CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"5859b2e3-8d06-4ef9-b9cc-8d957d8ce07f","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing","wgTitle":"Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing","wgCurRevisionId":1213875680,"wgRevisionId":1213875680,"wgArticleId":935451,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use dmy dates from March 2024","Medical statistics","Evidence-based medicine","Summary statistics for contingency tables"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing","wgRelevantArticleId":935451,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true, "wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":20000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q6547272","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics": true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing rootpage-Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Likelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Likelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Likelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Likelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Calculation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Calculation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application_to_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application_to_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Application to medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Application_to_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimation_table" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimation_table"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Estimation table</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Estimation_table-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Estimation table subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Estimation_table-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Estimation_example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimation_example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Estimation example</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimation_example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calculation_example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculation_example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Calculation example</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculation_example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estimation_of_pre-_and_post-test_probability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimation_of_pre-_and_post-test_probability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Estimation of pre- and post-test probability</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Estimation_of_pre-_and_post-test_probability-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Estimation of pre- and post-test probability subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Estimation_of_pre-_and_post-test_probability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Example</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 5 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-5" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">5 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapport_de_vraisemblance" title="Rapport de vraisemblance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rapport de vraisemblance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapporto_di_verosimiglianza_nei_test_diagnostici" title="Rapporto di verosimiglianza nei test diagnostici – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rapporto di verosimiglianza nei test diagnostici" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%97%D7%A1_%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA" title="יחס נראות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יחס נראות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratio_(epidemiologie)" title="Likelihood ratio (epidemiologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Likelihood ratio (epidemiologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Відношення правдоподібності медичних тестів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Відношення правдоподібності медичних тестів" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q6547272#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&oldid=1213875680" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&id=1213875680&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FLikelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FLikelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q6547272" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Likelihood ratios used for assessing the value of performing a diagnostic test</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the use of likelihood ratios in interpreting diagnostic tests. For a general description of the likelihood ratio, see <a href="/wiki/Likelihood_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Likelihood ratio">Likelihood ratio</a>. For the statistical test to compare goodness of fit, see <a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-ratio test</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Likelihood_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Likelihood ratio">likelihood ratios</a> are used for assessing the value of performing a <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic test">diagnostic test</a>. They use the <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">sensitivity and specificity</a> of the test to determine whether a test result usefully changes the probability that a condition (such as a disease state) exists. The first description of the use of likelihood ratios for <a href="/wiki/Decision_rule" title="Decision rule">decision rules</a> was made at a symposium on information theory in 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In medicine, likelihood ratios were introduced between 1975 and 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calculation">Calculation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Calculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two versions of the likelihood ratio exist, one for positive and one for negative test results. Respectively, they are known as the <b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="positive_likelihood_ratio"></span><span class="vanchor-text">positive likelihood ratio</span></span></b> (LR+, <b>likelihood ratio positive</b>, <b>likelihood ratio for positive results</b>) and <b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="negative_likelihood_ratio"></span><span class="vanchor-text">negative likelihood ratio</span></span></b> (LR–, <b>likelihood ratio negative</b>, <b>likelihood ratio for negative results</b>). </p><p>The positive likelihood ratio is calculated as </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}+={\frac {\text{sensitivity}}{1-{\text{specificity}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>LR</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mtext>sensitivity</mtext> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>specificity</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}+={\frac {\text{sensitivity}}{1-{\text{specificity}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/69c271a38eb15624ca251b406604f145bf3a5ebc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:22.999ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}+={\frac {\text{sensitivity}}{1-{\text{specificity}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>which is equivalent to </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}+={\frac {\Pr({T+}\mid D+)}{\Pr({T+}\mid