CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Combustion - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"01f0fcbb-7403-41ac-8561-023b55e5a3a0","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Combustion","wgTitle":"Combustion","wgCurRevisionId":1258666484,"wgRevisionId":1258666484,"wgArticleId":5638,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from January 2017","All articles needing additional references","Pages that use a deprecated format of the chem tags","Combustion","Chemical reactions"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Combustion","wgRelevantArticleId":5638,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true, "wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":50000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q133235","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics": true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar", "ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg/1200px-Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="797"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg/800px-Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="532"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg/640px-Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="425"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Combustion - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Combustion rootpage-Combustion skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Combustion" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Combustion" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Combustion" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Combustion" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Complete_and_incomplete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complete_and_incomplete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Complete and incomplete</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complete_and_incomplete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Complete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Complete</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incomplete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incomplete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Incomplete</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incomplete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems_associated_with_incomplete_combustion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_associated_with_incomplete_combustion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Problems associated with incomplete combustion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problems_associated_with_incomplete_combustion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Environmental_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3.1</span> <span>Environmental problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_health_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_health_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3.2</span> <span>Human health problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_health_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smoldering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smoldering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Smoldering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smoldering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spontaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spontaneous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Spontaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spontaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turbulent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turbulent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Turbulent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turbulent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro-gravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro-gravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Micro-gravity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro-gravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro-combustion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro-combustion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Micro-combustion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro-combustion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_equations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_equations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Chemical equations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chemical_equations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chemical equations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chemical_equations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trace_combustion_products" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trace_combustion_products"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Trace combustion products</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trace_combustion_products-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incomplete_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incomplete_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incomplete_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquid_fuels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquid_fuels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Liquid fuels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquid_fuels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gaseous_fuels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaseous_fuels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Gaseous fuels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaseous_fuels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid_fuels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid_fuels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Solid fuels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid_fuels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combustion_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combustion_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Combustion management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combustion_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reaction mechanism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reaction_mechanism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reaction mechanism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reaction_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kinetic_modelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinetic_modelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Kinetic modelling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinetic_modelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instabilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instabilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Instabilities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instabilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Combustion</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 89 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-89" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">89 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbranding" title="Verbranding – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Verbranding" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="احتراق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="احتراق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combusti%C3%B3n" title="Combustión – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Combustión" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanma" title="Yanma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yanma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%A8" title="দহন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দহন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C3%A2n-sio" title="Jiân-sio – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jiân-sio" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Гарэнне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гарэнне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Горене – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Горене" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagorijevanje" title="Sagorijevanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sagorijevanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combusti%C3%B3" title="Combustió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Combustió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Çуну – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çуну" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C5%99en%C3%AD" title="Hoření – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hoření" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylosgiad" title="Hylosgiad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hylosgiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbr%C3%A6nding" title="Forbrænding – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forbrænding" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boaldin" title="Boaldin – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Boaldin" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrennung_(Chemie)" title="Verbrennung (Chemie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verbrennung (Chemie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B5lemine" title="Põlemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Põlemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Καύση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καύση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combusti%C3%B3n" title="Combustión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Combustión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brulo" title="Brulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Brulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errekuntza" title="Errekuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Errekuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="احتراق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="احتراق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Combustion" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B3_(imoibri%C3%BA)" title="Dó (imoibriú) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dó (imoibriú)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combusti%C3%B3n" title="Combustión – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Combustión" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81)" title="Дагар (физика-химе процесс) – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Дагар (физика-химе процесс)" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EC%86%8C" title="연소 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연소" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B5%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4_(%D5%A5%D6%80%D6%87%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%A9)" title="Այրում (երևույթ) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Այրում (երևույթ)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A8" title="दहन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दहन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorenje" title="Gorenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gorenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kombusto" title="Kombusto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kombusto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembakaran_(kimia)" title="Pembakaran (kimia) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pembakaran (kimia)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukushisa" title="Ukushisa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukushisa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruni" title="Bruni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bruni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustione" title="Combustione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Combustione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%94" title="בעירה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בעירה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%89%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A3_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%A8" title="ಉಷ್ಣ ವಿಕಸನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಉಷ್ಣ ವಿಕಸನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="აალება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აალება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Жану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyaksyon_konbistyon" title="Reyaksyon konbistyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Reyaksyon konbistyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D2%AF%D0%B9%D2%AF%D2%AF" title="Күйүү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Күйүү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deg%C5%A1ana" title="Degšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Degšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degimo_reakcija" title="Degimo reakcija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Degimo reakcija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrenning" title="Verbrenning – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Verbrenning" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89g%C3%A9s_(t%C5%B1zv%C3%A9delem)" title="Égés (tűzvédelem) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Égés (tűzvédelem)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembakaran" title="Pembakaran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembakaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbranding" title="Verbranding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verbranding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="ज्वलति – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ज्वलति" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%87%83%E7%84%BC" title="燃焼 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="燃焼" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrenning" title="Forbrenning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Forbrenning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrenning" title="Forbrenning – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Forbrenning" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Combustion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8" title="ਦਹਿਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦਹਿਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coraf" title="Coraf – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Coraf" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="احتراق – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="احتراق" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spalanie" title="Spalanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Spalanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combust%C3%A3o" title="Combustão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Combustão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardere" title="Ardere – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ardere" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawray" title="Rawray – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rawray" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Горение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Горение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%8B" title="Умайыы – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Умайыы" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djegia" title="Djegia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Djegia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cummustioni" title="Cummustioni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cummustioni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Combustion" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horenie" title="Horenie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Horenie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorenje_(kemija)" title="Gorenje (kemija) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gorenje (kemija)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سووتان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سووتان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagorevanje" title="Sagorevanje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Sagorevanje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagorijevanje" title="Sagorijevanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sagorijevanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaminen" title="Palaminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Palaminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6rbr%C3%A4nning" title="Förbränning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Förbränning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kombustiyon" title="Kombustiyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kombustiyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="எரிதல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எரிதல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E1%B9%9B%C9%A3iwt" title="Timeṛɣiwt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Timeṛɣiwt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/pcyana_puniq" title="pcyana puniq – Tayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="pcyana puniq" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Tayal" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tayal</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%89" title="การเผาไหม้ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเผาไหม้" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanma" title="Yanma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yanma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Горіння – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Горіння" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="احتراق – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="احتراق" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A1y" title="Cháy – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cháy" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%87%83%E7%87%92" title="燃燒 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="燃燒" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paglarab" title="Paglarab – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Paglarab" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawara" title="Sawara – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Sawara" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%87%83%E7%83%A7" title="燃烧 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="燃烧" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="פארברענונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פארברענונג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cgban%C3%A1" title="Ìgbaná – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìgbaná" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%87%83%E7%87%92" title="燃燒 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="燃燒" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%87%83%E7%83%A7" title="燃烧 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="燃烧" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penambusan_(kimia)" title="Penambusan (kimia) – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Penambusan (kimia)" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q133235#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Combustion" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Combustion"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Combustion"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Combustion" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Combustion" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&oldid=1258666484" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Combustion&id=1258666484&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCombustion"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FCombustion"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Combustion&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Combustion" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q133235" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Burning" redirects here. For the type of injury, see <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">Burn</a>. For combustion without external ignition, see <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_combustion" title="Spontaneous combustion">spontaneous combustion</a>. For the vehicle engine, see <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Burning_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Burning (disambiguation)">Burning (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Combustion_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Combustion (disambiguation)">Combustion (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Firing_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Firing (disambiguation)">Firing (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fire,_Fireplace,_Rostov-on-Don,_Russia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg/220px-Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg/330px-Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg/440px-Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4912" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">flames</a> caused as a result of a <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> undergoing combustion (burning)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regenerative_thermal_oxidizer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Regenerative_thermal_oxidizer.jpg/220px-Regenerative_thermal_oxidizer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Regenerative_thermal_oxidizer.jpg/330px-Regenerative_thermal_oxidizer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Regenerative_thermal_oxidizer.jpg/440px-Regenerative_thermal_oxidizer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Regenerative_thermal_oxidiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Regenerative thermal oxidiser">Air pollution abatement equipment</a> provides combustion control for <a href="/wiki/Industrial_processes" title="Industrial processes">industrial processes</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Combustion</b>, or <b>burning</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a high-temperature <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> between a <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> (the reductant) and an <a href="/wiki/Oxidant" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidant">oxidant</a>, usually atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a>. Combustion does not always result in <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a>, because a <a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">flame</a> is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vaporize, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction. While <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> must be supplied to initiate combustion (e.g., using a lit <a href="/wiki/Match" title="Match">match</a> to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction self-sustaining. The study of combustion is known as <b>combustion science</b>. </p><p>Combustion is often a complicated sequence of <a href="/wiki/Elementary_reaction" title="Elementary reaction">elementary</a> <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radical reactions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Solid_fuel" title="Solid fuel">Solid fuels</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, first undergo <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a> <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that <a href="/wiki/Incandescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescence">incandescent</a> <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> in the form of either <a href="/wiki/Smouldering" title="Smouldering">glowing</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">flame</a> is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> into <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a>, a reaction which is commonly used to fuel <a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">rocket engines</a>. This reaction releases 242<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Joule_per_mole" title="Joule per mole">kJ/mol</a> of heat and reduces the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure): </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {2H_{2}(g){+}O_{2}(g)\rightarrow 2H_{2}O\uparrow }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>g</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>g</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {2H_{2}(g){+}O_{2}(g)\rightarrow 2H_{2}O\uparrow }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c61b3cfd78e4a45782c53675acc553ced21c7f3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:26.538ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {2H_{2}(g){+}O_{2}(g)\rightarrow 2H_{2}O\uparrow }}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Uncatalyzed combustion in air requires relatively high temperatures. Complete combustion is <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoichiometric">stoichiometric</a> concerning the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, and ideally, no residual oxidant. Thermodynamically, the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">chemical equilibrium</a> of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. However, complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve, since the chemical equilibrium is not necessarily reached, or may contain unburnt products such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">soot</a> or ash). Thus, the produced <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a> is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Any combustion at high temperatures in <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmospheric</a> <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a>, which is 78 percent <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, will also create small amounts of several <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a>, commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">NOx</a>, since the combustion of nitrogen is thermodynamically favored at high, but not low temperatures. Since burning is rarely clean, fuel gas cleaning or <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_converter" title="Catalytic converter">catalytic converters</a> may be required by law. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">Fires</a> occur naturally, ignited by <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strikes or by <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">volcanic</a> products. Combustion (<a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a>) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Campfire" title="Campfire">campfires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonfire" title="Bonfire">bonfires</a>, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a>, or more complicated mixtures such as <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> that contain partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from the combustion of either <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, or from <a href="/wiki/Renewable_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable fuel">renewable fuels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">firewood</a>, is harvested for diverse uses such as <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooking</a>, production of <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a>. Combustion is also used to destroy (<a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incinerate</a>) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous. </p><p>Oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine_trifluoride" title="Chlorine trifluoride">chlorine trifluoride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> burns in <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">hydrogen chloride</a> with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion. Although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, as in the <a href="/wiki/Contact_process" title="Contact process">contact process</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complete_and_incomplete">Complete and incomplete</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Complete and incomplete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Complete">Complete</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Complete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Methane-combustion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Methane-combustion.svg/220px-Methane-combustion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Methane-combustion.svg/330px-Methane-combustion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Methane-combustion.svg/440px-Methane-combustion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2482" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption>The combustion of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products. When a <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, sulfur will yield <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>, and iron will yield <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide" title="Iron(III) oxide">iron(III) oxide</a>. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidant</a>. Still, small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><i>x</i></sub></span></span></span></a> species) form when the air is the oxidative. </p><p>Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_trioxide" title="Sulfur trioxide">sulfur trioxide</a> is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<sub class="template-chem2-sub"><i>x</i></sub></span> species appear in significant amounts above about 2,800 °F (1,540 °C), and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<sub class="template-chem2-sub"><i>x</i></sub></span> is also a function of oxygen excess.<sup id="cite_ref-NOx_formation_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOx_formation-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most industrial applications and in <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> is the source of oxygen (<span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000371000000000000♠"></span>3.71 <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mol</a></span> of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures, some nitrogen will be converted to <a href="/wiki/NOx#Thermal" title="NOx"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"><i>x</i></sub></span></span></span></a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO</span></a>, with much smaller amounts of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span></a>). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to combust the fuel completely, some fuel carbon is converted to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, and some of the hydrogens remain unreacted. A complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel. </p><p>The amount of air required for complete combustion is known as the "theoretical air" or "stoichiometric air".