks+and+Network+Management&rft.pub=IOS+Press&rft.date=1999-05-10&rft.isbn=978-90-5199-497-1&rft.aulast=Faulkner&rft.aufirst=D.+W.&rft.au=Harmer%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrutYPgFCwaUC%26dq%3Dsubmarine%2Bwet%2Bplant%26pg%3DPA163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2009" class="citation web cs1">Morris, Michael (April 19, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.networkworld.com/article/2235353/the-incredible-international-submarine-cable-systems.html">"The Incredible International Submarine Cable Systems"</a>. <i>Network World</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Network+World&rft.atitle=The+Incredible+International+Submarine+Cable+Systems&rft.date=2009-04-19&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2235353%2Fthe-incredible-international-submarine-cable-systems.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanekoChibaKunimiNakamura2010" class="citation conference cs1">Kaneko, Tomoyuki; Chiba, Yoshinori; Kunimi, Kaneaki; Nakamura, Tomotaka (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808071549/https://www.suboptic.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/255_Poster_EC_04.pdf"><i>Very Compact and High Voltage Power Feeding Equipment (PFE) for Advanced Submarine Cable Network</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. SubOptic. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.suboptic.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/255_Poster_EC_04.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Very+Compact+and+High+Voltage+Power+Feeding+Equipment+%28PFE%29+for+Advanced+Submarine+Cable+Network&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Kaneko&rft.aufirst=Tomoyuki&rft.au=Chiba%2C+Yoshinori&rft.au=Kunimi%2C+Kaneaki&rft.au=Nakamura%2C+Tomotaka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.suboptic.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F10%2F255_Poster_EC_04.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-art-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-art_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-art_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTranvouezBrandonFullenbaumBousselet" class="citation conference cs1">Tranvouez, Nicolas; Brandon, Eric; Fullenbaum, Marc; Bousselet, Philippe; Brylski, Isabelle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808070142/https://www.suboptic.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/We2.19.pdf"><i>Unrepeatered Systems: State of the Art Capability</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.suboptic.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/We2.19.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Unrepeatered+Systems%3A+State+of+the+Art+Capability&rft.aulast=Tranvouez&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft.au=Brandon%2C+Eric&rft.au=Fullenbaum%2C+Marc&rft.au=Bousselet%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Brylski%2C+Isabelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.suboptic.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F10%2FWe2.19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-keith-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-keith_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradsher1990" class="citation news cs1">Bradsher, Keith (August 15, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/15/business/business-technology-new-fiber-optic-cable-will-expand-calls-abroad-defy-sharks.html">"New Fiber-Optic Cable Will Expand Calls Abroad, and Defy Sharks"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=New+Fiber-Optic+Cable+Will+Expand+Calls+Abroad%2C+and+Defy+Sharks&rft.date=1990-08-15&rft.aulast=Bradsher&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F08%2F15%2Fbusiness%2Fbusiness-technology-new-fiber-optic-cable-will-expand-calls-abroad-defy-sharks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120622130600/http://submarinenetworks.com/systems/trans-atlantic/hibernia-atlantic/hibernia-atlantic-trials-100g-transatlantic">"Submarine Cable Networks – Hibernia Atlantic Trials the First 100G Transatlantic"</a>. Submarinenetworks.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.submarinenetworks.com/systems/trans-atlantic/hibernia-atlantic/hibernia-atlantic-trials-100g-transatlantic">the original</a> on 2012-06-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Submarine+Cable+Networks+%E2%80%93+Hibernia+Atlantic+Trials+the+First+100G+Transatlantic&rft.pub=Submarinenetworks.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.submarinenetworks.com%2Fsystems%2Ftrans-atlantic%2Fhibernia-atlantic%2Fhibernia-atlantic-trials-100g-transatlantic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lightreading.com/document.asp?doc_id=180473">"Light Reading Europe – Optical Networking – Hibernia Offers Cross-Atlantic 40G – Telecom News Wire"</a>. Lightreading.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120729194852/http://www.lightreading.com/document.asp?doc_id=180473">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-07-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Light+Reading+Europe+%E2%80%93+Optical+Networking+%E2%80%93+Hibernia+Offers+Cross-Atlantic+40G+%E2%80%93+Telecom+News+Wire&rft.pub=Lightreading.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lightreading.com%2Fdocument.asp%3Fdoc_id%3D180473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120725194235/http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=NYC-LCY&DU=km">"Great Circle Mapper"</a>. Gcmap.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gcmap.com/mapui?P=NYC-LCY&DU=km">the original</a> on 2012-07-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Circle+Mapper&rft.pub=Gcmap.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gcmap.com%2Fmapui%3FP%3DNYC-LCY%26DU%3Dkm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fujitsu.com/global/documents/about/resources/publications/fstj/archives/vol42-4/paper07.pdf">"High-Performance Submarine Line Terminal Equipment for Next-Generation Optical Submarine Cable System: FLASHWAVE S650"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=High-Performance+Submarine+Line+Terminal+Equipment+for+Next-Generation+Optical+Submarine+Cable+System%3A+FLASHWAVE+S650&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fujitsu.com%2Fglobal%2Fdocuments%2Fabout%2Fresources%2Fpublications%2Ffstj%2Farchives%2Fvol42-4%2Fpaper07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/tut/T-TUT-HOME-2022-1-PDF-E.pdf">"GSTR-SDM"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GSTR-SDM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fdms_pub%2Fitu-t%2Fopb%2Ftut%2FT-TUT-HOME-2022-1-PDF-E.