D-)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>LR</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}+={\frac {\Pr({T+}\mid D+)}{\Pr({T+}\mid D-)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e03b654913206f562b5953357f6bff991c2150fa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:22.324ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}+={\frac {\Pr({T+}\mid D+)}{\Pr({T+}\mid D-)}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>or "the probability of a person who <b>has the disease</b> testing positive divided by the probability of a person who <b>does not have the disease</b> testing positive." Here "<i>T</i>+" or "<i>T</i>−" denote that the result of the test is positive or negative, respectively. Likewise, "<i>D</i>+" or "<i>D</i>−" denote that the disease is present or absent, respectively. So "true positives" are those that test positive (<i>T</i>+) and have the disease (<i>D</i>+), and "false positives" are those that test positive (<i>T</i>+) but do not have the disease (<i>D</i>−). </p><p>The negative likelihood ratio is calculated as<sup id="cite_ref-altman_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}-={\frac {1-{\text{sensitivity}}}{\text{specificity}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>LR</mtext> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>sensitivity</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> <mtext>specificity</mtext> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}-={\frac {1-{\text{sensitivity}}}{\text{specificity}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff90c7529f91a0dd772a32c84f1948edb5ab372f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:23.271ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}-={\frac {1-{\text{sensitivity}}}{\text{specificity}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>which is equivalent to<sup id="cite_ref-altman_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}-={\frac {\Pr({T-}\mid D+)}{\Pr({T-}\mid D-)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>LR</mtext> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <mo>∣</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}-={\frac {\Pr({T-}\mid D+)}{\Pr({T-}\mid D-)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/74f24be61ed47a89e94d1348d47584eaefa96c6a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:22.324ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{LR}}-={\frac {\Pr({T-}\mid D+)}{\Pr({T-}\mid D-)}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>or "the probability of a person who <b>has the disease</b> testing negative divided by the probability of a person who <b>does not have the disease</b> testing negative." </p><p>The calculation of likelihood ratios for tests with continuous values or more than two outcomes is similar to the calculation for <a href="/wiki/Dichotomous_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Dichotomous variable">dichotomous</a> outcomes; a separate likelihood ratio is simply calculated for every level of test result and is called interval or stratum specific likelihood ratios.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pre-_and_post-test_probability#Pre-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">pretest odds</a> of a particular diagnosis, multiplied by the likelihood ratio, determines the <a href="/wiki/Pre-_and_post-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">post-test odds</a>. This calculation is based on <a href="/wiki/Bayes%27_theorem" title="Bayes' theorem">Bayes' theorem</a>. (Note that odds can be calculated from, and then converted to, <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application_to_medicine">Application to medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Application to medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pretest probability refers to the chance that an individual in a given population has a disorder or condition; this is the baseline probability prior to the use of a diagnostic test. Post-test probability refers to the probability that a condition is truly present given a positive test result. For a good test in a population, the post-test probability will be meaningfully higher or lower than the pretest probability. A high likelihood ratio indicates a good test for a population, and a likelihood ratio close to one indicates that a test may not be appropriate for a population. </p><p>For a <a href="/wiki/Screening_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Screening test">screening test</a>, the population of interest might be the general population of an area. For diagnostic testing, the ordering clinician will have observed some symptom or other factor that raises the pretest probability relative to the general population. A likelihood ratio of greater than 1 for a test in a population indicates that a positive test result is evidence that a condition is present. If the likelihood ratio for a test in a population is not clearly better than one, the test will not provide good evidence: the post-test probability will not be meaningfully different from the pretest probability. Knowing or estimating the likelihood ratio for a test in a population allows a clinician to better interpret the result.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research suggests that physicians rarely make these calculations in practice, however,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9576412_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9576412-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and when they do, they often make errors.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11934776_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11934776-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trial</a> compared how well physicians interpreted diagnostic tests that were presented as either <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_(tests)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensitivity (tests)">sensitivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Specificity_(tests)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specificity (tests)">specificity</a>, a likelihood ratio, or an inexact graphic of the likelihood ratio, found no difference between the three modes in interpretation of test results.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16061916_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16061916-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimation_table">Estimation table</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Estimation table"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This table provide examples of how changes in the likelihood ratio affects post-test probability of disease. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Likelihood ratio </th> <th>Approximate* change <p>in probability<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </th> <th>Effect on posttest <p>Probability of disease<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Values between 0 and 1 <i>decrease</i> the probability of disease <span class="nowrap">(−LR)</span> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.1 </td> <td>−45% </td> <td>Large decrease </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.2 </td> <td>−30% </td> <td>Moderate decrease </td></tr> <tr> <td>0.5 </td> <td>−15% </td> <td>Slight decrease </td></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>−0% </td> <td>None </td></tr> <tr> <th>Values greater than 1 <i>increase</i> the probability of disease <span class="nowrap">(+LR)</span> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>+0% </td> <td>None </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>+15% </td> <td>Slight increase </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>+30% </td> <td>Moderate increase </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td>+45% </td> <td>Large increase </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>*These estimates are accurate to within 10% of the calculated answer for all pre-test probabilities between 10% and 90%. The average error is only 4%. For polar extremes of pre-test probability >90% and <10%, see <a href="#Estimation_of_pre-_and_post-test_probability">Estimation of pre- and post-test probability</a> section below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estimation_example">Estimation example</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Estimation example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>Pre-test probability: For example, if about 2 out of every 5 patients with <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_distension" title="Abdominal distension">abdominal distension</a> have <a href="/wiki/Ascites" title="Ascites">ascites</a>, then the pretest probability is 40%.