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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#早期现代植物学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 早期现代植物学 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-早期现代植物学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-现代植物学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#现代植物学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 现代植物学 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-现代植物学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-研究范围与重要性" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#研究范围与重要性"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 研究范围与重要性 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-研究范围与重要性-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关研究范围与重要性子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-研究范围与重要性-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-农业" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#农业"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 农业 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-农业-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-植物生物化学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#植物生物化学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 植物生物化学 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-植物生物化学-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关植物生物化学子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-植物生物化学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-医学与原材料" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#医学与原材料"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 医学与原材料 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-医学与原材料-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-植物生态学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#植物生态学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 植物生态学 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-植物生态学-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关植物生态学子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-植物生态学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-植物、气候和环境变化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#植物、气候和环境变化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 植物、气候和环境变化 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-植物、气候和环境变化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-遗传学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#遗传学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 遗传学 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-遗传学-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关遗传学子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-遗传学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-分子遗传学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#分子遗传学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 分子遗传学 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-分子遗传学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-表观遗传学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#表观遗传学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 表观遗传学 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-表观遗传学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-植物演化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#植物演化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 植物演化 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-植物演化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-植物生理学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#植物生理学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 植物生理学 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-植物生理学-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关植物生理学子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-植物生理学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-植物激素" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#植物激素"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 植物激素 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-植物激素-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-植物解剖和形態" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#植物解剖和形態"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 植物解剖和形態 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-植物解剖和形態-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-系统植物学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#系统植物学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 系统植物学 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-系统植物学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-符号" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#符号"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 符号 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-符号-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参见" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参见"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 参见 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-参见-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-注释" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#注释"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 注释 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-注释-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参考文献" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参考文献"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 参考文献 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关参考文献子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-脚注" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#脚注"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 脚注 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-脚注-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-来源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#来源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 来源 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-来源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部链接" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部链接"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 外部链接 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部链接-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 开关目录 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">植物学</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。179种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-179" aria-hidden="true" > 179种语言 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Аботаника – 阿布哈西亚语" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Аботаника" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="阿布哈西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantkunde" title="Plantkunde – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plantkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 瑞士德语" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="瑞士德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%8B%95%E1%8C%BD" title="ሥነ ዕጽ – 阿姆哈拉语" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ዕጽ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم النبات – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النبات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم النبات – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم النبات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান – 阿萨姆语" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿萨姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 巴什基尔语" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什基尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buotan%C4%97ka" title="Buotanėka – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Buotanėka" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Батаніка – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Батаніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Батаніка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Батаніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="बनस्पति बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बनस्पति बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boteni" title="Boteni – 比斯拉马语" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Boteni" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="比斯拉马语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উদ্ভিদবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%A9%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A4%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="རྩི་ཤིང་རིག་པ། – 藏语" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རྩི་ཤིང་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="藏语" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louzawouriezh" title="Louzawouriezh – 布列塔尼语" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Louzawouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 车臣语" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="车臣语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 宿务语" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿务语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D9%88%DB%95%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ڕوەکناسی – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕوەکناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 科西嘉语" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="科西嘉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebatiyat" title="Nebatiyat – 克里米亚鞑靼语" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Nebatiyat" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="克里米亚鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaneg" title="Botaneg – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Botaneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8E%DE%A6%DE%80%DE%A6%DE%88%DE%A9_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ގަހަވީ އިލްމު – 迪维希语" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ގަހަވީ އިލްމު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="迪维希语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Βοτανική – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βοτανική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantoscienco" title="Plantoscienco – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plantoscienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaanika" title="Botaanika – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Botaanika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="گیاه‌شناسی – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گیاه‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasvitiede" title="Kasvitiede – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasvitiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 斐济语" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="斐济语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanique" title="Botanique – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Botanique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaniche" title="Botaniche – 弗留利语" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Botaniche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="弗留利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 西弗里西亚语" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luibheola%C3%ADocht" title="Luibheolaíocht – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Luibheolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luibh-e%C3%B2las" title="Luibh-eòlas – 苏格兰盖尔语" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Luibh-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="苏格兰盖尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica" title="Botánica – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Botánica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%27avokuaaty" title="Ka'avokuaaty – 瓜拉尼语" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ka'avokuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lus-oaylleeaght" title="Lus-oaylleeaght – 马恩语" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Lus-oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="马恩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 豪萨语" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="豪萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81lailau_nahele" title="Kālailau nahele – 夏威夷语" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kālailau nahele" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="夏威夷语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="בוטניקה – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בוטניקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="वनस्पति विज्ञान – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वनस्पति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etid_plant" title="Etid plant – 海地克里奥尔语" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Etid plant" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地克里奥尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բուսաբանություն – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բուսաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բուսաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Բուսաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 国际文字（E）" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="国际文字（E）" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 伊洛卡诺语" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛卡诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 印古什语" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="印古什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botaniko" title="Botaniko – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Botaniko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Grasafræði – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Grasafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="植物学 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="植物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batani" title="Batani – 牙買加克里奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Batani" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克里奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/spaske" title="spaske – 逻辑语" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="spaske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="逻辑语" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ბოტანიკა – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბოტანიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 卡拉卡尔帕克语" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="卡拉卡尔帕克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnim%C9%A3an" title="Tasnimɣan – 卡拜尔语" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnimɣan" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡拜尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಸಸ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಸ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="식물학 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نَباتیات – 克什米尔语" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="نَباتیات" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="克什米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riweknas%C3%AE" title="Riweknasî – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Riweknasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Losonieth" title="Losonieth – 康沃尔语" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Losonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康沃尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanice" title="Botanice – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Botanice" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nika" title="Botánika – 拉迪诺语" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Botánika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="拉迪诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 卢森堡语" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="卢森堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 列兹金语" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="列兹金语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantk%C3%B3nde" title="Plantkónde – 林堡语" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Plantkónde" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C4%81nika" title="Botānika – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Botānika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="वनस्पति विज्ञान – 迈蒂利语" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="वनस्पति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="迈蒂利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Ботанике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Ботанике" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സസ്യശാസ്ത്രം – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സസ്യശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Ургамал судлал – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ургамал судлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वनस्पतीशास्त्र – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वनस्पतीशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 西馬里文" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="西馬里文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 马耳他语" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="马耳他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ – 缅甸语" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရုက္ခဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="缅甸语" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlanelhuayomatiliztli" title="Tlanelhuayomatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlanelhuayomatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="वनस्पति विज्ञान – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="वनस्पति विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बोतानी – 尼瓦尔语" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बोतानी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="尼瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantkunde" title="Plantkunde – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plantkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanikk" title="Botanikk – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Botanikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanikk" title="Botanikk – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Botanikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanike" title="Botanike – 諾維亞文" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Botanike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="諾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9D%DF%8D%DF%98%DF%8D%DF%B2%DF%9D%DF%8B%DF%B2_%DF%A0%DF%8E%DF%AC" title="ߝߍߘߍ߲ߝߋ߲ ߠߎ߬ – 西非书面文字" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߝߍߘߍ߲ߝߋ߲ ߠߎ߬" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="西非书面文字" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botannie" title="Botannie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Botannie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanica" title="Botanica – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Botanica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiinbiqila" title="Xiinbiqila – 奥罗莫语" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Xiinbiqila" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="奥罗莫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%89%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A6_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ଉଦ୍ଭିଦ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – 奥里亚语" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଉଦ୍ଭିଦ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="奥里亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%C3%A6" title="Ботаникæ – 奥塞梯语" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Ботаникæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="奥塞梯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਬਨਸਪਤੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਨਸਪਤੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 邦板牙语" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="邦板牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 普法爾茨德文" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="普法爾茨德文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botenii" title="Botenii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Botenii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%B9%D9%86%DB%8C" title="باٹنی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="باٹنی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="بوټپوهنه – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بوټپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A2nica" title="Botânica – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Botânica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sach%27a_yachay" title="Sach'a yachay – 克丘亚语" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sach'a yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="克丘亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanic%C4%83" title="Botanică – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Botanică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаніка – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ботаніка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubushakashatsi_ku_Bimera" title="Ubushakashatsi ku Bimera – 卢旺达语" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ubushakashatsi ku Bimera" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="卢旺达语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="वनस्पतिविज्ञानम् – 