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of air above this value actually needed for optimal combustion is known as the "excess air", and can vary from 5% for a natural gas boiler, to 40% for <a href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">anthracite</a> coal, to 300% for a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Incomplete">Incomplete</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Incomplete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Charring" title="Charring">Charring</a></div> <p>Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> are produced instead of carbon dioxide. </p><p>For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal, or wood, <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases. Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a>, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide. </p><p>The designs of combustion devices can improve the quality of combustion, such as <a href="/wiki/Oil_burner" title="Oil burner">burners</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion engines">internal combustion engines</a>. Further improvements are achievable by <a href="/wiki/Catalytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalytic">catalytic</a> after-burning devices (such as <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_converter" title="Catalytic converter">catalytic converters</a>) or by the simple partial return of the <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust gases</a> into the combustion process. Such devices are required by <a href="/wiki/Environmental_legislation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental legislation">environmental legislation</a> for cars in most countries. They may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_station" title="Thermal power station">thermal power stations</a>, to reach legal <a href="/wiki/Emission_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission standards">emission standards</a>. </p><p>The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment. <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">HVAC</a> contractors, <a href="/wiki/Firefighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Firefighters">firefighters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineers">engineers</a> use combustion analyzers to test the <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">efficiency</a> of a burner during the combustion process. Also, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today. </p><p>Carbon monoxide is one of the products from <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Incomplete combustion">incomplete combustion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formation of carbon monoxide produces less heat than formation of carbon dioxide so complete combustion is greatly preferred especially as carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. When breathed, carbon monoxide takes the place of oxygen and combines with some of the hemoglobin in the blood, rendering it unable to transport oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Problems_associated_with_incomplete_combustion">Problems associated with incomplete combustion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Problems associated with incomplete combustion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Environmental_problems">Environmental problems</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Environmental problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These oxides combine with <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in the atmosphere, creating <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfuric acids">sulfuric acids</a>, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Due to its formation of certain nutrients that are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of the ecosystem and farms. An additional problem associated with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a> is that they, along with <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> pollutants, contribute to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Ground_level_ozone" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground level ozone">ground level ozone</a>, a major component of smog.<sup id="cite_ref-education.seattlepi.com_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-education.seattlepi.com-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Human_health_problems">Human health problems</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Human health problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Breathing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods is positively correlated with the risk of heart disease. People who survive severe <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">carbon monoxide poisoning</a> may suffer long-term health problems.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carbon monoxide from the air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> in human's red blood cells. This reduces the capacity of red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smoldering">Smoldering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Smoldering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Smoldering" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoldering">Smoldering</a> is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering reaction include coal, <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_litter" title="Plant litter">duff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a>, synthetic foams, charring <a href="/wiki/Polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymers">polymers</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane_foam" title="Polyurethane foam">polyurethane foam</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a>. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on <a href="/wiki/Upholstered_furniture" class="mw-redirect" title="Upholstered furniture">upholstered furniture</a> by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent <a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion_of_biomass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Combustion of biomass (page does not exist)">combustion of biomass</a> behind the flaming fronts of <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spontaneous">Spontaneous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Spontaneous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_combustion" title="Spontaneous combustion">Spontaneous combustion</a> is a type of combustion that occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition. For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat. Organic materials undergoing bacterial <a href="/wiki/Composting" class="mw-redirect" title="Composting">composting</a> can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turbulent">Turbulent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Turbulent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial applications (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gasoline_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasoline engine">gasoline engines</a>, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and <a href="/wiki/Oxidizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizer">oxidizer</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micro-gravity">Micro-gravity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Micro-gravity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microgravity_Burning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microgravity_Burning.jpg/220px-Microgravity_Burning.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microgravity_Burning.jpg/330px-Microgravity_Burning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Microgravity_Burning.jpg/440px-Microgravity_Burning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2140" data-file-height="1605" /></a><figcaption>Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity</figcaption></figure> <p>The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Flow_transport_dynamics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flow transport dynamics (page does not exist)">flow transport dynamics</a> can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">candle</a>'s flame takes the shape of a sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Materials_fabrication_processes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Materials fabrication processes (page does not exist)">materials fabrication processes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_(electronics)" title="Thermal management (electronics)">thermal management of electronic systems</a>, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micro-combustion">Micro-combustion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Micro-combustion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Combustion processes that happen in very small volumes are considered <a href="/wiki/Micro-combustion" title="Micro-combustion">micro-combustion</a>. The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss. <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a> distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such <a href="/wiki/Combustion_chamber" title="Combustion chamber">combustion chambers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_equations">Chemical equations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Chemical equations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen">Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">chemical equation</a> for <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometric</a> combustion of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> in oxygen is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+\left(x+{y \over 4}\right){\ce {O2->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>H</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>y</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>y</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+\left(x+{y \over 4}\right){\ce {O2->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5534ce514bcb992378d7ca1a60844b8bbbc9da95" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:40.442ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+\left(x+{y \over 4}\right){\ce {O2->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>For example, the stoichiometric combustion of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> in oxygen is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <msubsup> <mtext>CH</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>methane</mtext> </munder> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8a72f60068ff686d0be397b219c224f7e0668254" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:32.003ex; height:4.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O}}}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stoichiometric_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_air">Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> present in the air (<a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a>) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas. Treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e. (100% − <span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>%) / <span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>% where <span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>% is 20.95% vol: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+z{\ce {O2}}+3.77z{\ce {N2 ->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}+3.77z{\ce {N2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>H</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>y</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mi>z</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+z{\ce {O2}}+3.77z{\ce {N2 ->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}+3.77z{\ce {N2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6270ce8859a5c4045198f4a8bf988dbccd3fc3c6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:53.919ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+z{\ce {O2}}+3.77z{\ce {N2 ->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}+3.77z{\ce {N2}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z=x+{y \over 4}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>z</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>y</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z=x+{y \over 4}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3654dc017a445aa5532ae444c510f3ba37f8302d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:10.355ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z=x+{y \over 4}}"></span>. </p><p>For example, the stoichiometric combustion of methane in air is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2}}+7.54{\ce {N2-> CO2 + 2H2O}}+7.54{\ce {N2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <msubsup> <mtext>CH</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>methane</mtext> </munder> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>7.54</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>7.54</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2}}+7.54{\ce {N2-> CO2 + 2H2O}}+7.54{\ce {N2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87cd3071df4128c985e0ec8aecbb63e4033003d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:51.546ex; height:4.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2}}+7.54{\ce {N2-> CO2 + 2H2O}}+7.54{\ce {N2}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The stoichiometric composition of methane in air is 1 / (1 + 2 + 7.54) = 9.49% vol. </p><p>The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C<sub>α</sub>H<sub>β</sub>O<sub>γ</sub> in air: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/84d00f2c8eea1fac998cd04ab6621d1805f6c680" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:87.48ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C<sub>α</sub>H<sub>β</sub>O<sub>γ</sub>S<sub>δ</sub>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}S_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {SO_{2}}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>S</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>δ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>SO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}S_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {SO_{2}}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right){\ce {N_{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1cf47d5b91df245f3bb44f2c0275c2eab19400f1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:105.568ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}S_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {SO_{2}}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C<sub>α</sub>H<sub>β</sub>O<sub>γ</sub>N<sub>δ</sub>S<sub>ε</sub>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}N_{\mathit {\delta }}S_{\mathit {\epsilon }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\epsilon {\ce {SO_{2}}}+\left(3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)+{\frac {\delta }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>S</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>SO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>β</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>δ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}N_{\mathit {\delta }}S_{\mathit {\epsilon }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\epsilon {\ce {SO_{2}}}+\left(3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)+{\frac {\delta }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fa611d05b7c42f8e27e7e5f75e11588515e142ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:116.158ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}N_{\mathit {\delta }}S_{\mathit {\epsilon }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\epsilon {\ce {SO_{2}}}+\left(3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)+{\frac {\delta }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C<sub>α</sub>H<sub>β</sub>O<sub>γ</sub>F<sub>δ</sub>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}F_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta -\delta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {HF}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>F</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>β</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>β</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>δ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>HF</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3.77</mn> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>β</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>N</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}F_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta -\delta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {HF}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a371734f0313c7406d43d91f6e56523cbd862e0a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:108.789ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}F_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta -\delta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {HF}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trace_combustion_products">Trace combustion products</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Trace combustion products"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_flame_temperature" title="Adiabatic flame temperature">flame temperature</a> is above about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003160000000000000♠"></span>1600 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span>. When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">NO</a></span> and, to a much lesser extent, to <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">NO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></a></span>. <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">CO</a></span> forms by <a href="/wiki/Disproportionation" title="Disproportionation">disproportionation</a> of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>, and <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></a></span> and <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical" title="Hydroxyl radical">OH</a></span> form by disproportionation of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</a></span>. </p><p>For example, when <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000100000000000000♠"></span>1 <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mol</a></span> of <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a> is burned with <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001286000000000000♠"></span>28.6 <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mol</a></span> of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3% <span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>. At <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003140000000000000♠"></span>1400 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> combustion products contain 0.03% <span class="chemf nowrap">NO</span> and 0.002% <span class="chemf nowrap">OH</span>. At <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003180000000000000♠"></span>1800 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span>, the combustion products contain 0.17% <span class="chemf nowrap">NO</span>, 0.05% <span class="chemf nowrap">OH</span>, 0.01% <span class="chemf nowrap">CO</span>, and 0.004% <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-EquiWeb_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EquiWeb-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Diesel_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Diesel engines">Diesel engines</a> are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a> that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">nitrogen oxide</a> emissions. Both the United States and European Union <a href="/wiki/Emission_standard" title="Emission standard">enforce limits</a> to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_converter" title="Catalytic converter">catalytic converters</a> or treatment of the exhaust with <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust_fluid" title="Diesel exhaust fluid">Diesel exhaust fluid</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incomplete_combustion_of_a_hydrocarbon_in_oxygen">Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The incomplete (partial) combustion of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>, <span class="chemf nowrap">CO</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</a></span>, and <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>. Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the <a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">heat-treatment</a> of metals and for <a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">gas carburizing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mole</a> of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {fuel}{C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}}}+{\underset {oxygen}{{\mathit {z}}O2}}->{\underset {carbon\ dioxide}{{\mathit {a}}CO2}}+{\underset {carbon\ monoxide}{{\mathit {b}}CO}}+{\underset {water}{{\mathit {c}}H2O}}+{\underset {hydrogen}{{\mathit {d}}H2}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">x</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">y</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mtext>fuel</mtext> </munder> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">z</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mtext>oxygen</mtext> </munder> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">a</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mrow> <mtext>carbon</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mtext>dioxide</mtext> </mrow> </munder> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">b</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mtext>CO</mtext> </mrow> <mrow> <mtext>carbon</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mtext>monoxide</mtext> </mrow> </munder> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">c</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> <mtext>water</mtext> </munder> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext class="MJX-tex-mathit" mathvariant="italic">d</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mtext>hydrogen</mtext> </munder> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {fuel}{C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}}}+{\underset {oxygen}{{\mathit {z}}O2}}->{\underset {carbon\ dioxide}{{\mathit {a}}CO2}}+{\underset {carbon\ monoxide}{{\mathit {b}}CO}}+{\underset {water}{{\mathit {c}}H2O}}+{\underset {hydrogen}{{\mathit {d}}H2}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0dc5789b2f58c734b435988e1cf90ea547947171" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:62.145ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {fuel}{C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}}}+{\underset {oxygen}{{\mathit {z}}O2}}->{\underset {carbon\ dioxide}{{\mathit {a}}CO2}}+{\underset {carbon\ monoxide}{{\mathit {b}}CO}}+{\underset {water}{{\mathit {c}}H2O}}+{\underset {hydrogen}{{\mathit {d}}H2}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>When <i>z</i> falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane"><span class="chemf nowrap">CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span></a> can become an important combustion product; when <i>z</i> falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> may become stable. </p><p>The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a <a href="/wiki/Material_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Material balance">material balance</a>, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ExoCalc_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ExoCalc-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the combustion of one <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mole</a> of propane (<span class="chemf nowrap">C<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">8</sub></span></span></span>) with four moles of <span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>, seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and <i>z</i> is 80% of the stoichiometric value. The three elemental balance equations are: </p> <ul><li>Carbon: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a+b=3}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a+b=3}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e27200363f9692a8425a50f0bbdae7cb57e82b6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:9.329ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a+b=3}"></span></li> <li>Hydrogen: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2c+2d=8}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>c</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>d</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>8</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2c+2d=8}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4318f13cd8a4b83b953bc598108ce65002de1b2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:11.649ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2c+2d=8}"></span></li> <li>Oxygen: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2a+b+c=8}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>8</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2a+b+c=8}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a2eaa61b9e40e24b18f7c7ce9028cf273d0dfaff" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:14.338ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2a+b+c=8}"></span></li></ul> <p>These three equations are insufficient in themselves to calculate the combustion gas composition. However, at the equilibrium position, the <a href="/wiki/Water-gas_shift_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-gas shift reaction">water-gas shift reaction</a> gives another equation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a47dc7e3d179ae46ed9c47b8efc1f7bf0d7ba8b2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:26.206ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2}}}"></span>; <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K_{eq}={\frac {a\times d}{b\times c}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>b</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{eq}={\frac {a\times d}{b\times c}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/934ab4029705eef1f41c2e3218750d383e2e1a34" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:12.948ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{eq}={\frac {a\times d}{b\times c}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>For example, at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003120000000000000♠"></span>1200 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span> the value of <i>K<sub>eq</sub></i> is 0.728.<sup id="cite_ref-ReacWeb_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReacWeb-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4% <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</a></span>, 29.0% CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>, 14.7% <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>, and 13.9% <span class="chemf nowrap">CO</span>. Carbon becomes a stable phase at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003120000000000000♠"></span>1200 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a></span> and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005101325000000000♠"></span>1 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atm</a></span> pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98% <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> and <span class="chemf nowrap">CO</span> and about 0.5% <span class="chemf nowrap">CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>. </p><p>Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a>. The most common examples are natural gas, propane, <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a>, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liquid_fuels">Liquid fuels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Liquid fuels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Combustion of a <a href="/wiki/Liquid_fuel" title="Liquid fuel">liquid fuel</a> in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its <a href="/wiki/Flash_point" title="Flash point">flash point</a>. The flash point of liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gaseous_fuels">Gaseous fuels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Gaseous fuels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning: <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_flame" title="Diffusion flame">diffusion flame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Premixed_flame" title="Premixed flame">premixed flame</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Autoignitive_reaction_front&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Autoignitive reaction front (page does not exist)">autoignitive reaction front</a>, or as a <a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">detonation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxidizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizer">oxidizer</a> are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise. Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high <a href="/wiki/Detonation_velocity" title="Detonation velocity">detonation velocity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid_fuels">Solid fuels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Solid fuels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disfig1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Disfig1.svg/330px-Disfig1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Disfig1.svg/495px-Disfig1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Disfig1.svg/660px-Disfig1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>A general scheme of <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> combustion</figcaption></figure> <p>The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases: </p> <ul><li><b>Preheating phase</b>, when the unburned <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> is heated up to its flash point and then <a href="/wiki/Fire_point" title="Fire point">fire point</a>. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to <a href="/wiki/Dry_distillation" title="Dry distillation">dry distillation</a>.</li> <li><b>Distillation phase</b> or <b>gaseous phase</b>, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light. <a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">Flames</a> are often visible. Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.</li> <li><b>Charcoal phase</b> or <b>solid phase</b>, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for the persistent presence of flame and the <a href="/wiki/Charring" title="Charring">charred</a> fuel does not burn rapidly and just glows and later only <a href="/wiki/Smouldering" title="Smouldering">smoulders</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Combustion_management">Combustion management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Combustion management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Efficient <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">process heating</a> requires recovery of the largest possible part of a fuel's <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_combustion" title="Heat of combustion">heat of combustion</a> into the material being processed.