</li> <li>Likelihood Ratio: An example "test" is that the physical exam finding of bulging <a href="/wiki/Flank_(anatomy)" title="Flank (anatomy)">flanks</a> has a positive likelihood ratio of 2.0 for ascites.</li> <li>Estimated change in probability: Based on table above, a likelihood ratio of 2.0 corresponds to an approximately +15% increase in probability.</li> <li>Final (post-test) probability: Therefore, bulging flanks increases the probability of ascites from 40% to about 55% (i.e., 40% + 15% = 55%, which is within 2% of the exact probability of 57%).</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calculation_example">Calculation example</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Calculation example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A medical example is the likelihood that a given test result would be expected in a patient with a certain disorder compared to the likelihood that same result would occur in a patient without the target disorder. </p><p>Some sources distinguish between LR+ and LR−.<sup id="cite_ref-urlLikelihood_ratios_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlLikelihood_ratios-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A worked example is shown below. </p> <div style="float:right;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SensSpecPPVNPV" title="Template:SensSpecPPVNPV"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SensSpecPPVNPV" title="Template talk:SensSpecPPVNPV"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SensSpecPPVNPV" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SensSpecPPVNPV"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></div> <dl><dt>A worked example</dt> <dd>A diagnostic test with sensitivity 67% and specificity 91% is applied to 2030 people to look for a disorder with a population prevalence of 1.48%</dd></dl> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border:none; background:transparent;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="border:none;"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#bbeeee;"><b><a href="/wiki/Fecal_occult_blood" title="Fecal occult blood">Fecal occult blood</a> screen test outcome</b> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border:none;text-align:right;"><sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diagnostic_testing_example" title="Template:Diagnostic testing example"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Diagnostic_testing_example&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Diagnostic testing example (page does not exist)"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diagnostic_testing_example" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diagnostic testing example"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;"> </td> <td style="background:#eeeeee;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">Total population</a><br />(pop.) = 2030 </td> <td style="background:#ccffff;">Test outcome <b>positive</b> </td> <td style="background:#aadddd;">Test outcome <b>negative</b> </td> <td style="border-left:double silver;border-bottom:double silver;"><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">Accuracy</a> (ACC) <div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= (TP + TN) / pop.<br />= (20 + 1820) / 2030<br />≈ <b>90.64%</b></div> </td> <td style="border-left:double silver;border-bottom:double silver;line-height:2;"><a href="/wiki/F1_score" class="mw-redirect" title="F1 score">F<sub>1</sub> score</a> <div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; font-size:118%;">= 2 × <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">precision × recall</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">precision + recall</span></span>⁠</span><br />≈ <b>0.174</b></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#eeeebb;"><b>Patients with<br /><a href="/wiki/Bowel_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowel cancer">bowel cancer</a><br />(as confirmed<br />on <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopy</a>)</b> </td> <td style="background:#ffffcc;">Actual condition<br />positive (AP)<br />= 30<br />(2030 × 1.48%) </td> <td style="background:#ccffcc;"><span style="color:#006600;"><b>True positive</b> (TP)</span><br />= 20<br />(2030 × 1.48% × 67%) </td> <td style="background:#ffdddd;"><span style="color:#cc0000;"><b>False negative</b> (FN)</span><br />= 10<br />(2030 × 1.48% × <span class="nowrap">(100% − 67%)</span>) </td> <td style="background:#eeffee;"><a href="/wiki/True_positive_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="True positive rate">True positive rate</a> (TPR), <a href="/wiki/Recall_(information_retrieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recall (information retrieval)">recall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">sensitivity</a><div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= TP / AP<br />= 20 / 30<br />≈ <b>66.7%</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#ffeeee;"><a href="/wiki/False_negative_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="False negative rate">False negative rate</a> (FNR), miss rate<br /> <div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= FN / AP<br />= 10 / 30<br /> ≈ <b>33.3%</b></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#ddddaa;">Actual condition<br />negative (AN)<br />= 2000<br />(2030 × <span class="nowrap">(100% − 1.48%)</span>) </td> <td style="background:#ffcccc;"><span style="color:#cc0000;"><b>False positive</b> (FP)</span><br />= 180<br />(2030 × <span class="nowrap">(100% − 1.48%)</span> × <span class="nowrap">(100% − 91%)</span>) </td> <td style="background:#bbeebb;"><span style="color:#006600;"><b>True negative</b> (TN)</span><br />= 1820<br />(2030 × <span class="nowrap">(100% − 1.48%)</span> × 91%) </td> <td style="background:#eedddd;"><a href="/wiki/False_positive_rate" title="False positive rate">False positive rate</a> (FPR), <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval"><span class="nowrap">fall-out</span></a>, <span class="nowrap">probability of false alarm</span> <div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= FP / AN<br />= 180 / 2000<br />= <b>9.0%</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#ddeedd;"><a href="/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity" title="Sensitivity and specificity">Specificity</a>, selectivity, <a href="/wiki/True_negative_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="True negative rate">true negative rate</a> (TNR)<div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= TN / AN<br />= 1820 / 2000<br />= <b>91%</b></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="border:none;"> </td> <td style="border-right:double silver;"><a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a><div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= AP / pop.