梵语" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="वनस्पतिविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵语" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 萨哈语" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="萨哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica" title="Botànica – 萨丁语" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Botànica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="萨丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/But%C3%A0nica" title="Butànica – 西西里语" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Butànica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – 苏格兰语" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="苏格兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نباتاتيات – 信德语" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نباتاتيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnm%C9%A3ayt" title="Tasnmɣayt – 希尔哈语" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnmɣayt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希尔哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%8B%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="උද්භිද විද්‍යාව – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="උද්භිද විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany" title="Botany – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Botany" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botani" title="Botani – 巽他语" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Botani" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botania" title="Botania – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Botania" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தாவரவியல் – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவரவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="వృక్షశాస్త్రం – 泰卢固语" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వృక్షశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="泰卢固语" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%91%D2%B3%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Гиёҳшиносӣ – 塔吉克语" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Гиёҳшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="塔吉克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="พฤกษศาสตร์ – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พฤกษศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 土库曼语" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="土库曼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаника – 乌德穆尔特语" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Ботаника" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="乌德穆尔特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ботаніка – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ботаніка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نباتیات – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نباتیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nega" title="Botànega – 威尼斯语" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Botànega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanik" title="Botanik – 维普森语" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Botanik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="维普森语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%B1c_v%E1%BA%ADt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Thực vật học – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thực vật học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planav" title="Planav – 沃拉普克语" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Planav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="沃拉普克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanike" title="Botanike – 瓦隆语" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Botanike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="瓦隆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" title="Botanika – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Botanika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="植物学 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="植物学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ბოტანიკა – 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title="理论物理学">理论物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="實驗物理學">實驗物理學</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="计算物理学">计算物理学</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="原子物理学">原子物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%87%9D%E8%81%9A%E6%80%81%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="凝聚态物理学">凝聚态物理学</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="力学">力学</a> <div class="hlist nowrap"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E5%85%B8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="经典力学">经典力学</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%9E%E7%BB%AD%E4%BB%8B%E8%B4%A8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="连续介质力学">连续介质力学</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E4%BD%93%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="流体力学">流体力学</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E4%BD%93%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="固体力学">固体力学</a>)</li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E5%8F%98%E5%AD%A6" title="流变学">流变学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%AD%E4%B9%89%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA" title="狭义相对论">狭义相对论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BB%A3%E7%BE%A9%E7%9B%B8%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%96" title="廣義相對論">廣義相對論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="热力学">热力学</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="量子场论">量子场论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="量子力学">量子力学</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E5%85%A5%E9%96%80" title="量子力學入門">量子力學入門</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="粒子物理學">粒子物理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="原子核物理学">原子核物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="分子物理学">分子物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AD%89%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%93" title="等离子体">等离子体</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="弦理論">弦理論</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%85%B8%E7%A2%B1%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="酸碱理论">酸碱理论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="分析化学">分析化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%AF%E5%A2%83%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="环境化学">环境化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E6%9C%BA%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="无机化学">无机化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="核化学">核化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%9C%BA%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="有机化学">有机化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="物理化学">物理化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E4%BD%93%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="固体化学">固体化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="超分子化學">超分子化學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%BF%E8%89%B2%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="绿色化学">绿色化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="理论化学">理论化学</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="天体化学">天体化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="生物化学">生物化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93" title="晶体">晶体</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E5%93%81%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="食品化學">食品化學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="地球化学">地球化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%90%E6%96%99%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="材料科学">材料科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="分子物理学">分子物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="光化学">光化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="放射化学">放射化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E4%BD%93%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="立体化学">立体化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E9%9D%A2%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="表面科学">表面科学</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="地球科学">地球科学</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%AF%E5%A2%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="环境科学">环境科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E5%80%99%E5%AD%A6" title="气候学">气候学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E8%B1%A1%E5%AD%A6" title="气象学">气象学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="海洋学">海洋学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="水文学">水文学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B9%96%E6%B2%BC%E5%AD%B8" title="湖沼學">湖沼學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B0%E5%B7%9D%E5%AD%A6" title="冰川学">冰川学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%9C%B0%E6%B5%8B%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%A6" title="大地测量学">大地测量学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地球物理学">地球物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B2%8C%E5%AD%A6" title="地貌学">地貌学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="地质学">地质学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4%E5%AD%A6" title="土壤学">土壤学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99%E5%AD%B8" title="古氣候學">古氣候學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%A6" title="火山学">火山学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="生态学">生态学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="古生態學">古生態學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E7%B2%89%E5%AD%A6" title="孢粉学">孢粉学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学">地理学</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="自然地理學">自然地理學</a>)</li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E9%97%B4%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="空间科学">空间科学</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學">天文學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="天体物理学">天体物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%AD%A6" title="宇宙学">宇宙学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="銀河系天文學">銀河系天文學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%98%9F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="行星科学">行星科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%B0%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%B8" title="行星地質學">行星地質學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%81%92%E6%98%9F" title="恒星">恒星</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div style="background:#ddf;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="生命科學">生命科學</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学">生物学</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%A6" title="解剖学">解剖学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="天體生物學">天體生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="生物化学">生物化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物地理学">生物地理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="生物工程学">生物工程学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物物理学">生物物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物心理学">生物心理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF" title="生物技术">生物技术</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">植物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="细胞生物学">细胞生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="保育生物學">保育生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8E%E6%B8%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="低温生物学">低温生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="发育生物学">发育生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="生态学">生态学</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%BA%E7%A7%8D%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="人种生物学（页面不存在）">人种生物学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnobiology" class="extiw" title="en:Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E8%A1%8C%E4%B8%BA%E5%AD%A6" title="动物行为学">动物行为学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="演化生物学">演化生物学</a>(<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BF%9B%E5%8C%96%E8%AE%BA%E5%85%A5%E9%97%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="进化论入门（页面不存在）">介绍</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" class="extiw" title="en:Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</a>）)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="遗传学">遗传学</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6%E5%85%A5%E9%97%A8" title="遗传学入门">遗传学入门</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%81%E4%BA%BA%E5%AD%B8" title="老人學">老人學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E5%AD%A6" title="免疫学">免疫学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B9%96%E6%B2%BC%E5%AD%B8" title="湖沼學">湖沼學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="海洋生物学">海洋生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="微生物学">微生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学">分子生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="神经科学">神经科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古生物学">古生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E8%99%AB%E5%AD%A6" title="寄生虫学">寄生虫学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生理学">生理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="放射生物學">放射生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_biology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Soil biology（页面不存在）">土壤生物学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_biology" class="extiw" title="en:Soil biology">Soil biology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="社會生物學">社會生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="系統分類學">系統分類學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="毒理学">毒理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="动物学">动物学</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div style="background:#ddf;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="社会科学">社会科学</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="歷史學">歷史學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="心理学">心理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学">语言学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="政治学">政治学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6" title="法学">法学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82%E5%AD%B8" title="國際關係學">國際關係學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="经济学">经济学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="社会学">社会学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="教育学">教育学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="科學教育">科學教育</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA%E5%AD%B8" title="犯罪學">犯罪學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E5%AD%A6" title="人口学">人口学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="人类学">人类学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%A6" title="考古学">考古学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="地理学">地理学</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="人文地理学">人文地理学</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div style="background:#ddf;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%87%89%E7%94%A8%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="應用科學">應用科學</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="工程学">工程学</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="工业工程学">工业工程学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E7%B1%8C%E5%AD%B8" title="運籌學">運籌學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="计算机科学">计算机科学</a> / <a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97%E6%A9%9F%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="計算機工程">計算機工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%BA%E5%99%A8%E4%BA%BA%E5%AD%A6" title="机器人学">机器人学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AF%E4%BB%B6%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="软件工程">软件工程</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Web engineering（页面不存在）">互联网工程</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_engineering" class="extiw" title="en:Web engineering">Web engineering</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E6%9C%A8%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="土木工程">土木工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%BA%E6%A2%B0%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="机械工程">机械工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%88%AA%E7%A9%BA%E8%88%AA%E5%A4%A9%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="航空航天工程">航空航天工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%A9%9F%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="電機工程學">電機工程學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="核工程">核工程</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="化学工程">化学工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="生物工程学">生物工程学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="生物医学工程">生物医学工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="基因工程">基因工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%BF%E4%B8%9A%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="矿业工程">矿业工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E4%B8%9A%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="农业工程">农业工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%88%E9%98%B2%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="消防工程">消防工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%8D%E4%BA%8B%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="軍事工程">軍事工程</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E7%99%82%E8%A1%9B%E7%94%9F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="醫療衛生科學">醫療衛生科學</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="医学">医学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%BD%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="兽医学">兽医学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%99%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="牙醫學">牙醫學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%97%85%E5%AD%A6" title="流行病学">流行病学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%AF%E5%AD%A6" title="药学">药学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%A4%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="护理学">护理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A6%96%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="視光學">視光學</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Midwifery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midwifery（页面不存在）">助产术</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwifery" class="extiw" title="en:Midwifery">Midwifery</a>）</li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div style="background:#ddf;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E9%99%85%E6%95%B4%E5%90%88" title="科际整合">交叉学科</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E8%AE%BA" title="科学论">科学论</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_modelling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scientific modelling（页面不存在）">科学建模</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_modelling" class="extiw" title="en:Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1%E5%AD%A6" title="统计学">统计学</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Systems_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Systems science（页面不存在）">系统科学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_science" class="extiw" title="en:Systems science">Systems science</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E7%9F%A5%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="认知科学">认知科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="演化心理學">演化心理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="神经科学">神经科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="神经工程">神经工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="计算语言学">计算语言学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD" title="人工智能">人工智能</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="网络科学">网络科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%A6" title="神经信息学">神经信息学</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Web science（页面不存在）">互联网科学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_science" class="extiw" title="en:Web science">Web science</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86" title="数学物理">数学物理</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%94%E7%94%A8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="应用物理学">应用物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="复杂系统">复杂系统</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E7%90%86%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="數理生物學">数学 / 理论生物学</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%AD%B8" title="生物統計學">生物統計學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="生物医学工程">生物医学工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%A6" title="生物信息学">生物信息学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6%E8%AE%BA" title="控制论">控制论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E8%A7%84%E5%88%92" title="城市规划">城市规划</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="司法科学">司法科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9B%E4%BA%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="军事学">军事学</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%AF%E5%A2%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="环境科学">环境科学</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Environmental