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HeatCalc_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HeatCalc-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process. Typically, the dominant loss is <a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">sensible heat</a> leaving with the <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">offgas</a> (i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Flue_gas" title="Flue gas">flue gas</a>). The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content (<a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a>), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss. </p><p>In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually <span class="chemf nowrap">CO</span> and <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane (<span class="chemf nowrap">CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>) combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required. </p><p>The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">NOx</a> level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest.<sup id="cite_ref-NOx_formation_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOx_formation-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adherence to these two principles is furthered by making material and heat balances on the combustion process.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MatBalCalc_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MatBalCalc-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HeatBalCalc_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HeatBalCalc-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Material_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Material balance">material balance</a> directly relates the <a href="/wiki/Air/fuel_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Air/fuel ratio">air/fuel ratio</a> to the percentage of <span class="chemf nowrap">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> in the combustion gas. The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AvailHeatCalc_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvailHeatCalc-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SysBalCalc2_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SysBalCalc2-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or enriching it in oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SysBalCalc_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SysBalCalc-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reaction_mechanism">Reaction mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Reaction mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Combustion" title="Special:EditPage/Combustion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Combustion in oxygen is a <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a> in which many distinct <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radical</a> intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the <a href="/wiki/Dioxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxygen">dioxygen</a> molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a <a href="/wiki/Triplet_oxygen" title="Triplet oxygen">triplet spin state</a>. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spins</a> aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a "<a href="/wiki/Forbidden_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Forbidden transition">forbidden transition</a>", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or <a href="/wiki/Singlet_oxygen" title="Singlet oxygen">singlet oxygen</a>. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue. </p><p>Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl_radical" title="Hydroxyl radical">hydroxyl radicals</a>. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and <a href="/wiki/Hydroperoxyl" title="Hydroperoxyl">hydroperoxyl</a>. Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a> produced in the combustion of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, is of special importance because it is a <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisonous gas</a>, but also economically useful for the production of <a href="/wiki/Syngas" title="Syngas">syngas</a>. </p><p>Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other improperly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as thick, black smoke. </p><p>The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time. It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s). </p><p>Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, require the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of reactions. </p><p>The inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects. First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole <a href="/wiki/Dynamical_system" title="Dynamical system">dynamical system</a> stiff. As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Therefore, a plethora of methodologies have been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail levels. Examples are provided by: </p> <ul><li>The Relaxation Redistribution Method (RRM)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Intrinsic Low-Dimensional Manifold (ILDM) approach and further developments<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The invariant-constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A few variational approaches<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Computational Singular perturbation (CSP) method and further developments.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Rate Controlled Constrained Equilibrium (RCCE) and Quasi Equilibrium Manifold (QEM) approach.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The G-Scheme.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Method of Invariant Grids (MIG).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinetic_modelling">Kinetic modelling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Kinetic modelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance <a href="/wiki/Thermogravimetric_analysis" title="Thermogravimetric analysis">Thermogravimetric analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Temperature">Temperature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg/220px-Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg/330px-Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg/440px-Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sunlight</figcaption></figure> <p>Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic">adiabatic</a> conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the <a href="/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics" title="First law of thermodynamics">first law of thermodynamics</a> and takes note of the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_combustion" title="Heat of combustion">heat of combustion</a> is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the <i><a href="/wiki/Flue_gas" title="Flue gas">flue gas</a></i>). </p><p>In the case of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following: </p> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_combustion" title="Heat of combustion">heating value</a>;</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Air-fuel_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-fuel ratio">stoichiometric air to fuel ratio</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\lambda }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>λ</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\lambda }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/80912e657954ba7a08dc822fac02fd5fd61067c1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\lambda }}"></span>;</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a> of fuel and air;</li> <li>the air and fuel inlet temperatures.</li></ul> <p>The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_flame_temperature" title="Adiabatic flame temperature">adiabatic flame temperature</a></i>) increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one. </p><p>Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 2,200 °C (3,992 °F) (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda =1.0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1.0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda =1.0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3990e3610d238215b70decb263c98b2681e2a1f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.425ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda =1.0}"></span>), around 2,150 °C (3,902 °F) for oil and 2,000 °C (3,632 °F) for <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AFTCalc_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AFTCalc-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In industrial <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">fired heaters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power station</a> <a href="/wiki/Steam_generator" title="Steam generator">steam generators</a>, and large <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas-fired turbines</a>, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is <i>percent excess combustion air</i>. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instabilities">Instabilities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Instabilities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180<span class="nowrap"> </span>dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduces the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector. In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<sub class="template-chem2-sub"><i>x</i></sub></span> emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">NO<sub class="template-chem2-sub"><i>x</i></sub></span> emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Thermoacoustic_hot_air_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoacoustic hot air engine">Rayleigh Criterion</a> is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="text-align:center;"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(x)={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{T}q'(x,t)p'(x,t)dt}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>T</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>q</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(x)={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{T}q'(x,t)p'(x,t)dt}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/88d823f8b2305c24ebc6b9f1090d52f2b872ca54" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:29.691ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(x)={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{T}q'(x,t)p'(x,t)dt}"></span></div> <p>where q' is the heat release rate perturbation and p' is the pressure fluctuation.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermoacoustic instability is maximised. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This minimizes the Rayleigh Index. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <p><b>Related concepts</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air%E2%80%93fuel_ratio" title="Air–fuel ratio">Air–fuel ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoignition_temperature" title="Autoignition temperature">Autoignition temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_looping_combustion" title="Chemical looping combustion">Chemical looping combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflagration" title="Deflagration">Deflagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">Detonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_explosion" title="Dust explosion">Dust explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">Explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">Flame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous_combustion" title="Heterogeneous combustion">Heterogeneous combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markstein_number" title="Markstein number">Markstein number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">Phlogiston theory</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_combustion" title="Spontaneous combustion">Spontaneous combustion</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><b>Machines and equipment</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">Boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunsen_burner" title="Bunsen burner">Bunsen burner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_combustion_engine" title="External combustion engine">External combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furnace_(house_heating)" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnace (house heating)">Furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Gas turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li></ul> <p><b>Scientific and engineering societies</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Flame_Research_Foundation" title="International Flame Research Foundation">International Flame Research Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Combustion_Institute" title="The Combustion Institute">The Combustion Institute</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustible_dust&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Combustible dust (page does not exist)">Combustible dust</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion_of_biomass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Combustion of biomass (page does not exist)">Biomass burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_light_sources" title="List of light sources">List of light sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stubble_burning" title="Stubble burning">Stubble burning</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">colloquial meaning of burning is combustion accompanied by flames</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NOx_formation-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NOx_formation_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOx_formation_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alentecinc.com/papers/NOx/The%20formation%20of%20NOx_files/The%20formation%20of%20NOx.htm">The formation of NOx</a>. Alentecinc.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqkXAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA26R">Central Boiler Plants</a> (Report). US Department of the Army. 1989. p. Glossary 26. TM 5-650.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Central+Boiler+Plants&rft.pages=Glossary+26&rft.pub=US+Department+of+the+Army&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjqkXAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA26R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-combustion-efficiency-d_167.html">"Engineering Toolbox: Optimal Combustion Processes - Fuel vs. Excess Air"</a>. 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Engineering+Toolbox%3A+Optimal+Combustion+Processes+-+Fuel+vs.+Excess+Air&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineeringtoolbox.com%2Ffuels-combustion-efficiency-d_167.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/ghi/incomplete-combustion-processes.htm">"Incomplete combustion process"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Incomplete+combustion+process&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenfacts.org%2Fglossary%2Fghi%2Fincomplete-combustion-processes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/747-what-is-fire">"Burning showing incomplete combustion"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Burning+showing+incomplete+combustion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencelearn.org.nz%2Fresources%2F747-what-is-fire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-education.seattlepi.com-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-education.seattlepi.com_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.seattlepi.com/environmental-problems-associated-combustion-hydrocarbons-5621.html">"Environmental Problems associated with incomplete combustion"</a>. 25 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Environmental+Problems+associated+with+incomplete+combustion&rft.date=2014-02-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feducation.seattlepi.com%2Fenvironmental-problems-associated-combustion-hydrocarbons-5621.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ephtracking.cdc.gov/showCoRisk.action">"Carbon Monoxide Poisoning"</a>. 