<br />= 30 / 2030<br />≈ <b>1.48%</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#eeffee;"><a href="/wiki/Positive_predictive_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive predictive value">Positive predictive value</a> (PPV), <a href="/wiki/Precision_(information_retrieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precision (information retrieval)">precision</a><div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= TP / (TP + FP)<br />= 20 / (20 + 180)<br />= <b>10%</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#ffeeee;"><a href="/wiki/False_omission_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="False omission rate">False omission rate</a> (FOR)<div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= FN / (FN + TN)<br />= 10 / (10 + 1820)<br />≈ <b>0.55%</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#eeeeff;border-left:double silver;"><a href="/wiki/Positive_likelihood_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive likelihood ratio">Positive likelihood ratio</a> <span class="nowrap">(LR+)</span> <div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">TPR</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">FPR</span></span>⁠</span><br />= (20 / 30) / (180 / 2000)<br />≈ <b>7.41</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#eeeeff;"><a href="/wiki/Negative_likelihood_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative likelihood ratio">Negative likelihood ratio</a> <span class="nowrap">(LR−)</span> <div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">FNR</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">TNR</span></span>⁠</span><br />= (10 / 30) / (1820 / 2000)<br />≈ <b>0.366</b> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;"> </td> <td style="background:#eedddd;"><a href="/wiki/False_discovery_rate" title="False discovery rate">False discovery rate</a> (FDR)<div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= FP / (TP + FP)<br />= 180 / (20 + 180)<br />= <b>90.0%</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#ddeedd;"><a href="/wiki/Negative_predictive_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative predictive value">Negative predictive value</a> (NPV)<div style="margin-left:1em; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left;">= TN / (FN + TN)<br />= 1820 / (10 + 1820)<br />≈ <b>99.45%</b></div> </td> <td style="background:#eeeeff;border-left:double silver;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_odds_ratio" title="Diagnostic odds ratio">Diagnostic odds ratio</a> (DOR) <div style="display:table; margin:0 auto; white-space:nowrap; text-align:left; font-size:118%;">= <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">LR+</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">LR−</span></span>⁠</span><br />≈ <b>20.2</b></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Related calculations</b> </p> <ul><li>False positive rate (α) = <a href="/wiki/Type_I_and_type_II_errors#Type_I_error" title="Type I and type II errors">type I error</a> = 1 − specificity = FP / (FP + TN) = 180 / (180 + 1820) = 9%</li> <li>False negative rate (β) = <a href="/wiki/Type_I_and_type_II_errors#Type_II_error" title="Type I and type II errors">type II error</a> = 1 − sensitivity = FN / (TP + FN) = 10 / (20 + 10) ≈ 33%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical power">Power</a> = sensitivity = 1 − β</li> <li>Positive <a class="mw-selflink selflink">likelihood ratio</a> = sensitivity / (1 − specificity) ≈ 0.67 / (1 − 0.91) ≈ 7.4</li> <li>Negative likelihood ratio = (1 − sensitivity) / specificity ≈ (1 − 0.67) / 0.91 ≈ 0.37</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence_threshold" class="mw-redirect" title="Prevalence threshold">Prevalence threshold</a> = <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PT={\frac {{\sqrt {TPR(-TNR+1)}}+TNR-1}{(TPR+TNR-1)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>T</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PT={\frac {{\sqrt {TPR(-TNR+1)}}+TNR-1}{(TPR+TNR-1)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a72ddd1d947f475519099bcd33807bb501513d3f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:40.177ex; height:7.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PT={\frac {{\sqrt {TPR(-TNR+1)}}+TNR-1}{(TPR+TNR-1)}}}"></span> ≈ 0.2686 ≈ 26.9%</li></ul> <p>This hypothetical screening test (fecal occult blood test) correctly identified two-thirds (66.7%) of patients with colorectal cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unfortunately, factoring in prevalence rates reveals that this hypothetical test has a high false positive rate, and it does not reliably identify colorectal cancer in the overall population of asymptomatic people (PPV = 10%). </p><p>On the other hand, this hypothetical test demonstrates very accurate detection of cancer-free individuals (NPV ≈ 99.5%). Therefore, when used for routine colorectal cancer screening with asymptomatic adults, a negative result supplies important data for the patient and doctor, such as ruling out cancer as the cause of gastrointestinal symptoms or reassuring patients worried about developing colorectal cancer. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Confidence_intervals" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence intervals">Confidence intervals</a> for all the predictive parameters involved can be calculated, giving the range of values within which the true value lies at a given confidence level (e.g. 95%).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimation_of_pre-_and_post-test_probability">Estimation of pre- and post-test probability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Estimation of pre- and post-test probability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pre-_and_post-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">Pre- and post-test probability</a></div> <p>The likelihood ratio of a test provides a way to estimate the <a href="/wiki/Pre-_and_post-test_probabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre- and post-test probabilities">pre- and post-test probabilities</a> of having a condition. </p><p>With <i>pre-test probability</i> and <i>likelihood ratio</i> given, then, the <i>post-test probabilities</i> can be calculated by the following three steps:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{pretest odds}}={\frac {\text{pretest probability}}{1-{\text{pretest probability}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>pretest odds</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mtext>pretest probability</mtext> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>pretest probability</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{pretest odds}}={\frac {\text{pretest probability}}{1-{\text{pretest probability}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ac1c6fb6792c8256279bb12c3fddea5f15470c1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:38.938ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{pretest odds}}={\frac {\text{pretest probability}}{1-{\text{pretest probability}}}}}"></span></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{posttest odds}}={\text{pretest odds}}\times {\text{likelihood ratio}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>posttest odds</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>pretest odds</mtext> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>likelihood ratio</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{posttest odds}}={\text{pretest odds}}\times {\text{likelihood ratio}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/02ab3258d403ff0dd4cbdd2753b8e7822e5e1057" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:46.582ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{posttest odds}}={\text{pretest odds}}\times {\text{likelihood ratio}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>In