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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Fuels which require storage at very low temperatures to remain liquid</div> <p><b>Cryogenic fuels</b> are <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a> that require storage at <a href="/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">extremely low temperatures</a> in order to maintain them in a <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> state. These fuels are used in machinery that operates in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">space</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>) where ordinary fuel cannot be used, due to the very low temperatures often encountered in space, and the absence of an environment that supports <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> (on Earth, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> is abundant in <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">the atmosphere</a>, whereas human-explorable space is a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> where oxygen is virtually non-existent). <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">Cryogenic</a> fuels most often constitute <a href="/wiki/Liquification" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquification">liquefied</a> <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">liquid hydrogen</a>. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engines</a> use <a href="/wiki/Regenerative_cooling_(rocket)" class="mw-redirect" title="Regenerative cooling (rocket)">regenerative cooling</a>, the practice of circulating their cryogenic fuel around the <a href="/wiki/Nozzle" title="Nozzle">nozzles</a> before the fuel is pumped into the <a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">combustion chamber</a> and ignited. This arrangement was first suggested by <a href="/wiki/Eugen_S%C3%A4nger" title="Eugen Sänger">Eugen Sänger</a> in the 1940s. All engines in the <a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> rocket that sent the first crewed missions to the Moon used this design element, which is still in use today for liquid-fueled engines. </p><p>Quite often, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a> is mistakenly called cryogenic <i>fuel</i>, though it is actually an <a href="/wiki/Oxidizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizer">oxidizer</a> and not <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> - like in <i>any</i> <a href="/wiki/Combustion_engine_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Combustion engine (disambiguation)">combustion engine</a>, only the non-oxygen component of the <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> is considered "fuel", although this distinction is arbitrary. </p><p>Russian aircraft manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Tupolev" title="Tupolev">Tupolev</a> developed a version of its popular <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-154" title="Tupolev Tu-154">Tu-154</a> design but with a cryogenic fuel system, designated the <a href="/wiki/Tu-155" class="mw-redirect" title="Tu-155">Tu-155</a>. Using a fuel referred to as <a href="/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas" title="Liquefied natural gas">liquefied natural gas</a> (LNG), its first flight was in 1989. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cryogenic fuels can be placed into two categories: inert and flammable or combustible. Both types exploit the large liquid-to-gas volume ratio that occurs when liquid transitions to gas phase. The feasibility of cryogenic fuels is associated with what is known as a high mass flow rate.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-470-08024-8_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-470-08024-8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With regulation, the high-density energy of cryogenic fuels is utilized to produce thrust in rockets and controllable consumption of fuel. The following sections provide further detail. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inert">Inert</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Inert"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These types of fuels typically use the regulation of gas production and flow to power pistons in an engine. The large increases in pressure are controlled and directed toward the engine's pistons. The pistons move due to the mechanical power transformed from the monitored production of gaseous fuel. A notable example can be seen in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Dearman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Dearman (page does not exist)">Peter Dearman</a>'s liquid air vehicle. Some common inert fuels include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">Liquid nitrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_air" title="Liquid air">Liquid air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">Liquid helium</a></li> <li>Liquid <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combustible">Combustible</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Combustible"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These fuels utilize the beneficial liquid cryogenic properties along with the flammable nature of the substance as a source of power. These types of fuel are well known primarily for their use in <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a>. Some common combustible fuels include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen" title="Liquid hydrogen">Liquid hydrogen</a></li> <li>Liquid natural gas (<a href="/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas" title="Liquefied natural gas">LNG</a>)</li> <li>Liquid <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Engine_combustion">Engine combustion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Engine combustion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Combustible cryogenic fuels offer much more utility than most inert fuels can. Liquefied natural gas, as with any fuel, will only combust when properly mixed with the right amounts of air. As for LNG, the bulk majority of efficiency depends on the methane number, which is the gas equivalent of the octane number.<sup id="cite_ref-Statoil_LNG_Combustion_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statoil_LNG_Combustion-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is determined based on the methane content of the liquefied fuel and any other dissolved gas, and varies as a result of experimental efficiencies.