studies（页面不存在）">环境研究</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_studies" class="extiw" title="en:Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_social_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Environmental social science（页面不存在）">环境社会科学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_social_science" class="extiw" title="en:Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生物倫理學">生物倫理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="社會生物學">社會生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BE%E4%B9%A6%E9%A6%86%E5%AD%A6" title="图书馆学">图书馆学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="文化研究">文化研究</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="符號學">符號學</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethnic_studies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ethnic studies（页面不存在）">种族研究</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_studies" class="extiw" title="en:Ethnic studies">Ethnic studies</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E4%B8%9A" title="林业">林业</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="農學">農學</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div style="background:#ddf;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="科学哲学">科学哲学</a>　<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="科学史">科学史</a></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%A1%80%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="基础科学">基础科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E4%BC%97%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="公众科学">公众科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B9%E7%BC%98%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="边缘科学">边缘科学</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protoscience（页面不存在）">原科学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoscience" class="extiw" title="en:Protoscience">Protoscience</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="伪科学">伪科学</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E8%AA%8D%E5%AE%9A%E6%98%AF%E5%81%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%BB%E9%A1%8C%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="被認定是偽科學的主題列表">列表</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" title="学术自由">学术自由</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科学政策（页面不存在）">政策</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy" class="extiw" title="en:Science policy">Science policy</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E7%A0%94%E7%BB%8F%E8%B4%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科研经费（页面不存在）">经费</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" class="extiw" title="en:Funding of science">Funding of science</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科学方法">科学方法</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Technoscience&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Technoscience（页面不存在）">技科学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience" class="extiw" title="en:Technoscience">Technoscience</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9E%83%E5%9C%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="垃圾科学">垃圾科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="反科學">反科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%8F%96%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="被取代的科學理論">被取代的科學理論</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="display:block;margin-top:0.7em; border-top:1px solid 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="Template:科學"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="Template talk:科學"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:科學"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iris_latifolia-Lac_Aule-Laruns-2522~2013_07_29.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Iris_latifolia-Lac_Aule-Laruns-2522~2013_07_29.JPG/330px-Iris_latifolia-Lac_Aule-Laruns-2522~2013_07_29.JPG" decoding="async" width="330" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Iris_latifolia-Lac_Aule-Laruns-2522~2013_07_29.JPG/495px-Iris_latifolia-Lac_Aule-Laruns-2522~2013_07_29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Iris_latifolia-Lac_Aule-Laruns-2522~2013_07_29.JPG/660px-Iris_latifolia-Lac_Aule-Laruns-2522~2013_07_29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4245" data-file-height="2830" /></a><figcaption>法国奥勒湖附近山坡上的几株<a href="/wiki/%E9%B8%A2%E5%B0%BE%E5%B1%9E" title="鸢尾属">鸢尾花</a></figcaption></figure> 植物学（<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a>：Botany）是一门研究<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a>形态解剖、生长发育、生理生态、系统进化、分类以及与人类的关系的综合性科学，是<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学">生物学</a>的分支学科。传统上的植物学也包括<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌">真菌</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E9%A1%9E" title="藻類">藻类</a>的研究，如今这两类研究被细分为了<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%AD%B8" title="真菌學">真菌学</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="藻类学">藻类学</a>，但<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A" title="国际植物学大会">国际植物学大会</a>仍将它们包括在讨论范围内。如今，植物学家研究了大约410,000种<a href="/wiki/%E9%99%86%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="陆生植物">陆生植物</a>，其中391,000属于<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%AE%A1%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="维管植物">维管植物</a>（其中包含369,000种<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="被子植物">被子植物</a>）<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoyal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew2016-1">[1]</a>，剩余的约20,000种为<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E8%97%93%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="苔藓植物">苔藓植物</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Plant_List-2">[2]</a> 植物学起源于<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E5%89%8D%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="史前時代">史前时代</a>，人类在寻找<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%89%E8%97%A5%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="草藥醫學">药草</a>的过程中逐渐鉴别出一些植物物种。而后人类也试图人工繁育特定植物，以供食用、提取毒素或医治疾病。这些努力也成为了人类科学研究的起始。欧洲中世纪<a href="/wiki/%E5%83%A7%E9%99%A2" title="僧院">僧院</a>里的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8D%AF%E6%9D%90%E5%9B%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="药材园（页面不存在）">药材园</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physic_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Physic garden">Physic garden</a>）常会种植一些具备药用价值的植物。这些园林后续逐渐演变为<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="大學">大学</a>附属的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%92" title="植物園">植物园</a>，其为植物研究提供了便利。最早出现的植物园是位于意大利的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E5%A4%9A%E7%93%A6%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9B%AD" title="帕多瓦植物园">帕多瓦植物园</a>。早期对植物的分类与描述为后续<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="植物分类学">植物分类学</a>奠定了基础，并促使<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88" title="卡尔·林奈">卡尔·林奈</a>提出了<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95" title="二名法">二名法</a>，如今二名法已被广泛使用于生物命名。19和20世纪出现了许多新的植物研究技术，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="光学显微镜">光学显微镜</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B4%BB%E4%BD%93%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E6%88%90%E5%83%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="活体细胞成像（页面不存在）">活体细胞成像</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live-cell_imaging" class="extiw" title="en:Live-cell imaging">Live-cell imaging</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="电子显微镜">电子显微镜</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94%E5%80%8D%E6%80%A7" title="染色體倍性">染色体倍性</a>分析、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="植物化学">植物化学</a>，以及<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%B6" title="酶">酶</a>与其它<a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B4%A8" title="蛋白质">蛋白质</a>的研究。20世纪末，植物学家还发展了<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学">分子遗传分析</a>技术，也即依靠<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84%E5%AD%B8" title="基因組學">基因組學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B4%A8%E7%BB%84%E5%AD%A6" title="蛋白质组学">蛋白质组学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%B8%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%97" title="核酸序列">核酸序列</a>等研究，更精确的分类植物。 现代植物学的研究范围广泛，常可从其它学科中汲取发展成果与全新见解。植物学的主要研究方向包括：植物组织的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物形態學">结构</a>及其<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E9%95%BF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="细胞生长（页面不存在）">生长</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_growth" class="extiw" title="en:Cell growth">Cell growth</a>）分化，植物的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="植物繁殖">繁殖</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E9%95%BF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物生长（页面不存在）">生长</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_development" class="extiw" title="en:Plant development">Plant development</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="植物化学">生物化学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E8%B0%A2" title="代谢">代谢</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="植物化学">化学产物</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物病理學">疾病</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6" title="系统发生学">演化关系</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="系統分類學">系统分类</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="植物分类学">植物分类</a>。进入21世纪后，植物学研究还加入了<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E8%A7%80%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="表觀遺傳學">表观遗传学</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="分子遺傳學">分子遗传学</a>，这两门学科主要关注植物<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="植物细胞学">细胞</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6)#植物组织" title="组织 (生物学)">组织</a>分化过程中<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" title="基因">基因</a>表达的机制与控制方式。植物学研究应用广泛，它有助于更稳定的产出<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E9%A3%9F" title="主食">主食</a>、原料（例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%9D%90" title="木材">木材</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E7%94%A8%E6%B2%B9" title="食用油">油</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%A1%E8%86%A0" title="橡膠">橡胶</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4" title="纤维">纤维</a>、药物），在现代<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%AD%E8%89%BA" title="园艺">园艺</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E4%B8%9A" title="农业">农林业</a>中帮助植物<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="植物繁殖">繁殖</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%85%8D%E7%A8%AE" title="植物配種">配种</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="基因工程">基因修改</a>，能源或建筑材料合成，在<a href="/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E8%B3%87%E6%BA%90%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86" title="環境資源管理">环境管理</a>领域促进<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%A4%9A%E6%A8%A3%E6%80%A7" title="生物多樣性">生物多样性</a>。 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="历史">历史</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：历史">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r85099211">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学发展历史（页面不存在）">植物学发展历史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:History of botany">History of botany</a>）</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Botany.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Botany.jpg/220px-Botany.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Botany.jpg/330px-Botany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Botany.jpg/440px-Botany.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2183" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>一个植物学家的传统工具</figcaption></figure> 人类对植物的认识最早可追溯到<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A7%E7%9F%B3%E5%99%A8%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="旧石器时代">旧石器时代</a>，史前人类在寻找食物的过程中采集了植物的根、茎、叶和果实。植物学的创始人是古希腊科学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%A5%A7%E5%BC%97%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E6%89%98%E6%96%AF" title="泰奧弗拉斯托斯">泰奧弗拉斯托斯</a>，他在著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8F%B2" title="植物史">植物史</a>》中描述了植物构造，并对其作了分类。公元1世纪希腊医师<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%AA%E5%A5%A5%E7%A7%91%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="迪奥科里斯">迪奥科里斯</a>的著作《<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%A5%E7%89%A9%E8%AB%96" title="藥物論">药物论</a>》为日后药用植物的使用奠定了基础。1593年<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D" title="明朝">明朝</a>医学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E6%97%B6%E7%8F%8D" title="李时珍">李时珍</a>完成了《<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%8D%89%E7%BA%B2%E7%9B%AE" title="本草纲目">本草纲目</a>》的编写，此书集成了中国16世纪以前<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%89%E8%97%A5%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="草藥醫學">本草学</a>大成。17世纪末，英国生物学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%9B%B7" title="约翰·雷">约翰·雷</a>确立了现代植物分类的基本原理。17世纪出现了各式各样的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="显微镜">显微镜</a>，开创了<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="植物解剖學">植物解剖学</a>的研究，随后<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生理學">植物生理学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9A%E8%83%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="胚胎学">植物胚胎学</a>也得到进一步发展，到19世纪中期，植物学各分支学科已基本形成。近代中国的植物学主要从西方引入，首部译本是数学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E5%96%84%E5%85%B0" title="李善兰">李善兰</a>与外人于19世纪中叶合译的《植物学》，该书所译的细胞、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%8C%E8%8A%B1%E5%99%A8" title="雌花器">心皮</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E6%88%BF" title="子房">子房</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%8E%E5%BA%A7" title="胎座">胎座</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9A" title="胚">胚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9A%E4%B9%B3" title="胚乳">胚乳</a>等名词沿用至今。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE马炜梁20229-3">[3]</a>中国近代植物分类学的奠基人是<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E5%85%88%E9%AA%95" title="胡先骕">胡先骕</a>，他编写了中国首部植物学教材《高等植物学》，发现并命名了<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E6%9D%89" title="水杉">水杉</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE中国科学院植物研究所-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="早期植物学">早期植物学</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：早期植物学">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png/220px-Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png/330px-Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png/440px-Cork_Micrographia_Hooke.png 2x" data-file-width="811" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%83%A1%E5%85%8B" title="罗伯特·胡克">罗伯特·胡克</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%9F%E6%9C%A8" title="軟木">软木</a>中发现的细胞，发表于1665年作品《<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E5%9B%BE%E8%B0%B1" title="显微图谱">显微图谱</a>》。</figcaption></figure> 植物学起源于人类对<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%89%E8%97%A5%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="草藥醫學">草药</a>的研究与使用。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner200016-5">[5]</a>人类早期文明有许多关于植物分类和描述的著作。例如可追溯至1100年前的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%B2%B3%E6%B5%81%E5%9F%9F%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="印度河流域文明">古印度</a>著作，<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="古埃及">古埃及</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%B6%AD%E6%96%AF%E9%99%80%E8%AA%9E" title="阿維斯陀語">阿維斯陀語</a>文本，中国的植物学早期著作可追溯到公元前221年。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155-7">[7]</a>秦汉时期的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E5%86%9C%E6%9C%AC%E8%8D%89%E7%BB%8F" title="神农本草经">神农本草经</a>》是中国最早的药用植物志。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE北京市园林学校199010-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamLuHuang1986-9">[9]</a> 现代植物学源于古希腊，创始人为<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a>的学生<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%A5%A7%E5%BC%97%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E6%89%98%E6%96%AF" title="泰奧弗拉斯托斯">泰奧弗拉斯托斯</a>，他发明并描述了许多现代植物学的原理。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142-10">[10]</a>泰奧弗拉斯托斯的两部主要著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8F%B2" title="植物史">植物史</a>》和《植物本原》是欧洲古代和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA" title="中世纪">中世纪</a>植物学的重要基础。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE周云龙200410-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHammond190230-12">[12]</a>公元1世纪<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="希腊">希腊</a>医师<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%AA%E5%A5%A5%E7%A7%91%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="迪奥科里斯">迪奥科里斯</a>的著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BF%97" class="mw-redirect" title="植物志">植物志</a>》是一部共5卷的药草百科全书，对其后植物学亦有广泛影响。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003532-13">[13]</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E9%BB%83%E9%87%91%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="伊斯蘭黃金時代">中世纪伊斯兰世界</a>的植物学相关著作包括<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E7%93%A6%E5%B8%8C%E4%BA%9A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊本·瓦希亚（页面不存在）">伊本·瓦希亚</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Wahshiyya" class="extiw" title="en:Ibn Wahshiyya">Ibn Wahshiyya</a>）的《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%B3%E5%B7%B4%E6%B3%B0%E5%86%9C%E4%B8%9A%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="纳巴泰农业学（页面不存在）">纳巴泰农业学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nabataean_Agriculture" class="extiw" title="en:The Nabataean Agriculture">The Nabataean Agriculture</a>）》，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E5%93%88%E5%B0%BC%E6%B3%95%C2%B7%E8%BF%AA%E7%BA%B3%E7%93%A6%E9%87%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿布·哈尼法·迪纳瓦里（页面不存在）">阿布·哈尼法·迪纳瓦里</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Hanifa_Dinawari" class="extiw" title="en:Abu Hanifa Dinawari">Abu Hanifa Dinawari</a>）的《植物之书》以及<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E8%90%A8%E5%B0%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊本·巴萨尔（页面不存在）">伊本·巴萨尔</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Bassal" class="extiw" title="en:Ibn Bassal">Ibn Bassal</a>）的《土壤分类》。13世纪早期，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%BA%B3%E5%B7%B4%E8%92%82&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿布·阿巴斯·纳巴蒂（页面不存在）">阿布·阿巴斯·纳巴蒂</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_al-Nabati" class="extiw" title="en:Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati">Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati</a>）和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E6%8B%9C%E5%A1%94%E5%B0%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊本·拜塔尔（页面不存在）">伊本·拜塔尔</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Baytar" class="extiw" title="en:Ibn al-Baytar">Ibn al-Baytar</a>）以科学系统的风格撰写了植物学著作。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallal2010197-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaino200293-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevey1973116-16">[16]</a> 16世纪中期，<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9" title="意大利">意大利</a>的大学中开始出现植物园。最早的植物园是于1545年创建的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E5%A4%9A%E7%93%A6%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9B%AD" title="帕多瓦植物园">帕多瓦植物园</a>，如今尚存于原址。这些植物园延续了先前<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E9%81%93%E9%99%A2" title="修道院">修道院</a>中“药材园”的用途，人们在园中种植可能具备药用价值的植物。植物园的建立支持了植物学的学科发展，在大学中常会举办园中相关植物的讲座。欧洲北部的植物学发展较慢，其最早的植物园是位于英国<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6" title="牛津大学">牛津大学</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E6%B4%A5%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%92" title="牛津大學植物園">植物园</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill1915-17">[17]</a>医师<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%B1%E6%98%82%E5%93%88%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%A6%8F%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF" title="莱昂哈特·福克斯">莱昂哈特·福克斯</a>（1501–1566）、神学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E4%BC%A6%E8%B4%B9%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF" title="奥托·布伦费尔斯">奥托·布伦费尔斯</a>（1489–1534）和医师<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E7%BD%97%E5%B0%BC%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%8D%9A%E5%85%8B" title="希罗尼穆斯·博克">希罗尼穆斯·博克</a>（1498–1554）被并称为“德国植物学之父”。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Museum_of_Wales2007-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYanivBachrach2005157-19">[19]</a>其中福克斯和博克一反重复早期书本内容的传统，转而自行观察研究植物，布伦费尔斯则是创建了植物分类系统。 <a href="/wiki/%E7%93%A6%E5%8B%92%E7%95%99%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E5%B0%94%E6%9D%9C%E6%96%AF" title="瓦勒留斯·科尔杜斯">瓦勒留斯·科尔杜斯</a>（1515–1544）在其1544年作品《植物史》（<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉丁語">拉丁語</a>：Historia Plantarum）中记录了有重要药用价值的植物，并于1546年出版了《药典》（<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉丁語">拉丁語</a>：Dispensatorium）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpragueSprague1939-20">[20]</a>博物学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%BA%B3" title="康拉德·格斯纳">康拉德·格斯纳</a>（1516–1565）和药草师<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%9D%B0%E5%8B%92%E5%BE%B7" title="约翰·杰勒德">约翰·杰勒德</a>（1545–<abbr>c.</abbr> 1611）也出版了各自的药用植物相关作品。博物学家<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%9E%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7%E7%BD%97%E4%B8%87%E8%BF%AA" title="乌利塞·阿尔德罗万迪">乌利塞·阿尔德罗万迪</a>被认为是“自然史之父”，他完成了许多植物研究工作。1665年，博学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%83%A1%E5%85%8B" title="罗伯特·胡克">罗伯特·胡克</a>凭借显微镜在<a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%9F%E6%9C%A8" title="軟木">软木</a>切片中发现了并命名了<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E" title="细胞">细胞</a>，不久后亦在活体植物组织中发现了细胞。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaggoner2001-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="早期现代植物学">早期现代植物学</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：早期现代植物学">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg/220px-CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg/330px-CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg/440px-CarlvonLinne_Garden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>位于瑞典<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%99%AE%E8%90%A8%E6%8B%89" title="乌普萨拉">乌普萨拉</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9B%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="林奈植物园（页面不存在）">林奈植物园</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Garden" class="extiw" title="en:Linnaean Garden">Linnaean Garden</a>），其中植物依照其《性别系统》中的顺序栽种。</figcaption></figure> 现代植物学始于对植物的分类研究。18世纪，植物分类系统开始使用<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%95%E9%81%93%E6%A3%80%E7%B4%A2%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="单道检索表（页面不存在）">单道检索表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-access_key" class="extiw" title="en:Single-access key">Single-access_key</a>）<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE吴增华侯学良2015-22">[22]</a>对植物进行快速分类。在应用该方法时，科学家从预设的多种<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E7%8B%80" title="性狀">性状</a>中选择与待分类植物最符合的性状，由此将其向下逐步归类为不同<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%96%AE%E5%85%83" title="分類單元">分类单元</a>（例如科、属和种）。该方法的选择与顺序可以设计为只以分类为目的，或者也可以使其更加符合单道检索表（或称同步钥，英語：synoptic keys）的自然或<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E9%A1%BA%E5%BA%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="分类顺序（页面不存在）">分类顺序</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_sequence" class="extiw" title="en:Taxonomic sequence">Taxonomic sequence</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharf200973–117-23">[23]</a>在18世纪，得益于<a href="/wiki/%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0" title="殖民地">殖民地</a>扩张，世界各地的新奇植物被采集回欧洲，这位植物学家的研究工作提供了诸多便利，他们无需到访世界各地便可研究许多异域植物。1753年，<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88" title="卡尔·林奈">卡尔·林奈</a>发表了植物分类学著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E5%BF%97" title="植物种志">植物种志</a>》，该作品是<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB%E3%80%81%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%92%8C%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95%E8%A7%84" title="国际藻类、真菌和植物命名法规">现代植物学二名法</a>的基础。根据林奈提出的植物命名方法，标准的植物学名应当由两个部分构成，第一部分是<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%9E" title="属">属名</a>，第二部分标示属内的<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D" title="物种">物种</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon2005220–223-24">[24]</a>为方便鉴定，林奈在其《性别系统》（<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉丁語">拉丁語</a>：Systema Sexuale）中依据植物的生殖器官不同，将它们归为24个群组。例如第24组隐花植物（Cryptogamia）包括所有生殖器官为隐藏形态的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E8%97%93%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="苔藓植物">苔藓</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%A1%A3" title="地衣">地衣</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%95%A8%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="蕨类">蕨类</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E9%A1%9E" title="藻類">藻类</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌">真菌</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoekMannJahns20059-25">[25]</a> 随着<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="植物解剖學">植物解剖学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物形態學">植物形态学</a>的发展和对植物生命周期的认识，人们意识到植物间的亲缘不止是林奈在《性别系统》中所描述的那样。法国植物学家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%B3%E6%AD%87%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E4%B8%B9%E6%A3%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="米歇尔·阿丹森（页面不存在）">米歇尔·阿丹森</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Adanson" class="extiw" title="en:Michel Adanson">Michel Adanson</a>）（1763）、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%89%98%E4%B8%87%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%9C%B1%E8%A5%BF%E5%8E%84" class="mw-redirect" title="安托万·罗兰·德朱西厄">安托万·罗兰·德朱西厄</a>（1789）以及瑞士植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81%C2%B7%E5%BD%BC%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E5%A0%AA%E5%A4%9A" title="奥古斯丁·彼拉姆斯·德堪多">奥古斯丁·彼拉姆斯·德堪多</a>（1819）各自提出了影响广泛的植物分类系统。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%B7%E5%A0%AA%E5%A4%9A%E4%BD%93%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="德堪多体系（页面不存在）">德堪多的分类系统</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Candolle_system" class="extiw" title="en:De Candolle system">De Candolle system</a>）中反映了他对于植物复杂形态发展过程的看法，对后续19世纪的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BE%B9%E6%B2%81%E8%83%A1%E5%85%8B%E4%BD%93%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="边沁胡克体系（页面不存在）">边沁胡克体系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentham_%26_Hooker_system" class="extiw" title="en:Bentham & Hooker system">Bentham & Hooker system</a>）有重要影响。1859年，<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="查尔斯·达尔文">达尔文</a>出版的《<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="物种起源">物种起源</a>》中有关<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="共同起源">共同起源</a>的概念对<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%B7%E5%A0%AA%E5%A4%9A%E4%BD%93%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="德堪多体系（页面不存在）">德堪多体系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Candolle_system" class="extiw" title="en:De Candolle system">De Candolle system</a>）提出了修正需求，需要从中反映出相似形态之间的演化关系。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarr2009299–-26">[26]</a> 1838年，德国植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E8%92%82%E4%BA%9E%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%9B%85%E5%90%84%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E6%96%BD%E8%90%8A%E7%99%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="馬蒂亞斯·雅各布·施萊登">馬蒂亞斯·施萊登</a>发表了《植物发生论》（德語：Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik），此书对植物学有很大的影响。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1981377-27">[27]</a>施萊登善用显微镜，并且是早期植物解剖学家。他与动物学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%A5%A5%E5%A4%9A%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%96%BD%E4%B8%87" class="mw-redirect" title="泰奥多尔·施万">泰奥多尔·施万</a>、医生<a href="/wiki/%E9%B2%81%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E8%8F%B2%E5%B0%94%E7%BB%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="鲁道夫·菲尔绍">鲁道夫·菲尔绍</a>一同建立了<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%B4" title="细胞学说">细胞学说</a>，并且在苏格兰植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%97" title="罗伯特·布朗">罗伯特·布朗</a>于1831年发现<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E6%A0%B8" title="细胞核">细胞核</a>时随即意识到该结构的重要性。1855年，德国医生<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E8%8F%B2%E5%85%8B" title="阿道夫·菲克">阿道夫·菲克</a>提出了<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%B2%E5%85%8B%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="菲克定律">菲克定律</a>，并将其用于计算生物系统中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E6%93%B4%E6%95%A3" title="分子擴散">分子扩散</a>速率。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmall2012118–-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="现代植物学">现代植物学</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：现代植物学">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg/220px-Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg/330px-Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg/440px-Echeveria_glauca_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7360" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption>生长于<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E4%B9%83%E7%8B%84%E5%85%8B%E5%B7%9E" title="康乃狄克州">康涅狄格州</a>温室中的 Echeveria glauca。植物学家使用拉丁文为植物命名，例如该植物的种小名 glauca 意为蓝色。</figcaption></figure> 奥地利科学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="孟德爾">格雷戈尔·孟德尔</a>（1822–1884）借助对豌豆（Pisum sativum）实验研究，最早提出了基因-染色体遗传学说（英語：the gene-chromosome theory of heredity），德国生物学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E9%AD%8F%E6%96%AF%E6%9B%BC" title="奥古斯特·魏斯曼">奥古斯特·魏斯曼</a>（1834–1914）证明遗传只通过<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E5%AD%90" title="配子">配子</a>发生，其它细胞都不会传递遗传特征。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarp2009382-29">[29]</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%87%B1%E7%91%9F%E7%90%B3%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E7%B4%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="凱瑟琳·伊索（页面不存在）">凱瑟琳·伊索</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Esau" class="extiw" title="en:Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a>）（1898–1997）在植物解剖学方面的工作为现代植物学奠定了重要基础，其半个世纪前的作品《植物解剖学与种子植物的解剖》（英語：Plant Anatomy and Anatomy of Seed Plants）至今仍被用作植物结构生物学教材。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Science_Foundation1989-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaffey2007481–482-31">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif/lossy-page1-220px-ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif/lossy-page1-330px-ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif/lossy-page1-440px-ETH-BIB-Kurs_in_Alpenbotanik-Ans_08784-01-031.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5533" /></a><figcaption>1936年在瑞士开展的高山植物学课程</figcaption></figure> 丹麦植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%A4%E9%87%91%E7%BA%BD%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%93%A6%E5%B0%94%E6%98%8E" title="尤金纽斯·瓦尔明">尤金纽斯·瓦尔明</a>于19世纪晚期创建了<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="植物生态学">植物生态学</a>，他提出植物以<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%BE%A4%E8%90%BD" title="植物群落">群落</a>方式存在。瓦尔明的导师和继任者<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E7%99%BB%C2%B7%E5%8A%B3%E6%81%A9%E5%87%AF%E5%B0%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="克里斯登·劳恩凯尔（页面不存在）">克里斯登·劳恩凯尔</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christen_C._Raunki%C3%A6r" class="extiw" title="en:Christen C. Raunkiær">Christen C. Raunkiær</a>）对此提出了至今仍在使用的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%9E%E6%81%A9%E5%87%B1%E7%88%BE%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%B4%BB%E5%9E%8B%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="勞恩凱爾植物生活型分類系統">劳恩凯尔植物生活型分类系统</a>。美国植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A8%E5%88%A9%C2%B7%E9%92%B1%E5%BE%B7%E5%8B%92%C2%B7%E8%80%83%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF" title="亨利·钱德勒·考尔斯">亨利·钱德勒·考尔斯</a>、英国植物学家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E7%91%9F%C2%B7%E5%9D%A6%E6%96%AF%E5%88%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿瑟·坦斯利（页面不存在）">阿瑟·坦斯利</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Tansley" class="extiw" title="en:Arthur Tansley">Arthur Tansley</a>）和美国植物生态学家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E8%8E%B1%E9%97%A8%E8%8C%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="弗雷德里克·克莱门茨（页面不存在）">弗雷德里克·克莱门茨</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Clements" class="extiw" title="en:Frederic Clements">Frederic Clements</a>）发展了植物群落<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E6%9B%BF" title="演替">演替</a>的概念，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%A9%E5%B8%A6%E9%98%94%E5%8F%B6%E6%B7%B7%E4%BA%A4%E6%9E%97" title="温带阔叶混交林">温带阔叶混交林</a>的演替。克莱门茨还提出了<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%B6%E6%9E%81%E7%BE%A4%E8%90%BD" title="顶极群落">顶级群落</a>概念，它是对应环境所能支持的复杂程度最高的植物群。坦斯利将顶极群落的概念从生态学引入至生物学。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETansley1935299–302-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis1997267–271-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1981457-34">[34]</a>19世纪德国植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E9%9F%A6%E5%B0%94%E7%99%BB%E8%AF%BA" title="卡尔·路德维希·韦尔登诺">卡尔·路德维希·韦尔登诺</a>分析了<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E5%AD%90" title="種子">种子散布</a>与分布，植物种群，地质历史的影响之间的联系，并开创了<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="植物地理学">植物地理学</a>。俄国植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E7%93%A6%E7%BB%B4%E6%B4%9B%E5%A4%AB" title="尼古拉·瓦维洛夫">尼古拉·瓦维洛夫</a>（1887–1943）在前人<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%AF%94%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%A4%9A%E7%88%BE" title="阿方斯·比拉姆·德康多爾">阿方斯·比拉姆·德康多尔</a>的研究基础之上发展了<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物地理学">生物地理学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83" title="起源中心">起源中心</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9" title="经济作物">经济作物</a>演化史的概念。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Candolle20069–25,_450–465-35">[35]</a> 自1960年代以来，一些<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生理學">植物生理学</a>原理逐渐被人们理解，例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B8%E8%85%BE%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="蒸腾作用">蒸腾作用</a>（水分在植物体内的移动），叶面水分<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B8%E5%8F%91" title="蒸发">蒸发</a>速率与温度的依赖关系，水蒸气或二氧化碳透过<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E5%AD%94" title="气孔">气孔</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E6%93%B4%E6%95%A3" title="分子擴散">分子扩散</a>过程。借助这些研究成果以及对于植物气孔大小的精确测量，科学家得以准确的描述植物在<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用">光合作用</a>过程中与大气的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E9%AB%94%E4%BA%A4%E6%8F%9B" title="氣體交換">气体交换</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJasechkoSharpGibsonBirks2013347–350-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENobel1983608-37">[37]</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B4%9B%E6%A1%91%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="洛桑研究所（页面不存在）">洛桑研究所</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rothamsted_Research" class="extiw" title="en:Rothamsted Research">Rothamsted Research</a>）的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E7%B4%8D%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%84%9B%E7%88%BE%E9%BB%98%C2%B7%E8%B2%BB%E9%9B%AA" title="羅納德·愛爾默·費雪">罗纳德·艾尔默·费希尔</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYatesMather196391–129-38">[38]</a>与<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BC%97%E5%85%B0%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E8%80%B6%E8%8C%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="弗兰克·耶茨（页面不存在）">弗兰克·耶茨</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Yates" class="extiw" title="en:Frank Yates">Frank Yates</a>）在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1%E5%AD%A6" title="统计学">统计分析</a>方面的贡献简化了生物研究中的实验设计和数据分析。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinney1995554–573-39">[39]</a>1948年，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%82%AF%E5%B0%BC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%AF%89%E8%92%82%E6%9B%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="肯尼斯·诉蒂曼（页面不存在）">肯尼斯·诉蒂曼</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_V._Thimann" class="extiw" title="en:Kenneth V. Thimann">Kenneth V. Thimann</a>）发现并鉴别出了<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E9%95%B7%E7%B4%A0" title="生長素">植物生长素</a>，允许人们透过外部化学方法控制植物的生长速率。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%9D%8E%E7%9A%AE%E6%81%A9%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%9B%BE%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="弗雷德里克·坎皮恩·斯图尔德（页面不存在）">弗雷德里克·坎皮恩·斯图尔德</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Campion_Steward" class="extiw" title="en:Frederick Campion Steward">Frederick Campion Steward</a>）开创了<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BF%80%E7%B4%A0" title="植物激素">植物激素</a>控制的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94%E5%9F%B9%E9%A4%8A" title="植物組織培養">植物组织培养</a>技术。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECocking1993-40">[40]</a><a href="/wiki/2,4-%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%AF%E8%8B%AF%E6%B0%A7%E4%B9%99%E9%85%B8" title="2,4-二氯苯氧乙酸">2,4-二氯苯氧乙酸</a>（或称2,4-D）是人类首次合成的<a href="/wiki/%E9%99%A4%E8%8D%89%E5%89%82" title="除草剂">除草剂</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECousensMortimer1995-41">[41]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg/220px-Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg/330px-Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg/440px-Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>转基因植物的组织培养</figcaption></figure> 进入20世纪后，<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%9C%BA%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="有机化学">有机化学</a>技术的进步（例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E8%B0%B1%E5%AD%A6" title="光谱学">光谱学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E8%B0%B1%E6%B3%95" title="色谱法">色谱法</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E6%B3%B3" title="电泳">电泳</a>）引领了<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="植物化学">植物生物化学</a>的发展。并且随着<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学">分子生物学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84%E5%AD%B8" title="基因組學">基因组学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B4%A8%E7%BB%84%E5%AD%A6" title="蛋白质组学">蛋白质组学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E8%B0%A2%E7%89%A9%E7%BB%84%E5%AD%A6" title="代谢物组学">代谢物组学</a>等学科发展，科学家可以更详尽的用实验分析植物<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組">基因组</a>与其生物化学、生理学、形态、行为之间的关系。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhrhardtFrommer20121–21-42">[42]</a>1902年，奥地利植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A9%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E5%85%B0%E7%89%B9" title="戈特利布·哈伯兰特">戈特利布·哈伯兰特</a>最先提出所有植物细胞都具备<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%BD%9B%E8%83%BD#全潛能性" title="細胞潛能">全能性</a>，也即具备发育成完整植株的潜能。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberlandt190269–92-43">[43]</a>而这也允许科学家更加便利的将<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="基因工程">基因工程</a>运用于植物细胞的体外培养。科学家可从目标植物中去除一个或多个与特定性状相关的基因片段，或加入<a href="/wiki/%E5%A0%B1%E5%91%8A%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" title="報告基因">报告基因</a>（例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%BF%E8%89%B2%E8%8D%A7%E5%85%89%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD" title="绿色荧光蛋白">绿色荧光蛋白</a>），以便于观察特定性状的表达。这些生物技术可修改完整植株或<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8F%8D%E5%BA%94%E5%99%A8" title="生物反应器">生物反应器</a>内的植物细胞，使其分泌<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bt%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E6%94%B9%E9%80%A0%E7%8E%89%E7%B1%B3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bt基因改造玉米（页面不存在）">抗虫物质</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_maize#Bt_corn" class="extiw" title="en:Genetically modified maize">Genetically_modified_maize#Bt_corn</a>），生产<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E7%94%9F%E7%B4%A0" title="抗生素">抗生素</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%94%A2%E8%97%A5" title="生物產藥">药物</a>，此外也有相关技术用于<a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AC%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9" title="转基因作物">提高作物产量</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeonelliCharnleyWebbBastow2012-44">[44]</a> 现代<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物形態學">植物形态学</a>认识到植物的根、茎、叶、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%9B%E7%8A%B6%E4%BD%93" title="毛状体">毛状体</a>为连续的统一体，并强调这些结构的动态性。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattlerJeune1992249–262-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattler1992708–714-46">[46]</a>现代<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="系統分類學">植物系统分类学</a>主要关注植物间的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="系统发生命名法（页面不存在）">系统发生关系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" class="extiw" title="en:Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEreshefsky1997493–519-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraySargent1889292–293-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedbury199314–16-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJuddCampbellKelloggStevens2002347–350-50">[50]</a>现代<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6" title="分子系统发生学">分子系统发生学</a>通常忽视植物形态特征，而主要以植物的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%B8%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%97" title="核酸序列">基因序列</a>为数据来源。