equation above, <i>positive post-test probability</i> is calculated using the <i>likelihood ratio positive</i>, and the <i>negative post-test probability</i> is calculated using the <i>likelihood ratio negative</i>. </p><p>Odds are converted to probabilities as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(1)\ {\text{ odds}}={\frac {\text{probability}}{1-{\text{probability}}}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> odds</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mtext>probability</mtext> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>probability</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(1)\ {\text{ odds}}={\frac {\text{probability}}{1-{\text{probability}}}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff07ee523340c6f3e37dd2915ef90af5ce3d41f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:28.672ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(1)\ {\text{ odds}}={\frac {\text{probability}}{1-{\text{probability}}}}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>multiply equation (1) by (1 − probability) </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(2)\ {\text{ probability}}&={\text{odds}}\times (1-{\text{probability}})\\&={\text{odds}}-{\text{probability}}\times {\text{odds}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> probability</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>probability</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>probability</mtext> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(2)\ {\text{ probability}}&={\text{odds}}\times (1-{\text{probability}})\\&={\text{odds}}-{\text{probability}}\times {\text{odds}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b92cdd23433d78284cc758bc89158c499f673ef4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:45.365ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(2)\ {\text{ probability}}&={\text{odds}}\times (1-{\text{probability}})\\&={\text{odds}}-{\text{probability}}\times {\text{odds}}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>add (probability × odds) to equation (2) </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(3)\ {\text{ probability}}+{\text{probability}}\times {\text{odds}}&={\text{odds}}\\{\text{probability}}\times (1+{\text{odds}})&={\text{odds}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> probability</mtext> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>probability</mtext> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>probability</mtext> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(3)\ {\text{ probability}}+{\text{probability}}\times {\text{odds}}&={\text{odds}}\\{\text{probability}}\times (1+{\text{odds}})&={\text{odds}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/12bf5572367f8806ccf428081b08bf033d669afd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:45.365ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(3)\ {\text{ probability}}+{\text{probability}}\times {\text{odds}}&={\text{odds}}\\{\text{probability}}\times (1+{\text{odds}})&={\text{odds}}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>divide equation (3) by (1 + odds) </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(4)\ {\text{ probability}}={\frac {\text{odds}}{1+{\text{odds}}}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> probability</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mtext>odds</mtext> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>odds</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(4)\ {\text{ probability}}={\frac {\text{odds}}{1+{\text{odds}}}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e23000168868922489bb2cba27ad4164e7f2169e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.94ex; margin-bottom: -0.231ex; width:28.672ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(4)\ {\text{ probability}}={\frac {\text{odds}}{1+{\text{odds}}}}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>hence </p> <ul><li>Posttest probability = Posttest odds / (Posttest odds + 1)</li></ul> <p>Alternatively, post-test probability can be calculated directly from the pre-test probability and the likelihood ratio using the equation: </p> <ul><li><b>P' = P0 × LR/(1 − P0 + P0×LR)</b>, where P0 is the pre-test probability, P' is the post-test probability, and LR is the likelihood ratio. This formula can be calculated algebraically by combining the steps in the preceding description.</li></ul> <p>In fact, <i>post-test probability</i>, as estimated from the <i>likelihood ratio</i> and <i>pre-test probability</i>, is generally more accurate than if estimated from the <i><a href="/wiki/Positive_predictive_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive predictive value">positive predictive value</a></i> of the test, if the tested individual has a different <i>pre-test probability</i> than what is the <i>prevalence</i> of that condition in the population. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example">Example</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Taking the medical example from above (20 true positives, 10 false negatives, and 2030 total patients), the <i>positive pre-test probability</i> is calculated as: </p> <ul><li>Pretest probability = (20 + 10) / 2030 = 0.0148</li> <li>Pretest odds = 0.0148 / (1 − 0.0148) = 0.015</li> <li>Posttest odds = 0.015 × 7.4 = 0.111</li> <li>Posttest probability = 0.111 / (0.111 + 1) = 0.1 or 10%</li></ul> <p>As demonstrated, the <i>positive post-test probability</i> is numerically equal to the <i>positive predictive value</i>; the <i>negative post-test probability</i> is numerically equal to (1 − <i>negative predictive value</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There are advantages and disadvantages for all medical screening tests. <a href="/wiki/Medical_guidelines" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical guidelines">Clinical practice guidelines</a>, such as those for colorectal cancer screening, describe these risks and benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSwets_JA.1973" class="citation journal cs1">Swets JA. (1973). "The relative operating characteristic in Psychology". <i>Science</i>. <b>182</b> (14116): 990–1000. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Sci...182..990S">1973Sci...182..990S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.182.4116.990">10.1126/science.182.4116.990</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17833780">17833780</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+relative+operating+characteristic+in+Psychology&rft.volume=182&rft.issue=14116&rft.pages=990-1000&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17833780&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.182.4116.990&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973Sci...182..990S&rft.au=Swets+JA.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaukerKassirer1975" class="citation journal cs1">Pauker SG, Kassirer JP (1975). "Therapeutic Decision Making: A Cost-Benefit Analysis". <i>NEJM</i>. <b>293</b> (5): 229–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM197507312930505">10.1056/NEJM197507312930505</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1143303">1143303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NEJM&rft.atitle=Therapeutic+Decision+Making%3A+A+Cost-Benefit+Analysis&rft.volume=293&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=229-34&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJM197507312930505&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1143303&rft.aulast=Pauker&rft.aufirst=SG&rft.au=Kassirer%2C+JP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornburyFrybackEdwards1975" class="citation journal cs1">Thornbury JR, Fryback DG, Edwards W (1975). "Likelihood ratios as a measure of the diagnostic usefulness of excretory urogram information". <i>Radiology</i>. <b>114</b> (3): 561–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1148%2F114.3.561">10.1148/114.3.561</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1118556">1118556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radiology&rft.atitle=Likelihood+ratios+as+a+measure+of+the+diagnostic+usefulness+of+excretory+urogram+information.