8 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Carbon+Monoxide+Poisoning&rft.date=2020-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fephtracking.cdc.gov%2FshowCoRisk.action&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701011314/http://www.soilandmulchproducernews.com/index.php/frontpage-articles-hidden/160-a-perfect-storm-mulch-fire-dynamics-and-prevention">"A Perfect Storm: Mulch Fire Dynamics and Prevention"</a>. Soilandmulchproducernews.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soilandmulchproducernews.com/index.php/frontpage-articles-hidden/160-a-perfect-storm-mulch-fire-dynamics-and-prevention">the original</a> on 2018-07-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Perfect+Storm%3A+Mulch+Fire+Dynamics+and+Prevention&rft.pub=Soilandmulchproducernews.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soilandmulchproducernews.com%2Findex.php%2Ffrontpage-articles-hidden%2F160-a-perfect-storm-mulch-fire-dynamics-and-prevention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011118103426/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/shuttle-mir/science/mg/nm21460011.htm">Shuttle-Mir History/Science/Microgravity/Candle Flame in Microgravity (CFM) – MGBX</a>. Spaceflight.nasa.gov (1999-07-16). Retrieved on 2010-09-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EquiWeb-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EquiWeb_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaleBélisle2022" class="citation web cs1">Bale, Christopher W.; Bélisle, Eve (8 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crct.polymtl.ca/equiweb.php">"Equilib-Web"</a>. Centre for Research in Computational Thermochemistry, Polytechnique Montreal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Equilib-Web&rft.pub=Centre+for+Research+in+Computational+Thermochemistry%2C+Polytechnique+Montreal&rft.date=2022-03-08&rft.aulast=Bale&rft.aufirst=Christopher+W.&rft.au=B%C3%A9lisle%2C+Eve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crct.polymtl.ca%2Fequiweb.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ASM Committee on Furnace Atmospheres, <i>Furnace atmospheres and carbon control</i>, Metals Park, OH [1964].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231109214347/https://www.industrialheating.com/articles/91142-exothermic-atmospheres">"Exothermic atmospheres"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 22. June 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/91142-exothermic-atmospheres">the original</a> on 9 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Exothermic+atmospheres&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2013-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F91142-exothermic-atmospheres&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ExoCalc-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ExoCalc_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/ExoCalc">[1]</a> ExoCalc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReacWeb-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReacWeb_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crct.polymtl.ca/reacweb.htm">"Reaction-Web"</a>. Crct.polymtl.ca<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reaction-Web&rft.pub=Crct.polymtl.ca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crct.polymtl.ca%2Freacweb.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bradley, D (2009-06-25). "Combustion and the design of future engine fuels". <i>Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science</i>. <b>223</b> (12): 2751–2765. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1243%2F09544062jmes1519">10.1243/09544062jmes1519</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97218733">97218733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Institution+of+Mechanical+Engineers%2C+Part+C%3A+Journal+of+Mechanical+Engineering+Science&rft.atitle=Combustion+and+the+design+of+future+engine+fuels&rft.volume=223&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2751-2765&rft.date=2009-06-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1243%2F09544062jmes1519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A97218733%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130710085624/http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/90561-calculating-the-heat-of-combustion-for-natural-gas">"Calculating the heat of combustion for natural gas"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 28. September 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/90561-calculating-the-heat-of-combustion-for-natural-gas">the original</a> on 10 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Calculating+the+heat+of+combustion+for+natural+gas&rft.pages=28&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F90561-calculating-the-heat-of-combustion-for-natural-gas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HeatCalc-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HeatCalc_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/HeatCalc">[2]</a> HeatCalc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/90764-making-a-material-balance">"Making a material balance"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 20. November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Making+a+material+balance&rft.pages=20&rft.date=2012-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F90764-making-a-material-balance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MatBalCalc-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MatBalCalc_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/MatBalCalc">[3]</a> MatBalCalc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/90812-making-a-heat-balance">"Making a heat balance"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 22. December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Making+a+heat+balance&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2012-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F90812-making-a-heat-balance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HeatBalCalc-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HeatBalCalc_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/HeatBalCalc">[4]</a> HeatBalCalc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/91014-available-combustion-heat">"Available combustion heat"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 22. April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Available+combustion+heat&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2013-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F91014-available-combustion-heat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AvailHeatCalc-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AvailHeatCalc_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/availheatcalc">[5]</a> AvailHeatCalc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/90954-making-a-system-balance-part-2">"Making a system balance (Part 2)"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 24. March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Making+a+system+balance+%28Part+2%29&rft.pages=24&rft.date=2012-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F90954-making-a-system-balance-part-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SysBalCalc2-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SysBalCalc2_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/SysBalCalc2">[6]</a> SysBalCalc2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/90897-making-a-system-balance-part-1">"Making a system balance (Part 1)"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 22. February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Making+a+system+balance+%28Part+1%29&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2012-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F90897-making-a-system-balance-part-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SysBalCalc-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SysBalCalc_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/sysbalcalc">[7]</a> SysBalCalc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw2006" class="citation book cs1">Law, C.K. (2006). <i>Combustion Physics</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521154215" title="Special:BookSources/9780521154215"><bdi>9780521154215</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Combustion+Physics&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780521154215&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=C.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoussisMaas2011" class="citation book cs1">Goussis, D.; Maas, U. (2011). <i>Turbulent Combustion Modeling</i>. Springer Science. pp. 193–220.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turbulent+Combustion+Modeling&rft.pages=193-220&rft.pub=Springer+Science&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Goussis&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Maas%2C+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiavazzoKarlin2011" class="citation journal cs1">Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya (2011). "Adaptive simplification of complex multiscale systems". <i>Phys. Rev. E</i>. <b>83</b> (3): 036706. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1011.1618">1011.1618</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvE..83c6706C">2011PhRvE..83c6706C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevE.83.036706">10.1103/PhysRevE.83.036706</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21517624">21517624</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7458232">7458232</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.+E&rft.atitle=Adaptive+simplification+of+complex+multiscale+systems&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=036706&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7458232%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PhRvE..83c6706C&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1011.1618&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21517624&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevE.83.036706&rft.aulast=Chiavazzo&rft.aufirst=Eliodoro&rft.au=Karlin%2C+Ilya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiavazzoAsinariVisconti2011" class="citation journal cs1">Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Asinari, Pietro; Visconti, Filippo (2011). "Fast computation of multi-scale combustion systems". <i>Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A</i>. <b>369</b> (1945): 2396–2404. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1011.3828">1011.3828</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011RSPTA.369.2396C">2011RSPTA.369.2396C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2011.0026">10.1098/rsta.2011.0026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21576153">21576153</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14998597">14998597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phil.+Trans.+Roy.+Soc.+A&rft.atitle=Fast+computation+of+multi-scale+combustion+systems&rft.volume=369&rft.issue=1945&rft.pages=2396-2404&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14998597%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011RSPTA.369.2396C&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1011.3828&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21576153&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2011.0026&rft.aulast=Chiavazzo&rft.aufirst=Eliodoro&rft.au=Asinari%2C+Pietro&rft.au=Visconti%2C+Filippo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiavazzo2012" class="citation journal cs1">Chiavazzo, Eliodoro (2012). "Approximation of slow and fast dynamics in multiscale dynamical systems by the linearized Relaxation Redistribution Method". <i>Journal of Computational Physics</i>. <b>231</b> (4): 1751–1765. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1102.0730">1102.0730</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JCoPh.231.1751C">2012JCoPh.231.1751C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2011.11.007">10.1016/j.jcp.2011.11.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16979409">16979409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Computational+Physics&rft.atitle=Approximation+of+slow+and+fast+dynamics+in+multiscale+dynamical+systems+by+the+linearized+Relaxation+Redistribution+Method&rft.volume=231&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1751-1765&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1102.0730&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16979409%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2011.11.007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012JCoPh.231.1751C&rft.aulast=Chiavazzo&rft.aufirst=Eliodoro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKooshkbaghiFrouzakisChiavazzoBoulouchos2014" class="citation journal cs1">Kooshkbaghi, Mahdi; Frouzakis, E. Christos; Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Boulouchos, Konstantinos; Karlin, Ilya (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iris.polito.it/bitstream/11583/2553537/1/JChemPhys_2014a.pdf">"The global relaxation redistribution method for reduction of combustion kinetics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of Chemical Physics</i>. <b>141</b> (4): 044102. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JChPh.141d4102K">2014JChPh.141d4102K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4890368">10.1063/1.4890368</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25084876">25084876</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1784716">1784716</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://iris.polito.it/bitstream/11583/2553537/1/JChemPhys_2014a.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.atitle=The+global+relaxation+redistribution+method+for+reduction+of+combustion+kinetics&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=044102&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.4890368&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1784716%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25084876&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014JChPh.141d4102K&rft.aulast=Kooshkbaghi&rft.aufirst=Mahdi&rft.au=Frouzakis%2C+E.+Christos&rft.au=Chiavazzo%2C+Eliodoro&rft.au=Boulouchos%2C+Konstantinos&rft.au=Karlin%2C+Ilya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firis.polito.it%2Fbitstream%2F11583%2F2553537%2F1%2FJChemPhys_2014a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaasPope1992" class="citation journal cs1">Maas, U.; Pope, S.B. (1992). "Simplifying chemical kinetics: intrinsic low-dimensional manifolds in composition space". <i>Combust. Flame</i>. <b>88</b> (3–4): 239–264. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-2180%2892%2990034-m">10.1016/0010-2180(92)90034-m</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Combust.+Flame&rft.atitle=Simplifying+chemical+kinetics%3A+intrinsic+low-dimensional+manifolds+in+composition+space&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=239-264&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0010-2180%2892%2990034-m&rft.aulast=Maas&rft.aufirst=U.&rft.au=Pope%2C+S.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBykovMaas2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bykov, V.; Maas, U (2007). "The extension of the ILDM concept to reaction–diffusion manifolds". <i>Combust. Theory Model</i>. <b>11</b> (6): 839–862. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007CTM....11..839B">2007CTM....11..839B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13647830701242531">10.1080/13647830701242531</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120624915">120624915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Combust.+Theory+Model.