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sumitomoelectric.com/sites/default/files/2023-04/download_documents/E96-07.pdf">"Optical Fibers for High Fiber Count Submarine Cable Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Optical+Fibers+for+High+Fiber+Count+Submarine+Cable+Systems&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsumitomoelectric.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2023-04%2Fdownload_documents%2FE96-07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://subtelforum.com/stf-mag-feature-next-generation-transponder-technology-to-align-with-subsea-sdm-cables/">"STF Mag Feature: Next Generation Transponder Technology to Align with Subsea SDM Cables"</a>. September 27, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=STF+Mag+Feature%3A+Next+Generation+Transponder+Technology+to+Align+with+Subsea+SDM+Cables&rft.date=2022-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsubtelforum.com%2Fstf-mag-feature-next-generation-transponder-technology-to-align-with-subsea-sdm-cables%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://topconference.com/wp-content/uploads/1Towards-Maximizing-Data-Throughput-on-Subsea-Fiber-Optic-Cables-Geoff-Bennett-Infinera.pdf">"Maximizing Performance on All Types of Submarine Cable"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maximizing+Performance+on+All+Types+of+Submarine+Cable&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftopconference.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F1Towards-Maximizing-Data-Throughput-on-Subsea-Fiber-Optic-Cables-Geoff-Bennett-Infinera.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2023.apricot.net/assets/files/APPS314/sdm-a-new-subsea-par_1677480490.pdf">"Spatial Division Multiplexing A New (Subsea) Cable Paradigm"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spatial+Division+Multiplexing+A+New+%28Subsea%29+Cable+Paradigm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2023.apricot.net%2Fassets%2Ffiles%2FAPPS314%2Fsdm-a-new-subsea-par_1677480490.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy2019" class="citation web cs1">Hardy, Stephen (April 10, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lightwaveonline.com/optical-tech/transmission/article/16667943/google-subcom-to-deploy-space-division-multiplexing-on-dunant-submarine-cable">"Google, SubCom, to deploy space-division multiplexing on Dunant submarine cable"</a>. <i>Lightwave</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lightwave&rft.atitle=Google%2C+SubCom%2C+to+deploy+space-division+multiplexing+on+Dunant+submarine+cable&rft.date=2019-04-10&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lightwaveonline.com%2Foptical-tech%2Ftransmission%2Farticle%2F16667943%2Fgoogle-subcom-to-deploy-space-division-multiplexing-on-dunant-submarine-cable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRivera_HartlingPilipetskiiEvansMateo2021" class="citation journal cs1">Rivera Hartling, Elizabeth; Pilipetskii, Alexei; Evans, Darwin; Mateo, Eduardo; Salsi, Massimiliano; Pecci, Pascal; Mehta, Priyanth (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJLT.2020.3045389">"Design, Acceptance and Capacity of Subsea Open Cables"</a>. <i>Journal of Lightwave Technology</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 742–756. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021JLwT...39..742R">2021JLwT...39..742R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJLT.2020.3045389">10.1109/JLT.2020.3045389</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Lightwave+Technology&rft.atitle=Design%2C+Acceptance+and+Capacity+of+Subsea+Open+Cables&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=742-756&rft.date=2021-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJLT.2020.3045389&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021JLwT...39..742R&rft.aulast=Rivera+Hartling&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=Pilipetskii%2C+Alexei&rft.au=Evans%2C+Darwin&rft.au=Mateo%2C+Eduardo&rft.au=Salsi%2C+Massimiliano&rft.au=Pecci%2C+Pascal&rft.au=Mehta%2C+Priyanth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1109%252FJLT.2020.3045389&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRivera_HartlingPilipetskiiEvansMateo2021" class="citation journal cs1">Rivera Hartling, Elizabeth; Pilipetskii, Alexei; Evans, Darwin; Mateo, Eduardo; Salsi, Massimiliano; Pecci, Pascal; Mehta, Priyanth (February 14, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJLT.2020.3045389">"Design, Acceptance and Capacity of Subsea Open Cables"</a>. <i>Journal of Lightwave Technology</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 742–756. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021JLwT...39..742R">2021JLwT...39..742R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJLT.2020.3045389">10.1109/JLT.2020.3045389</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Lightwave+Technology&rft.atitle=Design%2C+Acceptance+and+Capacity+of+Subsea+Open+Cables&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=742-756&rft.date=2021-02-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJLT.2020.3045389&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021JLwT...39..742R&rft.aulast=Rivera+Hartling&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=Pilipetskii%2C+Alexei&rft.au=Evans%2C+Darwin&rft.au=Mateo%2C+Eduardo&rft.au=Salsi%2C+Massimiliano&rft.au=Pecci%2C+Pascal&rft.au=Mehta%2C+Priyanth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1109%252FJLT.2020.3045389&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220413060821/https://web.asn.com/media/data/files_user/72/SDM1/How_to_Open_Cable_The_Guidelines_and_the_Gotchas_-_04-07-2019_R1.pdf">"Subsea Open Cables: A Practical Perspective on the Guidelines and Gotchas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.asn.com/media/data/files_user/72/SDM1/How_to_Open_Cable_The_Guidelines_and_the_Gotchas_-_04-07-2019_R1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Subsea+Open+Cables%3A+A+Practical+Perspective+on+the+Guidelines+and+Gotchas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.asn.com%2Fmedia%2Fdata%2Ffiles_user%2F72%2FSDM1%2FHow_to_Open_Cable_The_Guidelines_and_the_Gotchas_-_04-07-2019_R1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://comfutures2020.ieee-comfutures.