1998年，借助对开花植物的基因序列分析，<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E7%B3%BB%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6%E7%BB%84" title="被子植物种系发生学组">被子植物种系发生学组</a>发表了<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="被子植物">被子植物</a>的系统发生学成果，其中回答了许多有关被子植物与其它物种之间的关系的问题。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurger2013-51">[51]</a><a href="/wiki/DNA%E6%9D%A1%E5%BD%A2%E7%A0%81" title="DNA条形码">DNA条形码</a>技术是当前植物学研究的活跃主题，该研究理论上可用于鉴定植物物种和商业品种。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKressWurdackZimmerWeigt20058369–8374-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanzenForrestSpougeHajibabaei200912794–12797-53">[53]</a> 近30多年来，分子生物学和近代技术科学，以及数学、物理学、化学的新概念和新技术被引入到植物学领域，植物学在微观和宏观层面的研究均取得了突破，无论在研究的深度还是广度上都达到了一个全新的水平。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE周云龙200412-54">[54]</a>当今相当多的新知识都从研究<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="模式生物">模式植物</a>而来，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9F%E5%8D%97%E8%8A%A5" title="拟南芥">拟南芥</a>。这种<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E5%AD%97%E8%8A%B1%E7%A7%91" title="十字花科">十字花科</a>的杂草是最早完成<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%BB%84" class="mw-redirect" title="基因组">基因组</a>测序的植物之一。此外水稻也是较早完成基因组测序的植物，因为<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%A8%BB" title="水稻">水稻</a>基因组相对较小，同时<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%BB%84%E8%AE%A1%E5%88%92" title="基因组计划">國際水稻基因定序工程</a>（英語：The International Rice Genome Sequencing Project）也把它定为重要的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%B7%E7%89%A9" title="谷物">谷物</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%89" class="mw-redirect" title="草">草</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%95%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%B6%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="单子叶植物">单子叶植物</a>模型。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevosGale2000-55">[55]</a>另一<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BE%E6%9C%AC%E7%A7%91" title="禾本科">禾本科</a>植物<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E7%A9%97%E7%9F%AD%E6%9F%84%E8%8D%89" title="二穗短柄草">二穗短柄草</a>也是一个有助理解遗传学，细胞学和分子生物学的实验模型。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_California-Davis2012-56">[56]</a>科学家对<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%8F%E9%BA%A6" title="小麦">小麦</a>、 <a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%89%E7%B1%B3" title="玉米">玉米</a>、 <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%BA%A6" title="大麦">大麦</a>、 <a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E9%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="黑麦">黑麦</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%A1%E8%B0%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="御谷">御谷</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%B1%86" title="大豆">大豆</a>等主粮都进行了基因组测序。其中部分植物的基因组测序较为困难，因为它们的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E4%BD%93" title="染色体">染色体</a>中有两个以上的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94%E5%80%8D%E6%80%A7" title="染色體倍性">单倍体</a>。<a href="#cite_note-57">[a]</a>此外，绿色水藻<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8E%B1%E8%8C%B5%E8%A1%A3%E8%97%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="莱茵衣藻（页面不存在）">莱茵衣藻</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" class="extiw" title="en:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a>）作为模式生物，也为<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="细胞生物学">细胞生物学</a>提供了重要知识。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095370-58">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="研究范围与重要性">研究范围与重要性</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：研究范围与重要性">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:320px;max-width:320px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif/lossy-page1-160px-Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif/lossy-page1-240px-Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif/lossy-page1-320px-Neuch%C3%A2tel_Herbarium_-_Athyrium_filix-femina_-_NEU000003080.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1980" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Athyrium_filix-femina_Moore32.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Athyrium_filix-femina_Moore32.png/152px-Athyrium_filix-femina_Moore32.png" decoding="async" width="152" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Athyrium_filix-femina_Moore32.png/228px-Athyrium_filix-femina_Moore32.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Athyrium_filix-femina_Moore32.png/304px-Athyrium_filix-femina_Moore32.png 2x" data-file-width="1616" data-file-height="2552" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">植物学工作涉及到对植物的采集与描述，以蕨类植物<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B9%84%E7%9B%96%E8%95%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="蹄盖蕨（页面不存在）">蹄盖蕨</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athyrium_filix-femina" class="extiw" title="en:Athyrium filix-femina">Athyrium filix-femina</a>）為例，標本（左）與科學繪圖（右）均是重要的依據。</div></div></div></div> 对植物的研究十分重要，因为植物是地球生命的重要部分。植物的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用">光合作用</a>为几乎所有动物提供了赖以生存的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A7%E6%B0%94" title="氧气">氧气</a>与食物来源。光合作用以太阳光、水、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3" title="二氧化碳">二氧化碳</a>为原料，植物的生长发育提供能量与材料，植物、<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E9%A1%9E" title="藻類">藻类</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%8D%E8%8F%8C%E9%96%80" title="藍菌門">蓝菌</a>是进行光合作用的主要群体。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008186–187-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain20081240-60">[59]</a>氧气作为光合作用的副产品而被释放至地球大气，地球上几乎所有生命都使用氧气<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BC%E5%90%B8%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="呼吸作用">呼吸</a>。此外，植物还能防止<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4%E4%BE%B5%E8%9D%95" title="土壤侵蝕">土壤侵蚀</a>，在全球<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0" title="碳循環">碳循环</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF" title="水循环">水循环</a>过程中也扮演关键角色。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGust1996-61">[60]</a>植物对人类未来的发展至关重要，它关乎人类可获得的食物、氧气、<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="生物化学">生化产品</a>、原材料，并可产生和维持土壤。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMissouri_Botanical_Garden2009-62">[61]</a> 在现代科学之前，所有生命都被分成动物或植物（包含真菌）<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman_et_al.200156-63">[62]</a>，而植物学就是专门研究那些除动物以外的生物。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraselton2013-64">[63]</a>植物学家不仅研究植物的内部运作，例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%99%A8" title="細胞器">细胞器</a>、细胞、组织的功能，还涉及整株植物、植物种群、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%BE%A4%E8%90%BD" title="植物群落">植物群落</a>的研究。在每一研究层面，植物学家都可能用到<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学">分类学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6" title="系统发生学">发生学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化">演化学</a>等理论，并使用<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="植物解剖學">解剖学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物形態學">形态学</a>研究相应结构，使用<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生理学">生理学</a>研究植物功能运作。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095368-65">[64]</a> 通俗意义上的“植物”只包括“陆生植物”，或称<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E8%83%9A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="有胚植物">高等植物</a>，其下包含<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="种子植物">种子植物</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%A3%B8%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="裸子植物">裸子植物</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="被子植物">被子植物</a>）和使用<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90" title="孢子">孢子</a>繁殖的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9A%90%E8%8A%B1%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="隐花植物">隐花植物</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%95%A8%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="蕨类">蕨类</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%9D%BE%E9%96%80" class="mw-redirect" title="石松門">石松</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E9%8C%A2%E9%96%80" title="地錢門">地钱</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E8%8B%94%E9%96%80" title="角苔門">角苔</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E9%A1%9E%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%96%80" class="mw-redirect" title="苔類植物門">藓类</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrigin_of_Land_Plants-66">[65]</a>高等植物皆为多细胞<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">真核生物</a>，其共同祖先可进行光合作用。它们的生活史以<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AE%E5%80%8D%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="單倍體">单倍体</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%80%8D%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="二倍體">二倍体</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E4%BB%A3%E4%BA%A4%E6%9B%BF" title="世代交替">交替</a>。处于单倍体阶段时称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E5%AD%90%E9%AB%94" title="配子體">配子体</a>，在某个阶段会发展为二倍体，此时称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%93" title="孢子体">孢子体</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008602-67">[66]</a>种子植物的配子体由母体孢子体培育。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008619–620-68">[67]</a>过去植物学家也研究现代植物标准定义以外的生物，现在这些研究已被细分为其它学科，例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%8F%8C" title="细菌">细菌</a>（现在被细分为<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C%E5%AD%B8" title="細菌學">细菌学</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌">真菌</a>（现为<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%AD%B8" title="真菌學">真菌学</a>）——包括与<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%A1%A3" title="地衣">地衣</a>共生的真菌（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%B0%E8%A1%A3%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="地衣學（页面不存在）">地衣學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenology" class="extiw" title="en:Lichenology">Lichenology</a>））、非<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%A0%E8%97%BB%E9%96%80" title="綠藻門">绿藻</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="藻类学">藻类学</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92" title="病毒">病毒</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92%E5%AD%A6" title="病毒学">病毒学</a>）。虽然上述领域已不再是现代植物学的研究范围，但植物学家仍关注这些物种，并且真菌和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="原生生物">原生生物</a>也仍包含在植物学课程内。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon200510–11-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth20031–3-70">[69]</a> 根据<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F%E9%AB%94%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" title="共生體學說">内共生学说</a>，地球上最早出现的光合放氧生物<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%8D%E8%8F%8C%E9%96%80" title="藍菌門">蓝菌</a>通过内共生演化为了植物真核祖先细胞内的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E4%BD%93" title="叶绿体">叶绿体</a>。由此产生的光合植物加快了大气氧含量的升高，<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="大氧化事件">彻底改变</a>了远古地球的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E5%A4%A7%E6%B0%94%E5%B1%82" title="地球大气层">大气</a>组成，并在其后20多亿年里维持大气中充足的氧含量。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History2012-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008516–517-72">[71]</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古植物学">古植物学</a>是研究远古时期遗留的植物化石记录的学科，科学家也从这些记录中探索<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物演化史（页面不存在）">植物的演化历程</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" class="extiw" title="en:Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a>）。 21世纪关于植物的主要问题是其作出基础<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E5%85%BB%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="自养生物">生产者</a>，在全球范围的生命原材料循环中扮演的角色。这些原材料包括能量、碳、氧气、氮和水。此外，人们也关注植物管理与环境问题之间的关联，例如<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="资源管理（页面不存在）">资源管理</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_management" class="extiw" title="en:Resource management">Resource management</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E8%82%B2%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="保育運動">自然保护</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%AE%E9%A3%9F%E5%AE%89%E5%85%A8" title="粮食安全">粮食安全</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E4%BE%86%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE" title="外來物種">入侵物种防治</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E6%88%AA%E5%AD%98" title="碳截存">碳截存</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E5%8F%98%E6%9A%96" title="全球变暖">气候变化</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E6%8C%81%E7%BA%8C%E6%80%A7" title="可持續性">可持续发展</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotanical_Society_of_America2013-73">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="农业">农业</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：农业">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%BA%E4%BD%93%E8%90%A5%E5%85%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="人体营养（页面不存在）">人体营养</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition" class="extiw" title="en:Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a>）和<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E4%B8%9A" title="农业">农业</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brown_rice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="grains of brown rice, a staple food" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Brown_rice.jpg/220px-Brown_rice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Brown_rice.jpg/330px-Brown_rice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Brown_rice.jpg/440px-Brown_rice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>人类的食物直接或间接来自于植物，例如大米直接来自水稻。</figcaption></figure> 人类几乎所有<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E9%A3%9F" title="主食">主食</a>都直接来自植物的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%9D%E7%BA%A7%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%A7" title="初级生产">初级生产</a>，或间接来自以植物为食的动物。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095367–5368-74">[73]</a>植物及其它光合生物是食物链的基础，它们将来自太阳光的能量、土壤和大气中的养分转化为可供动物获取使用的形式。生态学家将其称为第一<a href="/wiki/%E7%87%9F%E9%A4%8A%E7%B4%9A" title="營養級">营养级</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButz2007534–553-75">[74]</a>现代主要食用作物例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E9%BA%B8" title="苔麸">苔麸</a>、玉米、水稻、小麦、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%9A%E6%9E%9C" title="荚果">豆类</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E8%95%89" title="香蕉">香蕉</a>，以及用于织物生产的<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E9%BA%BB" title="火麻">火麻</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%BA%BB" title="亚麻">亚麻</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%89%E8%8A%B1" title="棉花">棉花</a>等，都来自于史前人类对<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A5%A0%E5%9F%BA%E5%86%9C%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="奠基农作物（页面不存在）">野外原始植物</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder_crops" class="extiw" title="en:Founder crops">Founder crops</a>）的筛选培育。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZoharyHopf200020–22-76">[75]</a> 植物学家致力于研究利用植物生产食物并提高其产量，例如通过<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%85%8D%E7%A8%AE" title="植物配種">植物配种</a>方法获取期望的性状。这些工作对人类未来十分重要，其可确保人类后代的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%AE%E9%A3%9F%E5%AE%89%E5%85%A8" title="粮食安全">粮食安全</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlorosNewsomeFisher2010-77">[76]</a>植物学家也研究农业中的有害植物，例如杂草。<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物病理學">植物病原体</a>也是他们的研究方向，植物学家借助对植物病原体的生物研究寻找其在农业活动以及自然<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="生态系统">生态系统</a>中的控制方法。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoening2005-78">[77]</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="民族植物學">民族植物学</a>是研究植物与人类关系的学科，而当涉及到植物与远古人类的关系时，则称为<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="古民族植物学（页面不存在）">古民族植物学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" class="extiw" title="en:Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotany</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAcharyaAnshu2008440-79">[78]</a>一些人类与植物关系的最早记录来自<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91" title="美洲原住民">加拿大原住民</a>，他们从众多植物中分辨出可食用植物。民族植物学家记录了这些原住民与植物间的关系。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhnleinTurner1991-80">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="植物生物化学">植物生物化学</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：植物生物化学">编辑</a>]</div> 植物生物化学是研究植物内化学反应进程的学科。其中部分化学反应用于自身基础<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E8%B0%A2" title="代谢">代谢</a>，例如光合作用中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0" title="卡爾文循環">卡尔文循环</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AF%E5%A4%A9%E9%85%B8%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D" title="景天酸代謝">景天酸代谢</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELüttge20067–25-81">[80]</a>另一些化学反应则用于合成特定物质，例如用于固定植株的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E8%B4%A8%E7%B4%A0" title="木质素">木质素</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4%E7%B4%A0" title="纤维素">纤维素</a>，或是生成一些次级产物，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%91%E8%84%82" title="树脂">树脂</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B3%E9%A6%99%E5%91%B3%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="芳香味化合物">芳香味化合物</a>。 <div style="position: relative; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 10px; width: 100px; height: 491px; float: left; box-shadow: 1px 1px 3px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);"> <div style="position: absolute;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromatography.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Paper chromatography of some spinach leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts."><img alt="Paper chromatography of some spinach leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Chromatography.jpg/100px-Chromatography.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="491" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Chromatography.jpg/150px-Chromatography.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Chromatography.jpg/200px-Chromatography.jpg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="3522" /></a></div> <div style="position: absolute; width: 90px; font-size: 90%; line-height: 120%; margin: 5px;">通过<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B8%E8%89%B2%E8%B0%B1%E6%B3%95" title="纸色谱法">纸色谱法</a>看到的不同种类<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="叶绿色素（页面不存在）">叶绿色素</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment" class="extiw" title="en:Photosynthetic pigment">Photosynthetic pigment</a>）。</div> <div style="position:absolute; width:100px; left:0; font-size:90%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; top:245px;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E9%BB%84%E7%B4%A0%E7%B1%BB" title="叶黄素类">叶黄素</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; width:100px; left:0; font-size:90%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; top:272px;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E7%B4%A0" title="叶绿素">叶绿素a</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; width:100px; left:0; font-size:90%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; top:300px;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E7%B4%A0b" title="叶绿素b">叶绿素b</a></div> </div> 植物和其它光合真核生物细胞内有独特的细胞器——<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E4%BD%93" title="叶绿体">叶绿体</a>，其被认为是从<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%8D%E8%8F%8C%E9%96%80" title="藍菌門">蓝菌</a>与植物祖先<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F%E9%AB%94%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" title="共生體學說">内共生</a>演化而来。叶绿体和蓝菌内都含蓝绿色素<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E7%B4%A0" title="叶绿素">叶绿素</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008190–193-82">[81]</a>叶绿素（主要是叶绿素a和叶绿素b）<a href="#cite_note-86">[b]</a>可吸收光谱中的蓝-紫与橙-红部分，并反射绿光，因此在人类看来呈绿色。植物在红蓝光中吸收的能量由叶绿体转化为富含能量的碳化合物，该转化过程还需要用到二氧化碳和水作为原料。这个过程称为<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E5%9B%BA%E5%AE%9A" title="碳固定">碳固定</a>，氧气是该反应的副产物。 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calvin-cycle4_(zh-cn).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Calvin-cycle4_%28zh-cn%29.svg/330px-Calvin-cycle4_%28zh-cn%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Calvin-cycle4_%28zh-cn%29.svg/495px-Calvin-cycle4_%28zh-cn%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Calvin-cycle4_%28zh-cn%29.svg/660px-Calvin-cycle4_%28zh-cn%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="766" /></a><figcaption>植物借助<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87%E5%BE%AA%E7%8E%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="卡尔文循环">卡尔文循环</a>将二氧化碳转化为糖分子</figcaption></figure> 叶绿素从光照中捕获的能量最初以<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>形态存在，而后形成<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E6%A2%AF%E5%BA%A6" title="电化学梯度">电化学梯度</a>。