&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=561-5&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1148%2F114.3.561&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1118556&rft.aulast=Thornbury&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=Fryback%2C+DG&rft.au=Edwards%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_HelmHische1979" class="citation journal cs1">van der Helm HJ, Hische EA (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clinchem.org/content/25/6/985.long">"Application of Bayes's theorem to results of quantitative clinical chemical determinations"</a>. <i>Clin Chem</i>. <b>25</b> (6): 985–8. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/445835">445835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clin+Chem&rft.atitle=Application+of+Bayes%27s+theorem+to+results+of+quantitative+clinical+chemical+determinations.&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=985-8&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F445835&rft.aulast=van+der+Helm&rft.aufirst=HJ&rft.au=Hische%2C+EA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinchem.org%2Fcontent%2F25%2F6%2F985.long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-altman-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-altman_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-altman_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner,_M.Altman,_Douglas_G.2000" class="citation book cs1">Gardner, M.; Altman, Douglas G. (2000). <i>Statistics with confidence: confidence intervals and statistical guidelines</i>. London: BMJ Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7279-1375-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7279-1375-3"><bdi>978-0-7279-1375-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statistics+with+confidence%3A+confidence+intervals+and+statistical+guidelines&rft.place=London&rft.pub=BMJ+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7279-1375-3&rft.au=Gardner%2C+M.&rft.au=Altman%2C+Douglas+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownReeves2003" class="citation journal cs1">Brown MD, Reeves MJ (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1067%2Fmem.2003.274">"Evidence-based emergency medicine/skills for evidence-based emergency care. Interval likelihood ratios: another advantage for the evidence-based diagnostician"</a>. <i>Ann Emerg Med</i>. <b>42</b> (2): 292–297. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1067%2Fmem.2003.274">10.1067/mem.2003.274</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12883521">12883521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ann+Emerg+Med&rft.atitle=Evidence-based+emergency+medicine%2Fskills+for+evidence-based+emergency+care.+Interval+likelihood+ratios%3A+another+advantage+for+the+evidence-based+diagnostician&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=292-297&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1067%2Fmem.2003.274&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12883521&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=MD&rft.au=Reeves%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1067%252Fmem.2003.274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrellCaliffPryorLee1982" class="citation journal cs1">Harrell F, Califf R, Pryor D, Lee K, Rosati R (1982). "Evaluating the Yield of Medical Tests". <i>JAMA</i>. <b>247</b> (18): 2543–2546. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.247.18.2543">10.1001/jama.247.18.2543</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7069920">7069920</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=Evaluating+the+Yield+of+Medical+Tests&rft.volume=247&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=2543-2546&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.247.18.2543&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7069920&rft.aulast=Harrell&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Califf%2C+R&rft.au=Pryor%2C+D&rft.au=Lee%2C+K&rft.au=Rosati%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid9576412-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid9576412_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReidLaneFeinstein1998" class="citation journal cs1">Reid MC, Lane DA, Feinstein AR (1998). "Academic calculations versus clinical judgments: practicing physicians' use of quantitative measures of test accuracy". <i>Am. J. Med</i>. <b>104</b> (4): 374–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0002-9343%2898%2900054-0">10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00054-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9576412">9576412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am.+J.+Med.&rft.atitle=Academic+calculations+versus+clinical+judgments%3A+practicing+physicians%27+use+of+quantitative+measures+of+test+accuracy&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=374-80&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0002-9343%2898%2900054-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9576412&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=MC&rft.au=Lane%2C+DA&rft.au=Feinstein%2C+AR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid11934776-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid11934776_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteurerFischerBachmannKoller2002" class="citation journal cs1">Steurer J, Fischer JE, Bachmann LM, Koller M, ter Riet G (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC100792">"Communicating accuracy of tests to general practitioners: a controlled study"</a>. <i>The BMJ</i>. <b>324</b> (7341): 824–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.324.7341.824">10.1136/bmj.324.7341.824</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC100792">100792</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11934776">11934776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+BMJ&rft.atitle=Communicating+accuracy+of+tests+to+general+practitioners%3A+a+controlled+study&rft.volume=324&rft.issue=7341&rft.pages=824-6&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC100792%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11934776&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.324.7341.824&rft.aulast=Steurer&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Fischer%2C+JE&rft.au=Bachmann%2C+LM&rft.au=Koller%2C+M&rft.au=ter+Riet%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC100792&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid16061916-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid16061916_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuhanSteurerBachmannter_Riet2005" class="citation journal cs1">Puhan MA, Steurer J, Bachmann LM, ter Riet G (2005). "A randomized trial of ways to describe test accuracy: the effect on physicians' post-test probability estimates". <i>Ann. Intern. Med</i>. <b>143</b> (3): 184–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-143-3-200508020-00004">10.7326/0003-4819-143-3-200508020-00004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16061916">16061916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ann.+Intern.+Med.