&rft.atitle=The+extension+of+the+ILDM+concept+to+reaction%E2%80%93diffusion+manifolds&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=839-862&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120624915%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13647830701242531&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007CTM....11..839B&rft.aulast=Bykov&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Maas%2C+U&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNafeMaas2002" class="citation journal cs1">Nafe, J.; Maas, U. (2002). "A general algorithm for improving ILDMs". <i>Combust. Theory Model</i>. <b>6</b> (4): 697–709. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CTM.....6..697N">2002CTM.....6..697N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1364-7830%2F6%2F4%2F308">10.1088/1364-7830/6/4/308</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120269918">120269918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Combust.+Theory+Model.&rft.atitle=A+general+algorithm+for+improving+ILDMs&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=697-709&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120269918%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1364-7830%2F6%2F4%2F308&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002CTM.....6..697N&rft.aulast=Nafe&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Maas%2C+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenPopeVladimirskyGuckenheimer2006" class="citation journal cs1">Ren, Z.; Pope, S.B.; Vladimirsky, A.; Guckenheimer, J.M. (2006). "The invariant constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method for the dimension reduction of chemical kinetics". <i>J. Chem. Phys</i>. <b>124</b> (11): 114111. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JChPh.124k4111R">2006JChPh.124k4111R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2177243">10.1063/1.2177243</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16555878">16555878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Chem.+Phys.&rft.atitle=The+invariant+constrained+equilibrium+edge+preimage+curve+method+for+the+dimension+reduction+of+chemical+kinetics&rft.volume=124&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=114111&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16555878&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2177243&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JChPh.124k4111R&rft.aulast=Ren&rft.aufirst=Z.&rft.au=Pope%2C+S.B.&rft.au=Vladimirsky%2C+A.&rft.au=Guckenheimer%2C+J.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLebiedz2010" class="citation journal cs1">Lebiedz, D (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fe12040706">"Entropy-related extremum principles for model reduction of dissipative dynamical systems"</a>. <i>Entropy</i>. <b>12</b> (4): 706–719. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Entrp..12..706L">2010Entrp..12..706L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fe12040706">10.3390/e12040706</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Entropy&rft.atitle=Entropy-related+extremum+principles+for+model+reduction+of+dissipative+dynamical+systems&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=706-719&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fe12040706&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Entrp..12..706L&rft.aulast=Lebiedz&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fe12040706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinhardtWincklerLebiedz112" class="citation journal cs1">Reinhardt, V.; Winckler, M.; Lebiedz, D. (112). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/7352/1/modelred_optimization.pdf">"Approximation of slow attracting manifolds in chemical kinetics by tra trjectory-based optimization approaches"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>J. Phys. Chem. A</i>. <b>112</b> (8): 1712–1718. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JPCA..112.1712R">2008JPCA..112.1712R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjp0739925">10.1021/jp0739925</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18247506">18247506</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/7352/1/modelred_optimization.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Phys.+Chem.+A&rft.atitle=Approximation+of+slow+attracting+manifolds+in+chemical+kinetics+by+tra+trjectory-based+optimization+approaches&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1712-1718&rft.date=112&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18247506&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fjp0739925&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008JPCA..112.1712R&rft.aulast=Reinhardt&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Winckler%2C+M.&rft.au=Lebiedz%2C+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fvolltextserver%2F7352%2F1%2Fmodelred_optimization.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamGoussis1991" class="citation book cs1">Lam, S.H.; Goussis, D. (1991). <i>Conventional Asymptotic and Computational Singular Perturbation for Symplified Kinetics Modelling</i>. Berlin: Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conventional+Asymptotic+and+Computational+Singular+Perturbation+for+Symplified+Kinetics+Modelling&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Lam&rft.aufirst=S.H.&rft.au=Goussis%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValoraniGoussisNajm2005" class="citation journal cs1">Valorani, M.; Goussis, D.; Najm, H.N. (2005). "Higher order corrections in the approximation of low-dimensional manifolds and the construction of simplified problems with the csp method". <i>J. Comput. Phys</i>. <b>209</b> (2): 754–786. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JCoPh.209..754V">2005JCoPh.209..754V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2005.03.033">10.1016/j.jcp.2005.03.033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Comput.+Phys.&rft.atitle=Higher+order+corrections+in+the+approximation+of+low-dimensional+manifolds+and+the+construction+of+simplified+problems+with+the+csp+method&rft.volume=209&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=754-786&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2005.03.033&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JCoPh.209..754V&rft.aulast=Valorani&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Goussis%2C+D.&rft.au=Najm%2C+H.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeckGillespie1971" class="citation journal cs1">Keck, J.C.; Gillespie, D. (1971). "Rate-controlled partial-equilibrium method for treating reacting gas mixtures". <i>Combust. Flame</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 237–241. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0010-2180%2871%2980166-9">10.1016/S0010-2180(71)80166-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Combust.+Flame&rft.atitle=Rate-controlled+partial-equilibrium+method+for+treating+reacting+gas+mixtures&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=237-241&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0010-2180%2871%2980166-9&rft.aulast=Keck&rft.aufirst=J.C.&rft.au=Gillespie%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiavazzoKarlin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya (2008). "Quasi-equilibrium grid algorithm: geometric construction for model reduction". <i>J. Comput. Phys</i>. <b>227</b> (11): 5535–5560. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0704.2317">0704.2317</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JCoPh.227.5535C">2008JCoPh.227.5535C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2008.02.006">10.1016/j.jcp.2008.02.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:973322">973322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Comput.+Phys.&rft.atitle=Quasi-equilibrium+grid+algorithm%3A+geometric+construction+for+model+reduction&rft.volume=227&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=5535-5560&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0704.2317&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A973322%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2008.02.006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008JCoPh.227.5535C&rft.aulast=Chiavazzo&rft.aufirst=Eliodoro&rft.au=Karlin%2C+Ilya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValoraniPaolucci2009" class="citation journal cs1">Valorani, M.; Paolucci, S. (2009). "The G-Scheme: a framework for multi-scale adaptive model reduction". <i>J. Comput. Phys</i>. <b>228</b> (13): 4665–4701. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JCoPh.228.4665V">2009JCoPh.228.4665V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2009.03.011">10.1016/j.jcp.2009.03.011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Comput.+Phys.&rft.atitle=The+G-Scheme%3A+a+framework+for+multi-scale+adaptive+model+reduction&rft.volume=228&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=4665-4701&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jcp.2009.03.011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JCoPh.228.4665V&rft.aulast=Valorani&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Paolucci%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiavazzoKarlinGorban2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexander (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.le.ac.uk/people/ag153/homepage/ChiaKarGor2010.pdf">"The role of thermodynamics in model reduction when using invariant grids"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Commun. Comput. Phys</i>. <b>8</b> (4): 701–734. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010CCoPh...8..701C">2010CCoPh...8..701C</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.302.9316">10.1.1.302.9316</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4208%2Fcicp.030709.210110a">10.4208/cicp.030709.210110a</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.math.le.ac.uk/people/ag153/homepage/ChiaKarGor2010.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commun.+Comput.+Phys.&rft.atitle=The+role+of+thermodynamics+in+model+reduction+when+using+invariant+grids&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=701-734&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.302.9316%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4208%2Fcicp.030709.210110a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010CCoPh...8..701C&rft.aulast=Chiavazzo&rft.aufirst=Eliodoro&rft.au=Karlin%2C+Ilya&rft.au=Gorban%2C+Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.le.ac.uk%2Fpeople%2Fag153%2Fhomepage%2FChiaKarGor2010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiavazzoKarlinFrouzakisBoulouchos2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Frouzakis, Christos E.; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2009). "Method of invariant grid for model reduction of hydrogen combustion". <i>Proceedings of the Combustion Institute</i>. <b>32</b>: 519–526. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0712.2386">0712.2386</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.proci.2008.05.014">10.1016/j.proci.2008.05.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118484479">118484479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Combustion+Institute&rft.atitle=Method+of+invariant+grid+for+model+reduction+of+hydrogen+combustion&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=519-526&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0712.2386&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118484479%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.proci.2008.05.014&rft.aulast=Chiavazzo&rft.aufirst=Eliodoro&rft.au=Karlin%2C+Ilya&rft.au=Frouzakis%2C+Christos+E.&rft.au=Boulouchos%2C+Konstantinos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiavazzoKarlinGorbanBoulouchos2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexander; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2010). "Coupling of the model reduction technique with the lattice Boltzmann method for combustion simulations". <i>Combust. Flame</i>. <b>157</b> (10): 1833–1849. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.combustflame.2010.06.009">10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.06.009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Combust.+Flame&rft.atitle=Coupling+of+the+model+reduction+technique+with+the+lattice+Boltzmann+method+for+combustion+simulations&rft.volume=157&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1833-1849&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.combustflame.2010.06.009&rft.aulast=Chiavazzo&rft.aufirst=Eliodoro&rft.au=Karlin%2C+Ilya&rft.au=Gorban%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Boulouchos%2C+Konstantinos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReyesConesaMarcilla2001" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Reyes, J.A.; Conesa, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2001). "Pyrolysis and combustion of polycoated cartons recycling. kinetic model and ms analysis". <i>Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis</i>. 58–59: 747–763. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0165-2370%2800%2900123-6">10.1016/S0165-2370(00)00123-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Analytical+and+Applied+Pyrolysis&rft.atitle=Pyrolysis+and+combustion+of+polycoated+cartons+recycling.+kinetic+model+and+ms+analysis&rft.volume=58-59&rft.pages=747-763&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0165-2370%2800%2900123-6&rft.aulast=Reyes&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rft.au=Conesa%2C+J.A.&rft.au=Marcilla%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/91062-adiabatic-flame-temperature">"Adiabatic flame temperature"</a>. <i>Industrial Heating</i>: 20. May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Heating&rft.atitle=Adiabatic+flame+temperature&rft.pages=20&rft.date=2013-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industrialheating.com%2Farticles%2F91062-adiabatic-flame-temperature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AFTCalc-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AFTCalc_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.industrialheating.com/AFT-Calc">[8]</a> AFTCalc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, Sc.D., F.R.S.., Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; "The Theory of Sound", §322h, 1878:</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. A. Putnam and W. C. Dennis (1953) "Organ-pipe oscillations in a flame-filled tube", <i>Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion</i>, The Combustion Institute, pp. 566–574.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. C. Fernandes and M. V. Heitor, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Je_hG6UfnogC&q=rayleigh+thermoacoustic+">"Unsteady flames and the Rayleigh criterion"</a> in F. Culick, M. V. Heitor, and J. H. Whitelaw, ed.s, <i>Unsteady Combustion</i> (Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996), p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dowling, A. P. (2000a). "Vortices, sound and flame – a damaging combination". <i>The Aeronautical Journal of the RaeS</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrystieBurnsKaminski2013" class="citation journal cs1">Chrystie, Robin S. M.; Burns, Iain S.; Kaminski, Clemens F. (2013). "Temperature Response of an Acoustically Forced Turbulent Lean Premixed Flame: A Quantitative Experimental Determination". <i>Combustion Science and Technology</i>. <b>185</b>: 180–199. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00102202.2012.714020">10.1080/00102202.2012.714020</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46039754">46039754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Combustion+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Temperature+Response+of+an+Acoustically+Forced+Turbulent+Lean+Premixed+Flame%3A+A+Quantitative+Experimental+Determination&rft.volume=185&rft.pages=180-199&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00102202.2012.714020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46039754%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chrystie&rft.aufirst=Robin+S.+M.&rft.au=Burns%2C+Iain+S.