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/101/2020/02/ComFutures2020-Ses1-SubseaCom-Kovsh.pdf">"Subsea Communications"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Subsea+Communications&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcomfutures2020.ieee-comfutures.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F101%2F2020%2F02%2FComFutures2020-Ses1-SubseaCom-Kovsh.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/SiteAssets/Pages/Events/2017/Submarine%20Cable/submarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries/Ciena%20Subsea%20PITA%20Aug2017%20v2.pdf">"International High Capacity Connectivity through Submarine Cables"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+High+Capacity+Connectivity+through+Submarine+Cables&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fen%2FITU-D%2FRegional-Presence%2FAsiaPacific%2FSiteAssets%2FPages%2FEvents%2F2017%2FSubmarine%2520Cable%2Fsubmarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries%2FCiena%2520Subsea%2520PITA%2520Aug2017%2520v2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://subtelforum.com/the-open-road-to-submarine-capacity/">"The Open Road to Submarine Capacity"</a>. January 26, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Open+Road+to+Submarine+Capacity&rft.date=2021-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsubtelforum.com%2Fthe-open-road-to-submarine-capacity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KvMQCgAAQBAJ&dq=SLTE+ROADM&pg=PA354"><i>Undersea Fiber Communication Systems</i></a>. Academic Press. November 26, 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-804395-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-804395-0"><bdi>978-0-12-804395-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Undersea+Fiber+Communication+Systems&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2015-11-26&rft.isbn=978-0-12-804395-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKvMQCgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DSLTE%2BROADM%26pg%3DPA354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/SiteAssets/Pages/Events/2017/Submarine%20Cable/submarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries/Ciena%20Subsea%20PITA%20Aug2017%20v2.pdf">"International High Capacity Connectivity through Submarine Cables"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+High+Capacity+Connectivity+through+Submarine+Cables&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fen%2FITU-D%2FRegional-Presence%2FAsiaPacific%2FSiteAssets%2FPages%2FEvents%2F2017%2FSubmarine%2520Cable%2Fsubmarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries%2FCiena%2520Subsea%2520PITA%2520Aug2017%2520v2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fujitsu.com/global/documents/about/resources/publications/fstj/archives/vol35-1/paper05.pdf">"WDM Optical Submarine Network Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WDM+Optical+Submarine+Network+Systems&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fujitsu.com%2Fglobal%2Fdocuments%2Fabout%2Fresources%2Fpublications%2Ffstj%2Farchives%2Fvol35-1%2Fpaper05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2KDSDwAAQBAJ&dq=submarine+wet+plant&pg=PA399"><i>Advances in Information and Communication: Proceedings of the 2020 Future of Information and Communication Conference (FICC), Volume 1</i></a>. Springer. February 24, 2020. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-39445-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-39445-5"><bdi>978-3-030-39445-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Information+and+Communication%3A+Proceedings+of+the+2020+Future+of+Information+and+Communication+Conference+%28FICC%29%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2020-02-24&rft.isbn=978-3-030-39445-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2KDSDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dsubmarine%2Bwet%2Bplant%26pg%3DPA399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://europe.newsweek.com/undersea-cables-transport-99-percent-international-communications-319072?rm=eu">"Undersea Cables Transport 99 Percent of International Data"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-11-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Undersea+Cables+Transport+99+Percent+of+International+Data&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feurope.newsweek.com%2Fundersea-cables-transport-99-percent-international-communications-319072%3Frm%3Deu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner,_Bryan2008" class="citation news cs1">Gardiner, Bryan (February 25, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/epicenter/2008/02/googles-submari">"Google's Submarine Cable Plans Get Official"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Wired</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120428222444/http://www.wired.com/epicenter/2008/02/googles-submari">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-04-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Google%27s+Submarine+Cable+Plans+Get+Official&rft.date=2008-02-25&rft.au=Gardiner%2C+Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fepicenter%2F2008%2F02%2Fgoogles-submari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/1001/pc=PC_100223">"Submarine telecommunications cables"</a>. Australian Communications and Media Authority. February 5, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Submarine+telecommunications+cables&rft.pub=Australian+Communications+and+Media+Authority&rft.date=2010-02-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.acma.gov.au%2FWEB%2FSTANDARD%2F1001%2Fpc%3DPC_100223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2016" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Bryan (June 15, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.2016.1195636">"Undersea cables and the future of submarine competition"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i>. <b>72</b> (4): 234–237. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016BuAtS..72d.234C">2016BuAtS..72d.234C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.2016.1195636">10.1080/00963402.2016.1195636</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=Undersea+cables+and+the+future+of+submarine+competition&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=234-237&rft.date=2016-06-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00963402.2016.1195636&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016BuAtS..72d.234C&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00963402.2016.1195636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn,_John1987" class="citation cs2">Dunn, John (March 1987), "Talking the Light Fantastic", <i>The Rotarian</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Rotarian&rft.atitle=Talking+the+Light+Fantastic&rft.date=1987-03&rft.au=Dunn%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDormon2016" class="citation web cs1">Dormon, Bob (May 26, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2016/05/how-the-internet-works-submarine-cables-data-centres-last-mile/">"How the Internet works: Submarine fiber, brains in jars, and coaxial cables"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i>. Condé Nast<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=How+the+Internet+works%3A+Submarine+fiber%2C+brains+in+jars%2C+and+coaxial+cables&rft.date=2016-05-26&rft.aulast=Dormon&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Finformation-technology%2F2016%2F05%2Fhow-the-internet-works-submarine-cables-data-centres-last-mile%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindstrom, A. (1999, January 1). Taming the terrors of the deep. America's Network, 103(1), 5–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100208221700/http://www.seacom.mu/index2.asp">"SEACOM - South Africa - East Africa - South Asia - Fiber Optic Cable"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seacom.mu/index2.asp">the original</a> on 2010-02-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SEACOM+-+South+Africa+-+East+Africa+-+South+Asia+-+Fiber+Optic+Cable&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seacom.mu%2Findex2.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span> SEACOM (2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy,_Diane2009" class="citation news cs1">McCarthy, Diane (July 27, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2009/TECH/07/22/seacom.on/index.html">"Cable makes big promises for African Internet"</a>. <i>CNN</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091125042844/http://www.cnn.com/2009/TECH/07/22/seacom.on/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-11-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Cable+makes+big+promises+for+African+Internet&rft.date=2009-07-27&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Diane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2009%2FTECH%2F07%2F22%2Fseacom.on%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eib.org/en/stories/pan-european-infrastructure-fund">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Visionary' fund for early stage European infrastructure backed by nations and EU"</a>. <i>European Investment Bank</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=European+Investment+Bank&rft.atitle=%27Visionary%27+fund+for+early+stage+European+infrastructure+backed+by+nations+and+EU&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eib.org%2Fen%2Fstories%2Fpan-european-infrastructure-fund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200813021312/http://www.marguerite.com/about-us/background/">"Background | Marguerite"</a>. May 15, 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marguerite.com/about-us/background/">the original</a> on 2020-08-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Background+%7C+Marguerite&rft.date=2013-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marguerite.com%2Fabout-us%2Fbackground%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Griffiths2019" class="citation news cs1">James Griffiths (July 26, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/25/asia/internet-undersea-cables-intl-hnk/index.html">"The global internet is powered by vast undersea cables. But they're vulnerable"</a>. <i>CNN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=The+global+internet+is+powered+by+vast+undersea+cables.+But+they%27re+vulnerable.&rft.date=2019-07-26&rft.au=James+Griffiths&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2019%2F07%2F25%2Fasia%2Finternet-undersea-cables-intl-hnk%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017-october-december/harnessing-submarine-cables-save-lives">"Harnessing submarine cables to save lives"</a>. <i>UNESCO</i>. October 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO&rft.atitle=Harnessing+submarine+cables+to+save+lives&rft.date=2017-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.unesco.org%2Fcourier%2F2017-october-december%2Fharnessing-submarine-cables-save-lives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConti2009" class="citation cs2">Conti, Juan Pablo (December 5, 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120316161253/http://eandt.theiet.org/magazine/2009/21/frozen-out-of-broadband.cfm">"Frozen out of broadband"</a>, <i>Engineering & Technology</i>, <b>4</b> (21): 34–36, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fet.2009.2106">10.1049/et.2009.2106</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1750-9645">1750-9645</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eandt.theiet.org/magazine/2009/21/frozen-out-of-broadband.cfm">the original</a> on 2012-03-16</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Frozen+out+of+broadband&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=34-36&rft.date=2009-12-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1049%2Fet.2009.2106&rft.issn=1750-9645&rft.aulast=Conti&rft.aufirst=Juan+Pablo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feandt.theiet.org%2Fmagazine%2F2009%2F21%2Ffrozen-out-of-broadband.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://xn--e1ahdckegffejda6k5a1a.xn--p1ai/en/">"Characteristics of the project"</a>. <i>Polar Express</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231208174804/https://xn--e1ahdckegffejda6k5a1a.xn--p1ai/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-12-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Polar+Express&rft.atitle=Characteristics+of+the+project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fxn--e1ahdckegffejda6k5a1a.xn--p1ai%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.farnorthfiber.com/">"Project description"</a>. <i>Far North Fiber</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240307231425/https://www.farnorthfiber.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Far+North+Fiber&rft.atitle=Project+description&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.farnorthfiber.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dangerstocables-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dangerstocables_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanner2001" class="citation news cs1">Tanner, John C. (June 1, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120708035409/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0DUJ/is_9_105/ai_n27568414/">"2,000 Meters Under the Sea"</a>. <i>America's Network</i>. bnet.