&rft.atitle=A+randomized+trial+of+ways+to+describe+test+accuracy%3A+the+effect+on+physicians%27+post-test+probability+estimates&rft.volume=143&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=184-9&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2F0003-4819-143-3-200508020-00004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16061916&rft.aulast=Puhan&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Steurer%2C+J&rft.au=Bachmann%2C+LM&rft.au=ter+Riet%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGee2002" class="citation journal cs1">McGee, Steven (1 August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1495095">"Simplifying likelihood ratios"</a>. <i>Journal of General Internal Medicine</i>. <b>17</b> (8): 647–650. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1525-1497.2002.10750.x">10.1046/j.1525-1497.2002.10750.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0884-8734">0884-8734</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1495095">1495095</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12213147">12213147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+General+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=Simplifying+likelihood+ratios&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=647-650&rft.date=2002-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1495095%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0884-8734&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12213147&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1525-1497.2002.10750.x&rft.aulast=McGee&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1495095&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendersonTierneySmetana2012" class="citation book cs1">Henderson, Mark C.; Tierney, Lawrence M.; Smetana, Gerald W. (2012). <i>The Patient History</i> (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-162494-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-162494-7"><bdi>978-0-07-162494-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Patient+History&rft.pages=30&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-07-162494-7&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft.au=Tierney%2C+Lawrence+M.&rft.au=Smetana%2C+Gerald+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlLikelihood_ratios-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlLikelihood_ratios_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20020820071706/http://www.poems.msu.edu/InfoMastery/Diagnosis/likelihood_ratios.htm">"Likelihood ratios"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poems.msu.edu/InfoMastery/Diagnosis/likelihood_ratios.htm">the original</a> on 20 August 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Likelihood+ratios&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.poems.msu.edu%2FInfoMastery%2FDiagnosis%2Flikelihood_ratios.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinPiperPerdueRutter2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, Jennifer S.; Piper, Margaret A.; Perdue, Leslie A.; Rutter, Carolyn M.; Webber, Elizabeth M.; O'Connor, Elizabeth; Smith, Ning; Whitlock, Evelyn P. (21 June 2016). "Screening for Colorectal Cancer". <i>JAMA</i>. <b>315</b> (23): 2576–2594. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2016.3332">10.1001/jama.2016.3332</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0098-7484">0098-7484</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27305422">27305422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=Screening+for+Colorectal+Cancer&rft.volume=315&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=2576-2594&rft.date=2016-06-21&rft.issn=0098-7484&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27305422&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.2016.3332&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+S.&rft.au=Piper%2C+Margaret+A.&rft.au=Perdue%2C+Leslie+A.&rft.au=Rutter%2C+Carolyn+M.&rft.au=Webber%2C+Elizabeth+M.&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Smith%2C+Ning&rft.au=Whitlock%2C+Evelyn+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBénardBarkunMartelRenteln2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bénard, Florence; Barkun, Alan N.; Martel, Myriam; Renteln, Daniel von (7 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5757117">"Systematic review of colorectal cancer screening guidelines for average-risk adults: Summarizing the current global recommendations"</a>. <i>World Journal of Gastroenterology</i>. <b>24</b> (1): 124–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3748%2Fwjg.v24.i1.124">10.3748/wjg.v24.i1.124</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5757117">5757117</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29358889">29358889</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Journal+of+Gastroenterology&rft.atitle=Systematic+review+of+colorectal+cancer+screening+guidelines+for+average-risk+adults%3A+Summarizing+the+current+global+recommendations&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=124-138&rft.date=2018-01-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5757117%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29358889&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3748%2Fwjg.v24.i1.124&rft.aulast=B%C3%A9nard&rft.aufirst=Florence&rft.au=Barkun%2C+Alan+N.&rft.au=Martel%2C+Myriam&rft.au=Renteln%2C+Daniel+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5757117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALikelihood+ratios+in+diagnostic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medcalc.org/calc/diagnostic_test.php">Online calculator of confidence intervals for predictive parameters</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1043">Likelihood Ratios</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222032115/http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1043">Archived</a> 22 December 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, from CEBM (Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine). Page last edited: 1 February 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4441.0.55.002Explanatory+Notes5Jun+2012">[1]</a> from Australian Bureau of Statistics: A Comparison of Volunteering Rates from the 2006 Census of Population and Housing and the 2006 General Social Survey, Jun 2012, Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 08/06/2012</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Medical likelihood ratio repositories</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doclogica.com">The Likelihood Ratio Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getthediagnosis.org">GetTheDiagnosis.org: A Database of Sensitivity and Specificity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thennt.com/home-lr/">The NNT: LR Home</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Clinical_research_and_experimental_design" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medical_research_studies" title="Template:Medical research studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medical_research_studies" title="Template talk:Medical research studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medical_research_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medical research studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Clinical_research_and_experimental_design" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">Clinical research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_(science)" title="Protocol (science)">Trial protocols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_clinical_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic clinical trials">Academic clinical trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study design">Clinical study design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_world_evidence" title="Real world evidence">Real world evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_and_public_involvement" title="Patient and public involvement">Patient and public involvement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Controlled study</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM I to