&rft.au=Kaminski%2C+Clemens+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Combustion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/combustion" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/combustion">combustion</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoinsotVeynante2012" class="citation book cs1">Poinsot, Thierry; Veynante, Denis (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912201709/http://elearning.cerfacs.fr/combustion/onlinePoinsotBook/buythirdedition/index.php"><i>Theoretical and Numerical Combustion</i></a> (3rd ed.). European Centre for Research and Advanced Training in Scientific Computation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elearning.cerfacs.fr/combustion/onlinePoinsotBook/buythirdedition/index.php">the original</a> on 2017-09-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+and+Numerical+Combustion&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=European+Centre+for+Research+and+Advanced+Training+in+Scientific+Computation&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Poinsot&rft.aufirst=Thierry&rft.au=Veynante%2C+Denis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felearning.cerfacs.fr%2Fcombustion%2FonlinePoinsotBook%2Fbuythirdedition%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacknerWinterAgarwal2010" class="citation book cs1">Lackner, Maximilian; Winter, Franz; Agarwal, Avinash K., eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110117003038/http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-3527324496.html"><i>Handbook of Combustion, 5 volume set</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-VCH" title="Wiley-VCH">Wiley-VCH</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-32449-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-32449-1"><bdi>978-3-527-32449-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-3527324496.html">the original</a> on 2011-01-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Combustion%2C+5+volume+set&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-527-32449-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fas.wiley.com%2FWileyCDA%2FWileyTitle%2FproductCd-3527324496.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaukal1998" class="citation book cs1">Baukal, Charles E., ed. (1998). <i>Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion</i>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxygen-Enhanced+Combustion&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassmanYetter" class="citation book cs1">Glassman, Irvin; Yetter, Richard. <i>Combustion</i> (Fourth ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Combustion&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.aulast=Glassman&rft.aufirst=Irvin&rft.au=Yetter%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurns2011" class="citation book cs1">Turns, Stephen (2011). <i>An Introduction to Combustion: Concepts and Applications</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Combustion%3A+Concepts+and+Applications&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Turns&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaglandBryden2011" class="citation book cs1">Ragland, Kenneth W; Bryden, Kenneth M. (2011). <i>Combustion Engineering</i> (Second ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Combustion+Engineering&rft.edition=Second&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Ragland&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+W&rft.au=Bryden%2C+Kenneth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaukal2013" class="citation book cs1">Baukal, Charles E. Jr, ed. (2013). "Industrial Combustion". <i>The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook: Three-Volume Set</i> (Second ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Industrial+Combustion&rft.btitle=The+John+Zink+Hamworthy+Combustion+Handbook%3A+Three-Volume+Set&rft.edition=Second&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner2000" class="citation book cs1">Gardiner, W. C. Jr (2000). <i>Gas-Phase Combustion Chemistry</i> (Revised ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gas-Phase+Combustion+Chemistry&rft.edition=Revised&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=W.+C.+Jr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACombustion" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Firelighting" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Firelighting" title="Template:Firelighting"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Firelighting" title="Template talk:Firelighting"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Firelighting" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Firelighting"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Firelighting" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fire_making" title="Fire making">Firelighting</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campfire" title="Campfire">Campfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonfire" title="Bonfire">Bonfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_firelighting" title="Glossary of firelighting">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ember" title="Ember">Ember</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_triangle" title="Fire triangle">Fire triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">Firewood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_(fire)" title="Spark (fire)">Spark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinder" title="Tinder">Tinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_ash" title="Wood ash">Wood ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_fuel" title="Wood fuel">Wood fuel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_firelighting" title="Glossary of firelighting">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoignition_temperature" title="Autoignition temperature">Autoignition temperature</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firelighting#Friction" class="mw-redirect" title="Firelighting">Friction fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_ignition_energy" title="Minimum ignition energy">Minimum ignition energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smouldering" title="Smouldering">Smouldering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early starters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burning_glass" title="Burning glass">Burning glass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Spark_Lighter" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Spark Lighter">Solar Spark Lighter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_drill_(tool)" title="Fire drill (tool)">Fire drill</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_drill" title="Hand drill">Hand drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump_drill" title="Pump drill">Pump drill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_piston" title="Fire piston">Fire piston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_striker" title="Fire striker">Fire striker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern starters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowtorch" title="Blowtorch">Blowtorch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrocerium" title="Ferrocerium">Ferrocerium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighter" title="Lighter">Lighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Match" title="Match">Match</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_match" title="Black match">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_match" title="Electric match">Electric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Char_cloth" title="Char cloth">Char cloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuckmuck" title="Chuckmuck">Chuckmuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather_stick" title="Feather stick">Feather stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_pan" title="Fire pan">Fire pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_pit" title="Fire pit">Fire pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire ring">Fire ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matchbook" title="Matchbook">Matchbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matchbox" title="Matchbox">Matchbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_(fireworks)" title="Punk (fireworks)">Punk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinderbox" title="Tinderbox">Tinderbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torch" title="Torch">Torch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">Arson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Control of fire by early humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firem%27n_Chit" title="Firem'n Chit">Firem'n Chit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_use_of_fire_in_ecosystems" title="Native American use of fire in ecosystems">Native American use of fire in ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outdoor_cooking" title="Outdoor cooking">Outdoor cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">Pyrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyromania" title="Pyromania">Pyromania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_skills" title="Survival skills">Survival skills</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fire" title="Template:Fire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fire" title="Template talk:Fire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">Fire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_fires" title="Category:Lists of fires">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Control of fire by early humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fires" title="List of fires">Historic fires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_use_of_fire_in_ecosystems" title="Native American use of fire in ecosystems">Native American use of fire in ecosystems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">Chain reaction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_explosion" title="Dust explosion">Dust explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_piston" title="Fire piston">Fire piston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_point" title="Flash point">Flash point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection" title="Fire protection">Fire protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">Pyrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_combustion" title="Spontaneous combustion">Spontaneous combustion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">Fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame" title="Flame">Flame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual fires</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fires_by_type" title="Category:Fires by type">By type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fires_by_country" title="Category:Fires by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fires_by_year" title="Category:Fires by year">By year</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crime</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">Arson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning">Death by burning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyromania" title="Pyromania">Pyromanias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_pyromaniac" title="Child pyromaniac">Child</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighter" title="Firefighter">Firefighter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Flame_Research_Foundation" title="International Flame Research Foundation">International Flame Research Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Combustion_Institute" title="The Combustion Institute">The Combustion Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildfires" title="List of wildfires">List of wildfires</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backdraft" title="Backdraft">Backdraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighting" title="Firefighting">Firefighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_whirl" title="Fire whirl">Fire whirl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_lava" title="Blue lava">Blue lava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ash" title="Ash">Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">Slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_making" title="Fire making">Fire making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fire" title="Category:Fire">Category</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Fire">Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Fire" class="extiw" title="wikt:Fire">Wiktionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133235#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85028831">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Combustion"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931715p">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Combustion"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931715p">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00568101">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="hoření"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120848&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543260705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combustion&oldid=1258666484">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combustion&oldid=1258666484</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Combustion" title="Category:Combustion">Combustion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemical_reactions" title="Category:Chemical reactions">Chemical reactions</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_January_2017" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2017">Articles needing additional references from January 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_that_use_a_deprecated_format_of_the_chem_tags" title="Category:Pages that use a deprecated format of the chem tags">Pages that use a deprecated format of the chem tags</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 22:42<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Combustion&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-rlhbk","wgBackendResponseTime":191,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.014","walltime":"1.293","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7346,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":218000,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10681,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":15,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":11,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":201049,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1019.632 1 -total"," 34.80% 354.870 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.96% 152.540 28 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.06% 102.612 2 Template:Navbox"," 9.90% 100.959 1 Template:Cite_report"," 8.83% 90.044 1 Template:Firelighting"," 7.92% 80.708 1 Template:More_citations_needed_section"," 7.79% 79.413 1 Template:Short_description"," 7.24% 73.865 1 Template:More_citations_needed"," 6.98% 71.144 1 Template:Ambox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.578","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9583579,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-g6cgs","timestamp":"20241122140905","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Combustion","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combustion","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q133235","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q133235","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-05-10T13:07:34Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T22:42:38Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/7e\/Fire%2C_Fireplace%2C_Rostov-on-Don%2C_Russia.jpg","headline":"high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke"}</script> </body> </html>