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0DUJ/is_9_105/ai_n27568414/">the original</a> on 2012-07-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-08-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=America%27s+Network&rft.atitle=2%2C000+Meters+Under+the+Sea&rft.date=2001-06-01&rft.aulast=Tanner&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_m0DUJ%2Fis_9_105%2Fai_n27568414%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMillan" class="citation magazine cs1">McMillan, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2014/08/shark-cable/">"Sharks Want to Bite Google's Undersea Cables"</a>. <i>Wired</i> – via www.wired.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Sharks+Want+to+Bite+Google%27s+Undersea+Cables&rft.aulast=McMillan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2014%2F08%2Fshark-cable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro,_S.Murray,_J.G.Gleason,_R.F.Barnes,_S.R.1987" class="citation web cs1">Shapiro, S.; Murray, J.G.; Gleason, R.F.; Barnes, S.R.; Eales, B.A.; Woodward, P.R. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041015081858/http://www.scig.net/Section07b.pdf">"Threats to Submarine Cables"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scig.net/Section07b.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2004-10-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Threats+to+Submarine+Cables&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Shapiro%2C+S.&rft.au=Murray%2C+J.G.&rft.au=Gleason%2C+R.F.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+S.R.&rft.au=Eales%2C+B.A.&rft.au=Woodward%2C+P.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scig.net%2FSection07b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Borland2008" class="citation news cs1">John Borland (February 5, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.technologyreview.com/Infotech/20152/?a=f">"Analyzing the Internet Collapse: Multiple fiber cuts to undersea cables show the fragility of the Internet at its choke points"</a>. <i>Technology Review</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+Review&rft.atitle=Analyzing+the+Internet+Collapse%3A+Multiple+fiber+cuts+to+undersea+cables+show+the+fragility+of+the+Internet+at+its+choke+points.&rft.date=2008-02-05&rft.au=John+Borland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2FInfotech%2F20152%2F%3Fa%3Df&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Embassy of the United States of America. (1959, March 24). U.S. note to Soviet Union on breaks in trans-Atlantic cables. The New York Times, 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, Paul, <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Furse" title="Cynthia Furse">Furse, Cynthia</a>, Safavi, Mehdi, and Lo, Chet. "Feasibility of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://livewiretest.com/analysis-of-spread-spectrum-time-domain-reflectometry-for-wire-fault-location/">Spread Spectrum Sensors for Location of Arcs on Live Wires</a> Spread Spectrum Sensors for Location of Arcs on Live Wires." <i>IEEE Sensors Journal</i>. December, 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101231231446/http://livewiretest.com/analysis-of-spread-spectrum-time-domain-reflectometry-for-wire-fault-location">Archived</a> December 31, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TuQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA621">"When the ocean floor quakes"</a> <i>Popular Mechanics</i>, <b>vol.53</b>, no.4, pp.618–622, April 1930, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0032-4558">0032-4558</a>, pg 621: various drawing and cutaways of cable repair ship equipment and operations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clarke, A. C. (1959). <i>Voice Across the Sea</i>. New York, N.Y.: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.. p. 113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Reed Winkler, <i>Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I</i> (Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carter, L. Brunett,D. Drew, S. Marie, G. Hagadorn, L. Barlett-McNeil, D. Irvine, N. (2009). ‘Submarines Cables ond the Oceans- Connecting the World. UNEP_WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 31. ICPC/UNEP/UNEP-WCMC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/31.aspx">http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/31.aspx</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaorminaBaldWantThouzeau2018" class="citation journal cs1">Taormina, Bastien; Bald, Juan; Want, Andrew; Thouzeau, Gérard; Lejart, Morgane; Desroy, Nicolas; Carlier, Antoine (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.07.026">"A review of potential impacts of submarine power cables on the marine environment: Knowledge gaps, recommendations and future directions"</a>. <i>Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews</i>. <b>96</b>: 380–391. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018RSERv..96..380T">2018RSERv..96..380T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2018.07.026">10.1016/j.rser.2018.07.026</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1364-0321">1364-0321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+and+Sustainable+Energy+Reviews&rft.atitle=A+review+of+potential+impacts+of+submarine+power+cables+on+the+marine+environment%3A+Knowledge+gaps%2C+recommendations+and+future+directions&rft.volume=96&rft.pages=380-391&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=1364-0321&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rser.2018.07.026&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018RSERv..96..380T&rft.aulast=Taormina&rft.aufirst=Bastien&rft.au=Bald%2C+Juan&rft.au=Want%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Thouzeau%2C+G%C3%A9rard&rft.au=Lejart%2C+Morgane&rft.au=Desroy%2C+Nicolas&rft.au=Carlier%2C+Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.rser.2018.07.026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuegerEdmunds2017" class="citation journal cs1">Bueger, Christian; Edmunds, Timothy (November 1, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.oup.com/ia/article/93/6/1293/4111108">"Beyond seablindness: a new agenda for maritime security studies"</a>. <i>International Affairs</i>. <b>93</b> (6): 1293–1311. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiix174">10.1093/ia/iix174</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2Fa9bb7d69-6274-4515-8db4-886079ca3668">1983/a9bb7d69-6274-4515-8db4-886079ca3668</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850">0020-5850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Beyond+seablindness%3A+a+new+agenda+for+maritime+security+studies&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1293-1311&rft.date=2017-11-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1983%2Fa9bb7d69-6274-4515-8db4-886079ca3668&rft.issn=0020-5850&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fia%2Fiix174&rft.aulast=Bueger&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft.au=Edmunds%2C+Timothy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fia%2Farticle%2F93%2F6%2F1293%2F4111108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorzyk2009" class="citation book cs1">Worzyk, Thomas (August 11, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8QfRT_SYDgC&dq=environmental+impact+of+submarines+cables&pg=PR6"><i>Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental Aspects</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-01270-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-01270-9"><bdi>978-3-642-01270-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Submarine+Power+Cables%3A+Design%2C+Installation%2C+Repair%2C+Environmental+Aspects&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2009-08-11&rft.isbn=978-3-642-01270-9&rft.aulast=Worzyk&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX8QfRT_SYDgC%26dq%3Denvironmental%2Bimpact%2Bof%2Bsubmarines%2Bcables%26pg%3DPR6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHale" class="citation web cs1">Hale, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/consultative_process/icp19_presentations/2.Richard%20Hale.pdf">"Dr"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.un.org</i>. United Nations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.un.org&rft.atitle=Dr.&rft.aulast=Hale&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fdepts%2Flos%2Fconsultative_process%2Ficp19_presentations%2F2.Richard%2520Hale.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Bright1898" class="citation book cs1">Charles Bright (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/submarinetelegr00briggoog"><i>Submarine Telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working</i></a>. Crosby Lockward and Son. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780665008672" title="Special:BookSources/9780665008672"><bdi>9780665008672</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Submarine+Telegraphs%3A+Their+History%2C+Construction%2C+and+Working&rft.pub=Crosby+Lockward+and+Son&rft.date=1898&rft.isbn=9780665008672&rft.au=Charles+Bright&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsubmarinetelegr00briggoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVary_T._Coates_and_Bernard_Finn1979" class="citation book cs1">Vary T. Coates and Bernard Finn (1979). <i>A Retrospective Technology Assessment: The Transatlantic Cable of 1866</i>. San Francisco Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Retrospective+Technology+Assessment%3A+The+Transatlantic+Cable+of+1866&rft.pub=San+Francisco+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.au=Vary+T.+Coates+and+Bernard+Finn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBern_Dibner1959" class="citation book cs1">Bern Dibner (1959). <i>The Atlantic Cable</i>. Burndy Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Cable&rft.pub=Burndy+Library&rft.date=1959&rft.au=Bern+Dibner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDzieza2024" class="citation news cs1">Dzieza, Josh (April 16, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/c/24070570/internet-cables-undersea-deep-repair-ships">"The cloud under the sea: The invisible seafaring industry that keeps the internet afloat"</a>. <i>The Verge</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=The+cloud+under+the+sea%3A+The+invisible+seafaring+industry+that+keeps+the+internet+afloat&rft.date=2024-04-16&rft.aulast=Dzieza&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2Fc%2F24070570%2Finternet-cables-undersea-deep-repair-ships&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_FinnDaqing_Yang2009" class="citation book cs1">Bernard Finn; Daqing Yang, eds. (2009). <i>Communications Under the Seas:The Evolving Cable Network and Its Implications</i>. MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communications+Under+the+Seas%3AThe+Evolving+Cable+Network+and+Its+Implications&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.R._Haigh1968" class="citation book cs1">K.R. Haigh (1968). <i>Cableships and Submarine Cables</i>. United States Underseas Cable Corporation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cableships+and+Submarine+Cables&rft.pub=United+States+Underseas+Cable+Corporation&rft.date=1968&rft.au=K.R.+Haigh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman_L._Middlemiss2000" class="citation book cs1">Norman L. Middlemiss (2000). <i>Cableships</i>. Shield Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cableships&rft.pub=Shield+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Norman+L.+Middlemiss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicole_Starosielski2015" class="citation book cs1">Nicole Starosielski (2015). <i>The Undersea Network (Sign, Storage, Transmission)</i>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822357551" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822357551"><bdi>978-0822357551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Undersea+Network+%28Sign%2C+Storage%2C+Transmission%29&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0822357551&rft.au=Nicole+Starosielski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Steele_Gordon2000" class="citation book cs1">John Steele Gordon (2000). <i>A thread under the Ocean</i>. World of Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0743231275" title="Special:BookSources/978-0743231275"><bdi>978-0743231275</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+thread+under+the+Ocean&rft.pub=World+of+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0743231275&rft.au=John+Steele+Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Submarine_communications_cables" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Submarine communications cables">Submarine communications cables</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iscpc.org/">The