<sup id="cite_ref-Statoil_LNG_Combustion_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statoil_LNG_Combustion-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maximizing efficiency in combustion engines will be a result of determining the proper fuel to air ratio and utilizing the addition other hydrocarbons for added optimal combustion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production_efficiency">Production efficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Production efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gas liquefying processes have been improving over the past decades with the advent of better machinery and control of system heat losses. Typical techniques take advantage of the temperature of the gas dramatically cooling as the controlled pressure of a gas is released. Enough pressurization and then subsequent depressurization can liquefy most gases, as exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Joule-Thomson_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Joule-Thomson effect">Joule-Thomson effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LNG_Liquefaction_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LNG_Liquefaction-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liquefied_natural_gas">Liquefied natural gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Liquefied natural gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While it is cost-effective to liquefy natural gas for storage, transport, and use, roughly 10 to 15 percent of the gas gets consumed during the process.<sup id="cite_ref-LNG_Need_to_Know_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LNG_Need_to_Know-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The optimal process contains four stages of <a href="/wiki/Propane_refrigeration" title="Propane refrigeration">propane refrigeration</a> and two stages of ethylene refrigeration. There can be the addition of an additional <a href="/wiki/Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">refrigerant</a> stage, but the additional costs of equipment are not economically justifiable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Efficiency can be tied to the pure component cascade processes which minimize the overall source to sink temperature difference associated with refrigerant condensing. The optimized process incorporates optimized heat recovery along with the use of pure refrigerants. All process designers of liquefaction plants using proven technologies face the same challenge: to efficiently cool and condense a mixture with a pure refrigerant. In the optimized Cascade process, the mixture to be cooled and condensed is the feed gas. In the propane mixed refrigerant processes, the two mixtures requiring cooling and condensing are the feed gas and the mixed refrigerant. The chief source of inefficiency lies in the heat exchange train during the liquefaction process.<sup id="cite_ref-LNG_Plant_Efficiency_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LNG_Plant_Efficiency-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_and_disadvantages">Advantages and disadvantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Advantages and disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benefits">Benefits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cryogenic fuels are environmentally cleaner than gasoline or <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>. Among other things, the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> rate could potentially be reduced by 11–20% using LNG as opposed to gasoline when transporting goods.<sup id="cite_ref-What_are_the_Benefits_of_LNG_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_are_the_Benefits_of_LNG-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Along with their eco-friendly nature, they have the potential to significantly decrease transportation costs of inland products because of their abundance compared to that of fossil fuels.<sup id="cite_ref-What_are_the_Benefits_of_LNG_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_are_the_Benefits_of_LNG-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cryogenic fuels have a higher mass flow rate than fossil fuels and therefore produce more <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a> and power when combusted for use in an engine. This means that engines will run farther on less fuel overall than modern <a href="/wiki/Gas_engine" title="Gas engine">gas engines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cryo_basics_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cryo_basics-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cryogenic fuels are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-pollutants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Non-pollutants (page does not exist)">non-pollutants</a> and therefore, if spilled, are no risk to the environment. There will be no need to clean up hazardous waste after a spill.<sup id="cite_ref-Methane_Fuel_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Methane_Fuel-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_drawbacks">Potential drawbacks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Potential drawbacks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Some cryogenic fuels, like LNG, are naturally combustible. Ignition of fuel spills could result in a large explosion. This is possible in the case of a car crash with an LNG engine.<sup id="cite_ref-Methane_Fuel_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Methane_Fuel-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cryogenic storage tanks must be able to withstand high pressure. High-pressure <a href="/wiki/Propellant_tank" title="Propellant tank">propellant tanks</a> require thicker walls and stronger alloys which make the vehicle tanks heavier, thereby reducing performance.</li> <li>Despite <a href="/wiki/Non-toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-toxic">non-toxic</a> tendencies, cryogenic fuels are denser than air. As such, they can lead to <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Asphyxiation">asphyxiation</a>. If leaked, the liquid will boil into a very dense, cold gas and if inhaled, could be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-Canadian_Centre_for_Occupational_Health_&_Safety_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canadian_Centre_for_Occupational_Health_&_Safety-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_rocket_engine" title="Cryogenic rocket engine">Cryogenic rocket engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_rocket_propellant" title="Liquid rocket propellant">Liquid rocket propellant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-244" title="Tupolev Tu-244">Tupolev Tu-244</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryogenic_fuel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-470-08024-8-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-470-08024-8_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBiblarz,_OscarSutton,_George_H.2009" class="citation book cs1">Biblarz, Oscar; Sutton, George H. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Rocket_Propulsion_Elements_8th_Edition_by_Oscar_Biblarz_George_P._Sutton"><i>Rocket Propulsion Elements</i></a>. 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