捕获的电子用于制造<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E7%A3%B7%E9%85%B8%E8%85%BA%E8%8B%B7" title="三磷酸腺苷">ATP</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%9F%E9%85%B0%E8%83%BA%E8%85%BA%E5%98%8C%E5%91%A4%E4%BA%8C%E6%A0%B8%E8%8B%B7%E9%85%B8%E7%A3%B7%E9%85%B8" title="烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸">NADPH</a>分子，这些分子用于储存与转运能量。能量随后用在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0" title="卡爾文循環">卡尔文循环</a>的暗反应中，从<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%AE%E7%B3%96-1,5-%E4%BA%8C%E7%A3%B7%E9%85%B8%E7%BE%A7%E5%8C%96%E9%85%B6/%E5%8A%A0%E6%B0%A7%E9%85%B6" title="核酮糖-1,5-二磷酸羧化酶/加氧酶">RuBisCO酶</a>生产出三碳糖<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%98%E6%B2%B9%E9%86%9B3-%E7%A3%B7%E9%85%B8" title="甘油醛3-磷酸">甘油醛3-磷酸</a>（G3P）。甘油醛3-磷酸是光合作用的最初产物，是合成<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E7%B3%96" title="葡萄糖">葡萄糖</a>及几乎所有其它有机分子的原材料。部分葡萄糖被转化为<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%80%E7%B2%89" title="淀粉">淀粉</a>储存在叶绿体中。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisMcCourt20041535–1556-87">[85]</a>淀粉是大多数陆生植物及藻类的能量储存介质，但<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%8A%E7%A7%91" title="菊科">菊科</a>植物使用<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%8A%E7%B2%89" title="菊粉">菊粉</a>（属于<a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E7%B3%96" title="果糖">果糖</a>）作为能量储存介质。部分葡萄糖被转化为<a href="/wiki/%E8%94%97%E7%B3%96" title="蔗糖">蔗糖</a>，以更方便的运送至植株其余部分。 相比无叶绿体的动物，植物和其它<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">真核</a>亲缘生物还借助叶绿体完成其它一些重要的生物化学过程，例如合成<a href="/wiki/%E8%84%82%E8%82%AA%E9%85%B8" title="脂肪酸">脂肪酸</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadmanabhanDinesh-Kumar20101368–1380-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchnurrShockeyDe_BoerBrowse20021700–1709-89">[87]</a>和大部分<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A8%E5%9F%BA%E9%85%B8" title="氨基酸">氨基酸</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerroSalviRivière-RollandVermat200211487–11492-90">[88]</a>脂肪酸的用途广泛，例如为<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E8%86%9C" title="细胞膜">细胞膜</a>提供原材料，陆生植物也以它为基础构建<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%92%E8%B4%A8%E5%B1%82" title="植物角质层">植物角质层</a>，用以减缓水分蒸发。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolattukudy199683–108-91">[89]</a> 植物还可以合成许多独特的<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%9A%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="聚合物">聚合物</a>，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E7%B3%96" title="多糖">多糖</a>分子<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4%E7%B4%A0" title="纤维素">纤维素</a>，<a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E8%83%B6" title="果胶">果胶</a>，用于合成<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81" title="細胞壁">细胞壁</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%A8%E8%91%A1%E8%81%9A%E7%B3%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="木葡聚糖（页面不存在）">木葡聚糖</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyloglucan" class="extiw" title="en:Xyloglucan">Xyloglucan</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFry19891–11-92">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompsonFry200123–34-93">[91]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%AE%A1%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="维管植物">维管植物</a>可合成<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E8%B4%A8%E7%B4%A0" title="木质素">木质素</a>，用于加固木质<a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%A1%E8%83%9E" title="管胞">管胞</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="第二层细胞壁（页面不存在）">第二层细胞壁</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_cell_wall" class="extiw" title="en:Secondary cell wall">Secondary cell wall</a>）及<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E8%B4%A8%E9%83%A8" title="木质部">木质部</a>，以防止植物在<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E8%83%81%E8%BF%AB" title="非生物胁迫">水分胁迫</a>下吸水时倒塌。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9A%E5%A3%81%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="厚壁组织">厚壁組織</a>中也有木质素，其为植物提供支撑，该组织也是木材的主要成分。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AD%A2%E7%B2%89%E8%B3%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="孢粉質（页面不存在）">孢粉質</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporopollenin" class="extiw" title="en:Sporopollenin">Sporopollenin</a>）是一类具备化学抗性的聚合物，在细胞壁外层、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90" title="孢子">孢子</a>和陆生植物花粉中都有发现，化石记录显示，早期陆生植物的孢子和花粉在这类物质的保护下得以存活。广泛认为孢粉質促进了植物在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E9%99%B6%E7%BA%AA" title="奥陶纪">奥陶纪</a>的演化。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenrickCrane199733–39-94">[92]</a>相比植物刚扩散至陆地的奥陶纪与<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%97%E7%95%99%E7%B4%80" title="志留紀">志留紀</a>时期，如今大气二氧化碳浓度已有所降低。许多<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AE%E5%AD%90%E8%91%89%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="單子葉植物">单子叶植物</a>（例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%89%E7%B1%B3" title="玉米">玉米</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%A0%E8%98%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="菠蘿">菠萝</a>）和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%B6%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="双子叶植物">双子叶植物</a>（例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%8A%E7%A7%91" title="菊科">菊科</a>）各自<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%8B%E5%90%8C%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="趋同演化">独立演化</a>出了<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AF%E5%A4%A9%E9%85%B8%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D" title="景天酸代謝">景天酸代謝</a>以及<a href="/wiki/C4%E7%B1%BB%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3%E5%9B%BA%E5%AE%9A" title="C4类二氧化碳固定">C4类二氧化碳固定</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowikWesthoff201056–63-95">[93]</a>，以降低先前使用<a href="/wiki/C3%E7%B1%BB%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3%E5%9B%BA%E5%AE%9A" title="C3类二氧化碳固定">C3类二氧化碳固定</a>时<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%91%BC%E5%90%B8" title="光呼吸">光呼吸</a>过程的能量损失。这些演化只在陆生植物中发生。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="医学与原材料">医学与原材料</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：医学与原材料">编辑</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="植物化学">植物化学</a>是植物生物化学的一个分支，它关注植物的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A1%E7%BA%A7%E4%BB%A3%E8%B0%A2%E4%BA%A7%E7%89%A9" title="次级代谢产物">次生代谢产物</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenderothTextorWindsorMitchell-Olds20069118–9123-96">[94]</a>部分化学产物可能具有毒性，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E5%8F%82%E5%B1%9E" title="毒参属">毒参属</a>植物产生的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E8%8A%B9%E7%A2%B1" title="毒芹碱">毒芹碱</a>，这是一种<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E9%B9%BC" title="生物鹼">生物碱</a>，对人畜有<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E6%AF%92%E7%B4%A0" title="神經毒素">神经毒性</a>。而另一些化学产物，人们可能会被其特殊风味吸引，例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A3%E8%96%84%E8%8D%B7" title="辣薄荷">辣薄荷</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E6%B2%B9" title="精油">精油</a>、柠檬油等，从而将它们作为香料或调味品。医学上也将由<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%8C%E7%B2%9F" title="罌粟">罌粟</a>生产的<a href="/wiki/%E9%B8%A6%E7%89%87" title="鸦片">鸦片</a>用于麻醉镇痛。许多医学或<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%9B%E6%A8%82%E6%80%A7%E7%94%A8%E8%97%A5" title="娛樂性用藥">娱乐药物</a>，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E6%B0%A2%E5%A4%A7%E9%BA%BB%E9%85%9A" title="四氢大麻酚">四氢大麻酚</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%BA%BB" title="大麻">大麻</a>的主要成分）、<a href="/wiki/%E5%92%96%E5%95%A1%E5%9B%A0" title="咖啡因">咖啡因</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%97%8E%E5%95%A1" title="嗎啡">吗啡</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E4%B8%81" title="尼古丁">尼古丁</a>等，都直接源自植物。还有些产品则是天然植物的简单<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8D%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="衍生物">衍生物</a>。例如，止痛药<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%99%E9%85%B0%E6%B0%B4%E6%9D%A8%E9%85%B8" title="乙酰水杨酸">阿司匹林</a>（也即乙酰水杨酸）最初是从<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%B3%E6%A0%91" title="柳树">柳树</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%91%E7%9A%AE" title="树皮">树皮</a>分离<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200538–40-97">[95]</a>，许多<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%89%87%E5%89%82" title="阿片剂">阿片类</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%95%87%E7%97%9B%E8%8D%AF" title="镇痛药">止痛药</a>（例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%9B%E5%9B%A0" title="海洛因">海洛因</a>）都是来自罂粟产物吗啡的化学修改。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMann1987186–187-98">[96]</a>人们常用的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B4%E5%A5%8B%E5%89%82" title="兴奋剂">兴奋剂</a>也源于植物，例如来自<a href="/wiki/%E5%92%96%E5%95%A1" title="咖啡">咖啡</a>的咖啡因、茶、以<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E5%8F%AF%E8%B1%86" title="可可豆">可可豆</a>制作的巧克力、来自<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%9F%E8%8D%89" title="烟草">烟草</a>的尼古丁。人类酿造的酒精饮料一般来自糖分丰富的植物，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%95%A4%E9%85%92" title="啤酒">啤酒</a>源自大麦，<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E9%85%92" title="清酒">清酒</a>源自水稻、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A2%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E9%85%92" title="红葡萄酒">红酒</a>源自葡萄。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_Maryland_Medical_Center2011-99">[97]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91" title="美洲原住民">美洲原住民</a>在其数千年历史中发现了许多具备药用价值的植物，<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%B6%E8%8D%AF%E4%BA%A7%E4%B8%9A" title="制药产业">制药产业</a>有时会参考<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="民族植物學">民族植物学</a>的相关记录，将其作为发现新药物的一种方法。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrances1974-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCutcheonEllisHancockTowers1992-101">[99]</a> 植物也被用于制造颜料和染料，例如红酒中的红色源自<a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0%E8%8B%B7" title="花色素苷">花色素苷</a>，牛仔裤的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9B%E8%93%9D%E8%89%B2" title="靛蓝色">靛蓝色</a>来自<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%84%E6%9C%A8%E7%8A%80%E8%8D%89" title="黄木犀草">黄木犀草</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%98%E8%97%8D" title="菘藍">菘藍</a>共同制成的<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B2%E5%93%9A%E9%85%9A" title="吲哚酚">吲哚酚</a>。艺术家常用的<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%A4%E9%BB%84" title="藤黄">藤黄</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%9C%E8%8D%89%E7%B4%85" title="茜草紅">茜草紅</a>分别来自<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E5%B8%A6" title="热带">热带</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E4%B8%9D%E6%A1%83%E7%A7%91" class="mw-redirect" title="金丝桃科">金丝桃科</a>植物的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%91%E8%84%82" title="树脂">树脂</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E8%8C%9C%E8%8D%89" title="染色茜草">染色茜草</a>的根。 来自植物的常见原材料还有糖、淀粉、棉花、<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%BB%E5%B8%83" title="麻布">麻布</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E9%BA%BB" title="火麻">火麻</a>、部分<a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%A9" title="繩">绳子</a>、木材、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%91%E5%90%88%E6%9D%BF" title="塑合板">塑合板</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%8E%E8%8D%89%E7%BA%B8" title="莎草纸">莎草纸</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%B2%B9" title="植物油">植物油</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%9C%A1" title="蜡">蜡</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E7%84%B6%E6%A9%A1%E8%83%B6" title="天然橡胶">天然橡胶</a>等。木材<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E8%A3%82%E8%A7%A3" title="热裂解">热裂解</a>可产生纯度很高的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E7%82%AD" title="木炭">木炭</a>，历史上常作为<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E7%82%BC" title="冶炼">金属冶炼</a>燃料，此外也可用于过滤、除湿、作为颜料或制造<a href="/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E8%8D%AF" title="火药">火药</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4%E7%B4%A0" title="纤维素">纤维素</a>是世界上储量最充足的有机聚合物<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlemmHeubleinFinkBohn2005-102">[100]</a>，可转化为能源、燃料、制作材料或化学原料。纤维素产品包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%AB%98%E7%B8%88" title="嫘縈">人造丝</a>、玻璃纸、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%B2%E5%9F%BA%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4%E7%B4%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="甲基纤维素（页面不存在）">墙纸黏贴剂</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl_cellulose" class="extiw" title="en:Methyl cellulose">Methyl cellulose</a>）、生物<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%81%E9%86%87%E7%87%83%E6%96%99" title="丁醇燃料">丁醇燃料</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%9D%E5%8C%96%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="硝化纤维">硝化棉</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%98%E8%94%97" title="甘蔗">甘蔗</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E6%B4%B2%E6%B2%B9%E8%8F%9C" title="欧洲油菜">欧洲油菜</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%B1%86" title="大豆">大豆</a>等植物因其含有大量可发酵糖或油脂，因此也被用于生产生物燃料，例如制成<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E6%9F%B4%E6%B2%B9" title="生物柴油">生物柴油</a>，作为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3%E7%87%83%E6%96%99" title="化石燃料">化石燃料</a>的替代。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharlemannLaurance200852–53-103">[101]</a>美洲原住民使用<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%85%E9%A6%99" title="茅香">茅香</a>除蚊。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington_Post2015-104">[102]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%AD%A6%E4%BC%9A" title="美国化学学会">美国化学学会</a>后来发现茅香中起除蚊作用的化合物是<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E9%86%87" title="植醇">植醇</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E8%B1%86%E7%B4%A0" title="香豆素">香豆素</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington_Post2015-104">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="植物生态学">植物生态学</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：植物生态学">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="植物生态学">植物生态学</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG/220px-Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG/330px-Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG/440px-Medicago_italica_root_nodules_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2256" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption>豆科植物 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicago_italica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicago italica（页面不存在）">Medicago italica</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicago_italica" class="extiw" title="en:Medicago italica">Medicago italica</a>） 的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A0%B9%E7%98%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="根瘤（页面不存在）">根瘤</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_nodule" class="extiw" title="en:Root nodule">Root nodule</a>），其中含有<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E6%B0%AE%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="固氮作用">固氮</a>细菌 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ensifer_meliloti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ensifer meliloti（页面不存在）">Ensifer meliloti</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensifer_meliloti" class="extiw" title="en:Ensifer meliloti">Ensifer meliloti</a>）。两者为<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E5%88%A9%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F" title="互利共生">互利共生</a>关系，植物为细菌提供养料与无氧环境，细菌为植物固氮。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008794-105">[103]</a></figcaption></figure> 植物生态学主要研究植物与<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%B2%E6%81%AF%E5%9C%B0" title="棲息地">栖息环境</a>的关系。植物生态学家研究本地或区域<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%9B%B8" title="植物相">植物群</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%A4%9A%E6%A8%A3%E6%80%A7" title="生物多樣性">生物多样性</a>、基因多样性、环境<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%A9%E6%87%89%E5%BA%A6" title="適應度">适应度</a>，以及它们与其它物种间的关系（例如竞争或<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E5%88%A9%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F" title="互利共生">共生</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003786–818-106">[104]</a>植物生态学家有时也会采用<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="民族植物學">民族植物学</a>收集的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E8%AF%81%E6%8D%AE" title="经验证据">经验证据</a>，他们可借助这些经验证据理解当地在数千年前的环境状况，以及当地环境随时间变化过程。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeachEthnobotany2012-107">[105]</a>植物生态学的目标是理解植物栖息环境与其分布模式、产量、环境影响、演化过程、对环境变化反馈的关系。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrows19901–73-108">[106]</a> 植物的生长依赖环境中的土壤和气候，同时它们也反过来影响这些环境因素。例如，植物可影响阳光<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%85%A7%E7%8E%87" title="反照率">反照率</a>、改变<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%A1%A8%E9%80%95%E6%B5%81" title="地表逕流">地表径流</a>、稳固矿质土壤、增加土壤有机物含量、影响当地气候。植物会同环境中其他生物竞争资源<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAddelson2003-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimeHodgson1987283–295-110">[108]</a>，也和多种<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%BA%E9%97%B4%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="空间尺度（页面不存在）">空间尺度</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_scale" class="extiw" title="en:Spatial scale">Spatial scale</a>）（如群体、种群和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A4%E9%9B%86" class="mw-redirect" title="群集">群集</a>）中的同类交互。具备相似<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9C%8D%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%87%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="霍尔德里奇生命地带（页面不存在）">植被特征</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holdridge_life_zone" class="extiw" title="en:Holdridge life zone">Holdridge life zone</a>）、优势植物、生物与<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9B%A0%E5%AD%90" title="非生物因子">非生物因子</a>、气候条件、地理环境的区域可被归为一类生物群系，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%87%8D%E5%8E%9F" title="凍原">冻原</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E5%B8%A6%E9%9B%A8%E6%9E%97" title="热带雨林">热带雨林</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003819–848-111">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E9%A3%9F%E6%80%A7%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9" title="植食性动物">植食性动物</a>以植物为食，而植物可凭借各种方法<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AF%B9%E6%A4%8D%E9%A3%9F%E6%80%A7%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E7%9A%84%E9%98%B2%E5%BE%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物对植食性动物的防御（页面不存在）">保护自己</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" class="extiw" title="en:Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a>）。有些植物也演化出了<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="寄生植物">寄生</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E8%99%AB%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="食虫植物">肉食</a>行为。植物与其它物种可形成<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E5%88%A9%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F" title="互利共生">互利共生</a>关系，例如某些植物可与<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%8C%E6%A0%B9" title="菌根">菌根</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9%E7%98%A4%E8%8F%8C" title="根瘤菌">根瘤菌</a>互换食物，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A6%AA%E8%9F%BB%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="親蟻植物（页面不存在）">親蟻植物</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrmecophyte" class="extiw" title="en:Myrmecophyte">Myrmecophyte</a>）可获得蚂蚁的保护<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002211–235-112">[110]</a>，蜜蜂、蝙蝠等动物可帮助传播花粉<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProctorYeo1973479-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002157–185-114">[112]</a>，人类和部分动物可作为<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%86%E6%95%A3%E8%BD%BD%E4%BD%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="分散载体（页面不存在）">分散载体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersal_vector" class="extiw" title="en:Dispersal vector">Dispersal vector</a>）帮助植物散播种子。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerreraPellmyr2002185–210-115">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="植物、气候和环境变化">植物、气候和环境变化</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节：植物、气候和环境变化">编辑</a>]</div> 人们可根据植物对气候和其它环境变化的响应理解这些变化对生态环境功能与生产力的影响。例如，植物<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E5%80%99%E5%AD%B8" title="物候學">物候学</a>可作为理解<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E6%B0%94%E5%80%99%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="历史气候学（页面不存在）">历史气候学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_climatology" class="extiw" title="en:Historical climatology">Historical climatology</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E5%8F%98%E6%9A%96%E7%9A%84%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" title="全球变暖的效应">气候变化</a>的生物学影响的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E5%80%99%E4%BB%A3%E7%90%86" title="气候代理">窗口</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E7%B2%89%E5%AD%A6" title="孢粉学">孢粉学</a>对<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3" title="地质年代">数百万年前</a>花粉化石沉积物的分析可用于重建古代气候。