II-1</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Scientific experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">Blind experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-label_trial" title="Open-label trial">Open-label trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platform_trial" title="Platform trial">Platform trial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM II-2 to II-3</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">Longitudinal study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecological_study" title="Ecological study">Ecological study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrospective_cohort_study" title="Retrospective cohort study">Retrospective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">Prospective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nested_case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Nested case–control study">Nested case–control study</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_series" title="Case series">Case series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_report" title="Case report">Case report</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outcome_measure" title="Outcome measure">Measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Measures_of_occurrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Occurrence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_incidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulative incidence">Cumulative incidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Point_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Point prevalence">Point prevalence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Period_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Period prevalence">Period prevalence</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Measures_of_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Association</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Risk_difference" title="Risk difference">Risk difference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_needed_to_treat" title="Number needed to treat">Number needed to treat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_needed_to_harm" title="Number needed to harm">Number needed to harm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Risk_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk ratio">Risk ratio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relative_risk_reduction" title="Relative risk reduction">Relative risk reduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">Odds ratio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hazard_ratio" title="Hazard ratio">Hazard ratio</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_impact_measure" title="Population impact measure">Population impact</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Attributable_fraction_among_the_exposed" title="Attributable fraction among the exposed">Attributable fraction among the exposed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attributable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Attributable fraction for the population">Attributable fraction for the population</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventable_fraction_among_the_unexposed" title="Preventable fraction among the unexposed">Preventable fraction among the unexposed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Preventable fraction for the population">Preventable fraction for the population</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Other_measures" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_endpoint" title="Clinical endpoint">Clinical endpoint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">Morbidity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specificity_and_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specificity and sensitivity">Specificity and sensitivity</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Likelihood-ratios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-_and_post-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">Pre- and post-test probability</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trial/test types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">In vitro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">In vivo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-in-man_study" class="mw-redirect" title="First-in-man study">First-in-man study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicenter_trial" title="Multicenter trial">Multicenter trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeding_trial" title="Seeding trial">Seeding trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_clinical_trials" title="Analysis of clinical trials">Analysis of clinical trials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Risk%E2%80%93benefit_ratio" title="Risk–benefit ratio">Risk–benefit ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention-to-treat_analysis" title="Intention-to-treat analysis">Intention-to-treat analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation of results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Correlation does not imply causation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_result" title="Null result">Null result</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Clinical_research" title="Category:Clinical research">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_clinical_research_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of clinical research topics">List of topics</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&oldid=1213875680">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&oldid=1213875680</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_statistics" title="Category:Medical statistics">Medical statistics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Evidence-based_medicine" title="Category:Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Summary_statistics_for_contingency_tables" title="Category:Summary statistics for contingency tables">Summary statistics for contingency tables</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2024">Use dmy dates from March 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 15 March 2024, at 17:15<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-vz8dh","wgBackendResponseTime":153,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.487","walltime":"0.780","ppvisitednodes":{"value":1859,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":78662,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2117,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":12,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":5,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":81490,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 573.875 1 -total"," 37.72% 216.487 2 Template:Reflist"," 27.67% 158.767 12 Template:Cite_journal"," 21.78% 124.982 1 Template:Short_description"," 15.24% 87.453 1 Template:SensSpecPPVNPV"," 10.22% 58.625 2 Template:Navbar"," 8.69% 49.885 1 Template:Medical_research_studies"," 8.63% 49.526 2 Template:Pagetype"," 8.53% 48.938 6 Template:Main_other"," 8.45% 48.493 2 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.278","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":5714702,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-5dc468848-vnxdp","timestamp":"20241122141409","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q6547272","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q6547272","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-08-27T17:50:30Z","dateModified":"2024-03-15T17:15:17Z","headline":"likelihood ratios used for assessing the value of performing a diagnostic test"}</script> </body> </html>