International Cable Protection Committee</a> – includes a register of submarine cables worldwide (though not always updated as often as one might hope)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlantic-cable.com/Cables/CableTimeLine/index.htm">Timeline of Submarine Communications Cables, 1850–2010</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kisca.org.uk/">Kingfisher Information Service – Cable Awareness; UK Fisherman's Submarine Cable Awareness site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sigcables.com">Orange's Fishermen's/Submarine Cable Information</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ofcc.com/">Oregon Fisherman's Cable Committee</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060203123501/http://www.ofcc.com/">Archived</a> 2006-02-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlantic-cable.com/Article/WireRope/wirerope.htm">History of the Atlantic Cable & Submarine Telegraphy</a> – Wire Rope and the Submarine Cable Industry</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.12/ffglass.html">Mother Earth Mother Board</a> – Wired article by <a href="/wiki/Neal_Stephenson" title="Neal Stephenson">Neal Stephenson</a> about submarine cables</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedfordMeloniLanzerottiGregori1981" class="citation journal cs1">Medford, L. V.; Meloni, A.; Lanzerotti, L. J.; Gregori, G. P. (April 2, 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/290392a0">"Geomagnetic induction on a transatlantic communications cable"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>290</b> (5805): 392–393. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981Natur.290..392M">1981Natur.290..392M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F290392a0">10.1038/290392a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4330089">4330089</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Geomagnetic+induction+on+a+transatlantic+communications+cable&rft.volume=290&rft.issue=5805&rft.pages=392-393&rft.date=1981-04-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F290392a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4330089%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981Natur.290..392M&rft.aulast=Medford&rft.aufirst=L.+V.&rft.au=Meloni%2C+A.&rft.au=Lanzerotti%2C+L.+J.&rft.au=Gregori%2C+G.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F290392a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt,_Bruce_J.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, Bruce J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fepn%3A2004602">"Lord Cable"</a>. <i>Europhysics News</i>. <b>35</b> (6): 186. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ENews..35..186H">2004ENews..35..186H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fepn%3A2004602">10.1051/epn:2004602</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europhysics+News&rft.atitle=Lord+Cable&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=186&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fepn%3A2004602&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004ENews..35..186H&rft.au=Hunt%2C+Bruce+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1051%252Fepn%253A2004602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubmarine+communications+cable" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/WINNEX.html">Winkler, Jonathan Reed. Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080510085718/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/WINNEX.html">Archived</a> 2008-05-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Account of how U.S. government discovered strategic significance of communications lines, including submarine cables, during World War I.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080129082716/http://www1.alcatel-lucent.com/submarine/how/index.htm">Animations from Alcatel showing how submarine cables are installed and repaired</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7228315.stm">Work begins to repair severed net</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oceannews.com/feature-story/2015/01/05/december-editorial-focus">Flexibility in Undersea Networks</a> – Ocean News & Technology magazine Dec. 2014</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maps">Maps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maps_of_submarine_communication_cables" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maps of submarine communication cables">Maps of submarine communication cables</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.submarinecablemap.com">Submarine Cable Map by TeleGeography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140308180835/http://www.telegeography.com/telecom-resources/map-gallery/index.html">Map gallery of submarine cable maps by TeleGeography</a>, showing evolution since 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-images/Technology/Pix/pictures/2008/02/01/SeaCableHi.jpg">2008 map in the <i>Guardian</i></a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2014/03/04/tech/gallery/internet-undersea-cables/index.html">2014 map on CNN</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eyeball-series.org/cable-eyeball.htm">Map and Satellite views of US landing sites for transatlantic cables</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eyeball-series.org/cablew-eyeball.htm">Map and Satellite views of US landing sites for transpacific cables</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081222010717/http://www.kisca.org.uk/charts.htm">Positions and Route information of Submarine Cables in the Seas Around the UK</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telephony" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telephony" title="Template:Telephony"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telephony" title="Template talk:Telephony"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telephony" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telephony"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telephony" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">Telephony</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landline" title="Landline">Landline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_telephony" title="Cable telephony">Cable telephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Satellite phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accessories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Answering_machine" title="Answering machine">Answering machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caller_ID" title="Caller ID">Caller ID</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connectivity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fibre-optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_signal" title="Mobile phone signal">Mobile phone signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_old_telephone_service" title="Plain old telephone service">POTS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">PSTN</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Submarine cables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_over_IP" title="Voice over IP">VoIP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Calls</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misdialed_call" title="Misdialed call">Misdialed call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuisance_call" title="Nuisance call">Nuisance call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phone_tag" title="Phone tag">Phone tag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fax" title="Fax">Fax transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_call" title="Telephone call">Telephone calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_newspaper" title="Telephone newspaper">Telephone newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2trophone" title="Théâtrophone">Théâtrophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Videotelephony" title="Videotelephony">Video calls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/28px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/42px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/56px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="telephone icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg/28px-Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg/42px-Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg/56px-Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="722" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telephones" title="Portal:Telephones">Telephones portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/24px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/32px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506572#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506572#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q506572#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/843640/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4180641-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cables, Submarine"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85018581">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119804191">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119804191">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00564651">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="podmořské kabely"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph524156&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525880">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000182471&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007293762905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&oldid=1259177014">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&oldid=1259177014</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coastal_construction" title="Category:Coastal construction">Coastal construction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Submarine_communications_cables" title="Category:Submarine communications cables">Submarine communications cables</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_equipment" title="Category:Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_telecommunications" title="Category:History of telecommunications">History of telecommunications</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_December_2018" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from December 2018">Articles with dead external links from December 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_January_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2024">Articles with dead external links from January 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_October_2022" title="Category:Use mdy dates from October 2022">Use mdy dates from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_vague_or_ambiguous_time" title="Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time">All articles with vague or ambiguous time</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vague_or_ambiguous_time_from_June_2014" title="Category:Vague or ambiguous time from June 2014">Vague or ambiguous time from June 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 20:14<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Submarine_communications_cable&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-84779d6bf6-psplp","wgBackendResponseTime":197,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.277","walltime":"1.571","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10030,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":220769,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7614,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":331951,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1336.702 1 -total"," 43.74% 584.691 2 Template:Reflist"," 15.43% 206.229 38 Template:Cite_web"," 9.86% 131.833 2 Template:Commons_category"," 9.66% 129.164 2 Template:Sister_project"," 9.51% 127.107 2 Template:Side_box"," 8.35% 111.565 2 Template:Navbox"," 7.39% 98.792 14 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.33% 98.013 1 Template:Telephony"," 5.96% 79.724 8 Template:Rp"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.726","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10288213,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-gr6xb","timestamp":"20241123201459","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Submarine communications cable","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Submarine_communications_cable","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q506572","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q506572","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-03-21T01:54:18Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T20:14:29Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/11\/Submarine_cable_cross-section_3D_plain.svg","headline":"long range communications device placed underwater, often intercontinental"}</script> </body> </html>