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettWillis20015–32-116">[114]</a>根据对<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="古生代">古生代</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E8%83%9A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="有胚植物">陆生植物</a>体型、叶片气孔密度以及叶片形状的分析，科学家可估算当时大气二氧化碳浓度。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeerlingOsborneChaloner2001287–394-117">[115]</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AD%E6%B0%A7%E5%B1%82%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E" title="臭氧层空洞">臭氧层空洞</a>可将植物暴露于高水平<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%AB%E5%A4%96%E7%BA%BF" title="紫外线">紫外线</a>辐射，从而减缓其生长速率。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBjörnCallaghanGehrkeJohanson1999449–454-118">[116]</a>此外，对植物<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A4%E9%9B%86" class="mw-redirect" title="群集">群集</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="系統分類學">系统分类</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学">生物分类</a>的研究也有助于深入认识<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E5%8F%98%E6%9A%96#植物、森林资源与全球变暖的關係" title="全球变暖">植被变化</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%B2%E6%81%AF%E5%9C%B0%E7%A0%B4%E5%A3%9E" title="棲息地破壞">栖息地破坏</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%9D%E7%81%AD" title="绝灭">物种灭绝</a>的原因。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Menahem20095369–5370-119">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="遗传学">遗传学</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节：遗传学">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="植物遗传学">植物遗传学</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/220px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/330px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/440px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>一个关于豌豆杂交的<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%81%E6%B0%8F%E8%A1%A8" title="旁氏表">旁氏图</a>，演示了紫色（B）与白色（b）花朵豌豆的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%82%E5%90%88%E5%AD%90" title="杂合子">杂合子</a>。</figcaption></figure> 植物与其他多细胞生物有共同的遗传学基础。<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="孟德爾">孟德尔</a>通过对豌豆（Pisum sativum）的研究发现了植物的遗传规律。这些遗传规律后来被发现不只适用于植物，更可扩展至其它生物。与之类似，<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B7%B4%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97%E6%89%98%E5%85%8B" title="巴巴拉·麦克林托克">巴巴拉·麦克林托克</a>在研究玉米时发现了“<a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AC%E5%BA%A7%E5%AD%90" title="转座子">跳跃基因</a>”，其同样适用于其它生物。不过，植物与其它生物仍存在部分遗传学上的差异。 相比动物，不同植物物种之间的界限更加模糊，因此常可以进行跨物种<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%82%E4%BA%A4" title="杂交">杂交</a>。一个常见的案例是<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9C%E6%A9%99" title="甜橙">甜橙</a>，它是<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%9A%E5%AD%90" title="柚子">柚子</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%98%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="橘子">橘子</a>的杂交产物。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace2010b629–633-120">[118]</a>现今种植的多种小麦都是源于野外原始物种的种间与种内杂交。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHancock2004190–196-121">[119]</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%8C%E9%9B%84%E5%90%8C%E9%AB%94" title="雌雄同體">雌雄同株</a>的被子植物常有<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E4%BA%A4%E4%B8%8D%E8%A6%AA%E5%92%8C%E6%80%A7" title="自交不親和性">自交不亲和性</a>，以致<a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89" title="花粉">花粉</a>无法落至<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%B1%E9%A0%AD_(%E8%8A%B1)" title="柱頭 (花)">柱头</a>，或是不能<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E8%8A%BD" title="发芽">发芽</a>和产生雄<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E5%AD%90" title="配子">配子</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobotkaSákováCurn2000103–112-122">[120]</a>这是植物用以促进<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生殖形態學">异株授粉</a>的机制之一。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERennerRicklefs1995596–606-123">[121]</a>在许多陆生植物中，雌雄配子会由不同个体生成，这种情况被称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%8C%E9%9B%84%E7%95%B0%E9%AB%94" title="雌雄異體">雌雄异株</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorleyHodgetts20052–3-124">[122]</a> 另外与高等动物不同的是，植物中常有源于不同机制的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%95%E6%80%A7%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96" title="单性生殖">单性生殖</a>现象，例如土豆的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%8A%E8%8E%96%E8%88%87%E5%A1%8A%E6%A0%B9" title="塊莖與塊根">块根</a>。尤其是在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E6%9E%81%E5%9C%B0%E5%8C%BA" title="北极地区">北极地区</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%B1%B1%E6%B0%94%E5%80%99" class="mw-redirect" title="高山气候">高山气候</a>环境，一般没有动物帮助传播花粉，因此小植物和<a href="/wiki/%E9%B3%9E%E8%8C%8E" title="鳞茎">鳞茎植物</a>可能不会发展出花，而以<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E6%80%A7%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96" title="无性生殖">无性生殖</a>取代<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96" title="有性生殖">有性生殖</a>，从而整个种群都与其父代的基因一致。这是植物中的一类<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%84%A1%E8%9E%8D%E5%90%88%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="無融合生殖（页面不存在）">無融合生殖</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomixis" class="extiw" title="en:Apomixis">Apomixis</a>），这种现象也可发生在种子中，其包含与父代基因一致的配子。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavidan200013–86-125">[123]</a> 大多有性生殖产生的个体都是<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94%E5%80%8D%E6%80%A7" title="染色體倍性">二倍体</a>，也即有成对的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E4%BD%93" title="染色体">染色体</a>，不过错误的细胞分裂也可能使染色体加倍。这类错误可发生在胚胎生长早期，导致<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E6%BA%90%E5%A4%9A%E5%80%8D%E4%BD%93" title="同源多倍体">同源多倍体</a>或部分同源多倍体生物；或发生在普通细胞分裂时，产生一些多倍体（核内倍数性）细胞；或在配子形成时。两种不同植物物种的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%9C%E4%BA%A4%E7%A8%AE" title="雜交種">杂交种</a>可能是异源多倍体（英語：allopolyploid）。同源多倍体和异源多倍体常是可育的，但可能无法与其父代种群杂交，因为两者染色体数目不同。这些植物与父代种群有<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96%E9%9A%94%E7%A6%BB" title="生殖隔离">生殖隔离</a>，但仍生活在同一区域，最终或许可形成<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8C%E5%9F%9F%E7%A8%AE%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="同域種化（页面不存在）">全新物种</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" class="extiw" title="en:Sympatric speciation">Sympatric speciation</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008495–496-126">[124]</a>一些不育的多倍体仍可通过<a href="/wiki/%E7%87%9F%E9%A4%8A%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="營養繁殖">营养繁殖</a>或种子的无融合生殖产生完全一致的后代。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008495–496-126">[124]</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%AC%E7%B2%92%E5%B0%8F%E9%BA%A6" title="硬粒小麦">硬粒小麦</a>是可育的异源<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94%E5%80%8D%E6%80%A7" title="染色體倍性">四倍体</a>，而<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E5%B0%8F%E9%BA%A6" title="普通小麦">普通小麦</a>是可育的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94%E5%80%8D%E6%80%A7" title="染色體倍性">六倍体</a>。商业种植的香蕉是不育的、无种子的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94%E5%80%8D%E6%80%A7" title="染色體倍性">三倍体</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E8%92%B2%E5%85%AC%E8%8B%B1" title="西洋蒲公英">西洋蒲公英</a>是三倍体，可借无融合生殖产生可育的种子。 与其它真核生物一样，由<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F%E9%AB%94%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" title="共生體學說">内共生</a>而来的细胞器，例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%B7%9A%E7%B2%92%E9%AB%94" title="線粒體">线粒体</a>和叶绿体，它们的基因遗传不遵循<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E5%B0%94%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="孟德尔定律">孟德尔定律</a>。在裸子植物中，叶绿体基因遗传自雄性父代，而在被子植物中则是遗传自雌性父代。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgensen1996383–384-127">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="分子遗传学">分子遗传学</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节：分子遗传学">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">更多信息：<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="分子遗传学">分子遗传学</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="拟南芥（''Arabidopsis thaliana''）是首个完成测序的植物，也是重要的模式植物。" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg/220px-Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg/330px-Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg/440px-Arabidopsis_thaliana_inflorescencias.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9F%E5%8D%97%E8%8A%A5" title="拟南芥">拟南芥</a>（Arabidopsis thaliana）是首个完成测序的植物，也是重要的模式植物。</figcaption></figure> 科学家从模式生物（例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9F%E5%8D%97%E8%8A%A5" title="拟南芥">拟南芥</a>）的研究中获取了许多重要的知识。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenderothTextorWindsorMitchell-Olds20069118–9123-96">[94]</a>拟南芥的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組">基因组</a>（或称遗传信息）包含1.35亿个DNA<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B1%E5%9F%BA%E5%AF%B9" title="碱基对">碱基对</a>，属于被子植物中最小的基因组之一。2000年，拟南芥的基因组测序完成，是首个完成基因测序的植物。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArabidopsis_Genome_Initiative2000796–815-128">[126]</a>而后对另一些基因组较小的植物，以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E7%A8%BB" title="水稻">水稻</a>（Oryza sativa）<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevosGale2000-55">[55]</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E7%A9%97%E7%9F%AD%E6%9F%84%E8%8D%89" title="二穗短柄草">二穗短柄草</a>（Brachypodium distachyon）<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_California-Davis2012-56">[56]</a>等植物的基因测序也使它们成为了重要的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9#植物" title="模式生物">模式植物</a>，促进人们对<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%B7%E7%89%A9" title="谷物">谷物</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BE%E6%9C%AC%E7%A7%91" title="禾本科">禾本科</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AE%E5%AD%90%E8%91%89%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="單子葉植物">单子叶植物</a>的生物与遗传学、细胞和分子层面生物学的理解。 类似拟南芥的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9#植物" title="模式生物">模式植物</a>被用于研究<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="植物细胞学">植物细胞</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E4%BD%93" title="叶绿体">叶绿体</a>的分子生物学。理想的模式植物的基因组较小，对其需要有较完整的认知或测序，体型较小，世代时间较短。玉米曾被用于研究植物的光合作用以及<a href="/wiki/C4%E7%B1%BB%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3%E5%9B%BA%E5%AE%9A" title="C4类二氧化碳固定">C4类植物</a>糖分的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A7%E7%9A%AE%E9%83%A8" title="韧皮部">韧皮部</a>装载。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussinEvertVanderveerSharkey1996645–658-129">[127]</a>单细胞<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%BF%E8%97%BB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="绿藻">绿藻</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8E%B1%E6%B0%8F%E8%A1%A3%E8%97%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="莱氏衣藻（页面不存在）">莱氏衣藻</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" class="extiw" title="en:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a>）（Chlamydomonas reinhardtii）不属于<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E8%83%9A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="有胚植物">有胚植物</a>，却含有与陆地植物相关的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E7%B4%A0b" title="叶绿素b">绿色素</a>叶绿体，因此有很高的研究价值。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERochaixGoldschmidt-ClermontMerchant1998550-130">[128]</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AB%E6%B3%89%E7%B4%85%E8%97%BB%E7%B6%B1" title="溫泉紅藻綱">温泉红藻纲</a>下的Cyanidioschyzon merolae也是一种重要的模式植物，用于研究染色体的基础功能。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlynnMiyagishimaYoderOsteryoung2007451–461-131">[129]</a>菠菜、豌豆<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESunForouharLi_HmTu200295–100-132">[130]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%B1%86" title="大豆">大豆</a>以及苔藓植物<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%8F%E7%AB%8B%E7%A2%97%E8%98%9A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="小立碗蘚（页面不存在）">小立碗蘚</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" class="extiw" title="en:Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a>）（Physcomitrella patens）常被用于研究植物细胞生物学。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinhorstCannon19931–9-133">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9%E7%99%8C%E8%BE%B2%E6%A1%BF%E8%8F%8C" title="根癌農桿菌">根癌农杆菌</a>（Agrobacterium tumefaciens）是存在于土壤中的一类<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9%E9%99%85" title="根际">根际</a>细菌，它可依附植物细胞，透过<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%92%E5%82%B7%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94" title="癒傷組織">愈伤组织</a>导入<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ti%E8%B4%A8%E4%BD%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ti质体（页面不存在）">Ti质体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti_plasmid" class="extiw" title="en:Ti plasmid">Ti plasmid</a>）进行<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E6%B0%B4%E5%B9%B3%E8%BD%89%E7%A7%BB" title="基因水平轉移">基因水平转移</a>，从而致使植物患上冠癭瘤（英語：crown gall disease）。1977年，一些科学家猜测Ti质体可能是将<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BA%E6%B0%AE%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="固氮基因（页面不存在）">固氮基因</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nif_gene" class="extiw" title="en:Nif gene">Nif gene</a>）转入<a href="/wiki/%E8%B1%86%E7%A7%91" title="豆科">豆科</a>植物根部的自然载体。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellVan_Montagu1977159–179-134">[132]</a>如今，对Ti质体的基因修改已成为制造<a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AC%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" title="转基因">转基因</a>作物的主要手段。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="表观遗传学">表观遗传学</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节：表观遗传学">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E8%A7%80%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="表觀遺傳學">表觀遺傳學</a></div><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E8%A7%80%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="表觀遺傳學">表观遗传学</a>是指无法透过DNA序列变化得到解释的可遗传<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E8%A1%A8%E7%8F%BE" title="基因表現">基因功能</a>变化<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2007396–398-135">[133]</a>，它可导致生物体性状改变。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter2008-136">[134]</a>例如<a href="/wiki/DNA%E7%94%B2%E5%9F%BA%E5%8C%96" title="DNA甲基化">DNA甲基化</a>导致的基因表达（或不表达）就属于表观遗传学变化。依附于<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%89%E9%BB%98%E5%AD%90" title="沉默子">DNA缄默区</a>的抑制蛋白也可控制基因表达与否。表观遗传记号可能在植物的程序性发展阶段被加入或移除，并造成了诸如叶片与花瓣的区分。这些记号可能是暂时的，也可能延续至<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="细胞分裂">细胞分裂</a>结束，从而伴随整个细胞生命周期。有些表观遗传变化是<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%BA%A6" title="遗传度">可遗传</a>的<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpector20128-137">[135]</a>，而另一些则在繁殖细胞阶段被重置。 真核生物借助表观遗传变化控制<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%88%86%E5%8C%96" title="细胞分化">细胞分化</a>。形态发生时期，<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%BD%9B%E8%83%BD#全潛能性" title="細胞潛能">全能</a>干细胞转变为胚胎中的多种<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%BD%9B%E8%83%BD#多潛能" title="細胞潛能">富潜能</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%A0%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="永生細胞株（页面不存在）">細胞株</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortalised_cell_line" class="extiw" title="en:Immortalised cell line">Immortalised cell line</a>），并最终分化为不同细胞。植物胚胎从<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%97%E7%B2%BE%E5%8D%B5" title="受精卵">受精卵</a>开始，并持续分裂分化为<a href="/wiki/%E8%96%84%E5%A3%81%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="薄壁组织">薄壁组织</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AF%BC%E7%AE%A1%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="导管细胞（页面不存在）">木质导管细胞</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vessel_element" class="extiw" title="en:Vessel element">Vessel element</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A7%E7%9A%AE%E9%83%A8" title="韧皮部">韧皮部</a>筛管、植物<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E7%9A%AE_(%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9)" title="表皮 (植物)">表皮</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E8%A1%9B%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="保衛細胞">保卫细胞</a>等不同组织。这种分化过程源于部分基因的表观遗传激活以及另一些基因的抑制。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReik2007425–432-138">[136]</a> 与动物不同的是，许多分化后的植物细胞（尤其是<a href="/wiki/%E8%96%84%E5%A3%81%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="薄壁组织">薄壁细胞</a>）仍保留有全能性，因此仍具备发展为新植株的潜能。不具备全能性的植物细胞包括高度木质化的细胞，成熟后死亡的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9A%E5%A3%81%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="厚壁组织">厚壁组织</a>和木质部，以及缺少细胞核的韧皮部筛管。虽然植物使用与动物相似的表观遗传机制（例如<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8D%E5%A1%91&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="染色质重塑（页面不存在）">染色质重塑</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling" class="extiw" title="en:Chromatin remodeling">Chromatin remodeling</a>）），但也有假说提出，植物可依据周围细胞和周边环境所提供的位置信息，修改自身基因表达样式，从而决定生长目标。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostaShaw2007101–106-139">[137]</a> 表观遗传变化可导致<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%AF%E7%AA%81%E5%8F%98" title="副突变">副突变</a>，该变化不遵循<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E5%B0%94%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="孟德尔定律">孟德尔遗传定律</a>。透过等位基因诱使另一等位基因发生可遗传变化，这类表观遗传标记可传递至后代。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConeVedova2004-140">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="植物演化">植物演化</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节：植物演化">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物演化史（页面不存在）">植物演化史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" class="extiw" title="en:Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a>）</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhynia_stem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/220px-Rhynia_stem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/330px-Rhynia_stem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Rhynia_stem.jpg/440px-Rhynia_stem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A5%E7%9B%86%E7%BA%AA" title="泥盆纪">泥盆纪</a>植物 <a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%B1%E5%B0%BC%E8%95%A8" title="莱尼蕨">Rhynia</a> gwynne-vaughani 的茎干横截面化石。</figcaption></figure> 植物的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E4%BD%93" title="叶绿体">叶绿体</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%8D%E8%8F%8C%E9%96%80" title="藍菌門">蓝菌</a>（常被错误的称为蓝绿藻）相似，科学假说认为，如今携带叶绿体的植物为<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">真核生物</a>与蓝菌的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F%E9%AB%94%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" title="共生體學說">内共生</a>产物。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003552–581-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopeland1938383–420-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoese_et_al.1977305–311-143">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalier-Smith20041251–1262-144">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E9%A1%9E" title="藻類">藻类</a>为<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="多系群">多系群</a>，其被分为多种不同类别，部分与植物相近。藻类与植物间有诸多差异，例如它们的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81" title="細胞壁">细胞壁</a>组成成分、生物化学机制、色素、叶绿体结构、营养储存方式都有不同。<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%A0%E8%97%BB%E9%96%80" title="綠藻門">绿藻门</a>的姐妹类别<a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AE%E8%97%BB%E9%97%A8" title="轮藻门">轮藻门</a>被认为是包含了植物的远古祖先。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003617–654-145">[143]</a>轮藻门下的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%AA%E8%97%BB%E7%B6%B1" title="輪藻綱">轮藻纲</a>与陆生植物中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E8%83%9A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="有胚植物">有胚植物</a>共同构成<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%95%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="单系群">单系群</a>，或称<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%BE%E5%9E%8B%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="链型植物">链型植物</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerMarin2009999–1004-146">[144]</a>有学者认为<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E8%97%93%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="苔藓植物">苔藓植物</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%95%A8%E9%A1%9E%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="蕨類植物">蕨类植物</a>均起源于藻类，并且是平行发展的。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE马炜梁2022200-147">[145]</a>大约从4亿年前的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%97%E7%95%99%E7%B4%80" title="志留紀">志留纪</a>末期开始，地球陆地上升、水面下降，原本漂浮于海滨或浅水带的植物体因此挤压堆积，部分植物露出水面，从而获得更充足的光照与气体交换条件。而离开水体后植物亦面临水分与养料供应的问题，因此演化出了更适应陆地生活的蕨类植物（例如最早的陆生植物代表<a href="/wiki/%E8%8E%B1%E5%B0%BC%E8%95%A8" title="莱尼蕨">莱尼蕨</a>），其有坚韧外壁包裹的孢子，以及用于支撑的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%AE%A1%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="维管组织">维管</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE马炜梁2022200-201-148">[146]</a> 無維管束陆生植物是不含<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E8%B4%A8%E9%83%A8" title="木质部">木质部</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A7%E7%9A%AE%E9%83%A8" title="韧皮部">韧皮部</a>的有胚植物，其下包含<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E9%A1%9E%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%96%80" class="mw-redirect" title="苔類植物門">苔藓植物门</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E9%8C%A2%E9%96%80" title="地錢門">地钱门</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E8%8B%94%E9%96%80" title="角苔門">角苔门</a>。带有木质部和韧皮部的蕨类维管植物在<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%97%E7%95%99%E7%B4%80" title="志留紀">志留纪</a>晚期至<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A5%E7%9B%86%E7%BA%AA" title="泥盆纪">泥盆纪</a>早期分化为不同谱系，其中古老的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%9D%BE%E9%96%80" class="mw-redirect" title="石松門">石松门</a>存活至今。泥盆纪末期，部分植物群例如石松门、<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E8%A3%B8%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%96%80" class="mw-redirect" title="前裸子植物門">前裸子植物门</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%89%E8%91%89%E8%95%A8%E7%9B%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="叉葉蕨目（页面不存在）">叉葉蕨目</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sphenophyllales" class="extiw" title="en:sphenophyllales">sphenophyllales</a>）演化出了“大孢子”——这些植物产生两种大小的孢子，较大的称为<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大孢子（页面不存在）">大孢子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaspore" class="extiw" title="en:Megaspore">Megaspore</a>），较小的称为微孢子。这些植物的减数配子体由<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E5%9B%8A" title="孢子囊">孢子囊</a>内的大孢子发育而来，称为内生孢子。<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E5%AD%90" title="種子">种子</a>由覆盖了一或两层<a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%A0%E8%A2%AB" title="珠被">珠被</a>的内生大孢子组成。孢子体最初在种子内部发育，在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E8%8A%BD" title="发芽">发芽</a>时释放至外部。已知最早的种子植物可追溯至泥盆纪<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E9%97%A8%E6%9C%9F" title="法门期">法门期</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairon-Demaret1996217–233-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewartRothwell1993279–294-150">[148]</a>随着种子的演化，种子植物开始分化为不同群体，包括已灭绝的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E5%AD%90%E8%95%A8%E9%96%80" title="種子蕨門">种子蕨门</a>，以及存活至今的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A3%B8%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="裸子植物">裸子植物门</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="被子植物">被子植物门</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylorKrings2009chapter_13-151">[149]</a>裸子植物的种子裸露，不被子房包裹，如今代表性的裸子植物包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%BE%E6%9F%8F%E9%96%80" title="松柏門">松柏</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E9%93%81%E7%9B%AE" title="苏铁目">苏铁</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%B6%E6%9D%8F%E5%B1%9E" title="银杏属">银杏</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%B7%E9%BA%BB%E8%97%A4%E7%9B%AE" title="買麻藤目">买麻藤</a>。被子植物的种子由<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%8C%E8%8A%B1%E5%99%A8" title="雌花器">雌花器</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E6%88%BF" title="子房">子房</a>包裹。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003720–750-152">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003751–785-153">[151]</a>现代<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="分子遺傳學">分子遗传学</a>研究显示，被子植物似乎是裸子植物的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A7%90%E5%A6%B9%E7%BE%A4" title="姐妹群">姐妹群</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeCibrian-JaramilloKolokotronisKatari2011e1002411-154">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="植物生理学">植物生理学</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节：植物生理学">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">更多信息：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生理學">植物生理學</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_physiology.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="植物生理学的五大研究方向" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/220px-Plant_physiology.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/330px-Plant_physiology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Plant_physiology.png/440px-Plant_physiology.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>植物生理学的五大研究方向：植物化学、细胞间交互作用、分子和细胞生物学、植物形态学、植物与环境的交互。</figcaption></figure> 植物生理学的研究范畴包括一切与生命相关的植物内部物理化学活动。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003278–279-155">[153]</a>植物<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E8%B0%A2" title="代谢">代谢</a>所需的所有物质都源于空气、土壤与水体。植物利用光合作用捕获来自太阳光的能量，随后被供给至<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BC%E5%90%B8%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="呼吸作用">细胞呼吸</a>，这些能量构成了所有生命的活动基础。<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%85%BB%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="光养生物">光自养生物</a>包括所有可直接从光照中以光合作用获取能量的绿色植物、藻类、蓝菌。<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%B0%E7%87%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="異營生物">异养生物</a>包括所有动物、所有<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌">真菌</a>、所有完全<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="寄生植物">寄生植物</a>以及非光合作用菌，这些生物以来自光合生物的能量为生，并将其用以构建自身细胞与组织。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003280–314-156">[154]</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BC%E5%90%B8" title="呼吸">呼吸</a>是对碳化合物的氧化过程，该过程将碳化合物分解为更简单的结构，从而释放其中包含的能量，这与<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用">光合作用</a>过程相反。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003315–340-157">[155]</a> 各类分子可在植物内转运，转运的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%BA%E9%97%B4%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="空间尺度（页面不存在）">空间尺度</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/spacial_scale" class="extiw" title="en:spacial scale">spacial scale</a>）可以有很大差别。对于离子、电子、各类分子（例如水分子和<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%B6" title="酶">酶分子</a>）的亚细胞转运需要穿过<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E8%86%9C" title="细胞膜">细胞膜</a>。植物根部吸收的矿物质和水可由<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B8%E6%95%A3%E6%B5%81" title="蒸散流">蒸散流</a>转运至其它部位。转运也可借<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%A9%E6%95%A3%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="扩散作用">扩散</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%97%E9%80%8F" title="渗透">渗透</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E5%8B%95%E9%81%8B%E8%BC%B8" title="主動運輸">主动运输</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B4%A8%E6%B5%81_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="质流 (生物学)（页面不存在）">质流</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_flow_(life_sciences)" class="extiw" title="en:Mass flow (life sciences)">Mass flow (life sciences)</a>）等方式完成。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003341–372-158">[156]</a>植物需要转运包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AE" title="氮">氮</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%B7" title="磷">磷</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%BE" title="钾">钾</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%99" title="钙">钙</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%81" title="镁">镁</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%AB" title="硫">硫</a>等元素。在维管植物中，根部从土壤中吸收这些元素溶于水中的离子，通过<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E8%B4%A8%E9%83%A8" title="木质部">木质部</a>转运至植物体各处。植物所需的大部分养分都来自土壤矿物质的化学分解。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003373–398-159">[157]</a>叶片光合作用产生的<a href="/wiki/%E8%94%97%E7%B3%96" title="蔗糖">蔗糖</a>通过<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A7%E7%9A%AE%E9%83%A8" title="韧皮部">韧皮部</a>转运至其它部位，<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BF%80%E7%B4%A0" title="植物激素">植物激素</a>有多种不同转运过程。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="植物激素">植物激素</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节：植物激素">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">更多信息：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BF%80%E7%B4%A0" title="植物激素">植物激素</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E6%95%8F%E7%B4%A0" title="光敏素">光敏素</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phototropism_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram of the mechanism of phototropism in oat coleoptiles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Phototropism_Diagram.svg/220px-Phototropism_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Phototropism_Diagram.svg/330px-Phototropism_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Phototropism_Diagram.svg/440px-Phototropism_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>1 位于阳光正下方的燕麦<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9A%E8%8A%BD" title="胚芽">胚芽鞘</a>。红色部分为<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BF%80%E7%B4%A0" title="植物激素">植物生长素</a>，此时平均分布在胚芽鞘尖端。 2 随着太阳位置变化，植物生长素转移至背光一侧，促使该侧细胞伸长。3, 4 一侧细胞伸长导致芽尖<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%91%E5%85%89%E6%80%A7" title="向光性">向光源方向弯曲</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012351-160">[158]</a></figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/220px--Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="88" data-mwtitle="Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott's_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv/Venus_Fly_Trap_Eating_Compilation_Scott%27s_Revenge_On_The_Caterpillars.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>捕蝇草（ionaea muscipul）的捕虫陷阱显示出植物具备触觉。</figcaption></figure>植物不是消极被动的，它们可对<a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%8A%E6%81%AF%E5%82%B3%E9%81%9E_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="訊息傳遞 (生物)">外部信号</a>作出反应。例如面对光线、触摸和伤害等刺激，植物会尝试移动或远离这些刺激。触觉敏感性的证据包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%AB%E7%BE%9E%E8%8D%89" title="含羞草">含羞草</a>（Mimosa pudica）因触碰导致的叶片闭合，<a href="/wiki/%E6%8D%95%E8%A0%85%E8%8D%89" title="捕蠅草">捕蝇草</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%B8%E8%97%BB%E5%B1%AC" title="狸藻屬">狸藻属</a>的捕虫陷阱，<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%AD%E7%A7%91" title="蘭科">兰花</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89%E5%9D%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花粉块（页面不存在）">花粉块</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinium" class="extiw" title="en:Pollinium">Pollinium</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880129–200-161">[159]</a> 19世纪末，科学家提出假设认为植物可产生<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BF%80%E7%B4%A0" title="植物激素">激素</a>调控自身生长。<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="查尔斯·达尔文">达尔文</a>设计实验检测了植物芽尖和根部的<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%91%E5%85%89%E6%80%A7" title="向光性">向光性</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880449–492-162">[160]</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%91%E9%87%8D%E5%8A%9B%E6%80%A7" title="向重力性">向重力性</a>，他得出结论“很难否认植物培根尖端……行为就如低级动物的大脑……可作出不同运动”。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1880573-163">[161]</a>就在同一时期，德国科学家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E8%8C%A8%C2%B7%E6%B8%A9%E7%89%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="弗里茨·温特（页面不存在）">弗里茨·温特</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frits_Went" class="extiw" title="en:Frits Went">Frits Went</a>）发现了<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E9%95%B7%E7%B4%A0" title="生長素">生长素</a>对植物生长的调控作用。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlant_Hormones2013-164">[162]</a>最早发现的生长素是<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B2%E5%93%9A-3-%E4%B9%99%E9%85%B8" title="吲哚-3-乙酸">吲哚-3-乙酸</a>（IAA），其可促进植物细胞生长，并最终在50年后被分离。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWentThimann1937110–112-165">[163]</a>生长素是造成植物向光性和向重力性的原因。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003411–412-166">[164]</a>1939年，科学家发现植物营养组织可在含IAA的培养基中维持，1947年观察到可通过控制IAA浓度诱使营养组织生根发芽，这是植物生物技术和基因编辑的里程碑。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESussex20081189–1198-167">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82%E7%B4%A0" title="細胞分裂素">细胞分裂素</a>也是一类植物激素，顾名思义，它能控制细胞分裂过程。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8E%89%E7%B1%B3%E7%B4%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="玉米素（页面不存在）">玉米素</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeatin" class="extiw" title="en:Zeatin">Zeatin</a>）属于细胞分裂素，最初在玉米中发现，属于<a href="/wiki/%E8%85%BA%E5%98%8C%E5%91%A4" title="腺嘌呤">腺嘌呤</a>的衍生物。玉米素由根部生成，经木质部传输至茎干，促进此处的细胞分裂、芽的发育以及叶绿体变绿。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008827–830-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003411–413-169">[167]</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E8%B2%9D%E7%B4%A0" title="吉貝素">吉贝素</a>属于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E8%90%9C" title="二萜">二萜</a>化合物，由<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%99%E9%86%AF%E8%BC%94%E9%85%B6A%E7%BE%A7%E5%8C%96%E9%85%B6" title="乙醯輔酶A羧化酶">乙酰辅酶A羧化酶</a>经<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B2%E7%BE%9F%E6%88%8A%E9%85%B8%E9%80%94%E5%BE%84" title="甲羟戊酸途径">甲羟戊酸途径</a>合成。吉贝素涉及植物发芽和种子解除休眠，并透过控制茎干细胞生长来控制植株高度，控制开花。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002461–492-170">[168]</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%84%B1%E8%90%BD%E9%85%B8" title="脱落酸">脫落酸</a>（ABA）存在于除<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E9%8C%A2%E9%96%80" title="地錢門">地钱</a>外的所有陆生植物中，由叶绿体或其它质体从<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%9E%E8%83%A1%E8%98%BF%E8%94%94%E7%B4%A0" title="類胡蘿蔔素">类胡萝卜素</a>合成。该激素抑制细胞分裂，促进种子成熟和休眠，并促使气孔关闭。人们最初以为脱落酸可促使叶片脱落，于是以此命名。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002519–538-171">[169]</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%99%E7%83%AF#植物激素" title="乙烯">乙烯</a>是一种气态植物激素，从<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B2%E7%A1%AB%E6%B0%A8%E9%85%B8" title="甲硫氨酸">甲硫氨酸</a>合成，可促进果实成熟和叶片脱落。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELinZhongGrierson2009331–336-172">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaizZeiger2002539–558-173">[171]</a>乙烯或<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%99%E7%83%AF%E5%88%A9" title="乙烯利">乙烯利</a>被广泛用于催熟棉花、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8F%A0%E8%98%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="菠蘿">菠萝</a>和其它<a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%B4%E5%B9%B4%E6%80%A7%E6%B0%B4%E6%9E%9C" title="更年性水果">更年性水果</a>。 植物激素<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%89%E8%8E%89%E9%85%AE%E9%85%B8" title="茉莉酮酸">茉莉酮酸</a>最初从<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%A0%E9%A6%A8%E8%8A%B1" title="素馨花">素馨花</a>油分离<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemoleLedererMercier1962675–685-174">[172]</a>，可在植物受病原攻击时解锁<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%8C%E5%A4%A9%E6%80%A7%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E6%8A%97%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="後天性系統抗性（页面不存在）">後天性系統抗性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_acquired_resistance" class="extiw" title="en:Systemic acquired resistance">Systemic acquired resistance</a>）基因，从而抵御威胁。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiniFonsecaFernándezAdie2007666–671-175">[173]</a> 光照作为植物的首要能量来源，其也可作为一类反馈信号，例如植物可从中得到每日光照量信息。因此光照也可对植物造成<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E7%99%BC%E7%94%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="光形態發生（页面不存在）">光形態發生</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomorphogenesis" class="extiw" title="en:Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a>）适应性变化。<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E6%95%8F%E7%B4%A0" title="光敏素">光敏素</a>是植物接收光照的<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E5%85%89%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD" title="感光蛋白">受体</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoux198425–29-176">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="植物解剖和形態">植物解剖和形態</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=17" title="编辑章节：植物解剖和形態">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Plant.svg/220px-Plant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Plant.svg/330px-Plant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Plant.svg/440px-Plant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E5%8F%8C%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%B6%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="真双子叶植物">真双子叶植物</a>示意图，其为最“典型”的植物，占据所有植物种类的五分之三。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008630,_738-177">[175]</a>然而，并不存在与该示意图完全等同的植物。</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="植物解剖學">植物解剖學</a>研究植物細胞和組織的結構，而<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物形態學">植物形态学</a>研究植物的外部形态构造。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavenEvertEichhorn20059-178">[176]</a>所有植物都是真核生物，它们的DNA储存在细胞核中。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003433–467-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information2004-180">[178]</a>植物细胞与动物细胞或真菌的区别在于：它们有组成成分为<a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E8%83%B6" title="果胶">果胶</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4%E7%B4%A0" title="纤维素">纤维素</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4%E7%B4%A0" title="半纤维素">半纤维素</a>的细胞壁；比动物细胞更大的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%B2%E8%83%9E" title="液胞">液泡</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth200362–81-181">[179]</a>；具备光合作用和生物合成作用的独特<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0%E9%AB%94" title="色素體">质体</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E4%BD%93" title="叶绿体">叶绿体</a>。植物细胞中的其它质体还可用于储存物质，例如储存<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%80%E7%B2%89" title="淀粉">淀粉</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B1%E7%B2%89%E9%AB%94" title="澱粉體">淀粉体</a>）或<a href="/wiki/%E8%84%82%E9%A1%9E" title="脂類">脂类</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%B9%E7%B2%92%E9%AB%94" title="油粒體">油粒体</a>）。此外，<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%BE%E5%9E%8B%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="链型植物">链型植物</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A1%94%E8%89%B2%E8%97%BB%E7%9B%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="桔色藻目">桔色藻目</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELópez-BautistaWatersChapman20031715–1718-182">[180]</a>还可在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="细胞分裂">细胞分裂</a>末期使用<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E9%AB%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="成膜體（页面不存在）">成膜體</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phragmoplast" class="extiw" title="en:Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a>）作为模版建造<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%9D%BF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="細胞板（页面不存在）">細胞板</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_plate" class="extiw" title="en:Cell plate">Cell plate</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewisMcCourt20041535–1556-87">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%AE%A1%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="维管植物">维管植物</a>包括<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%9D%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="石松">石松</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%95%A8%E9%A1%9E" class="mw-disambig" title="蕨類">蕨类</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="种子植物">种子植物</a>（其下包含<a href="/wiki/%E8%A3%B8%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="裸子植物">裸子植物</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="被子植物">被子植物</a>），这些植物通常被分为地上与地下两个部分。<a href="/wiki/Shoot" title="Shoot">地上部分</a>（英語：Shoot）即植物的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%8E" title="茎">茎</a>，以及依附其上的<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89" title="葉">叶</a>和繁殖结构。地下部分包含植物的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9" title="根">根部</a>，根尖有<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9%E6%AF%9B" title="根毛">根毛</a>，根部通常没有叶绿素。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739-183">[181]</a>非维管植物例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E9%8C%A2%E9%96%80" title="地錢門">地钱</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E8%8B%94%E9%96%80" title="角苔門">角苔</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E9%A1%9E%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%96%80" class="mw-redirect" title="苔類植物門">苔藓</a>，它们没有用于穿透土壤的维管根，但也进行光合作用。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008607–608-184">[182]</a>地钱的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%93" title="孢子体">孢子体</a>阶段不具光合作用能力，但角苔和苔藓的孢子体阶段可以依靠光合作用满足部分能量需求。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELepp2012-185">[183]</a> 植物的地上与地下部分相互依存，地下的根系需要依靠地上光合作用获取能量，而地上部分需要依靠根系吸收水分与矿物质。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739-183">[181]</a>各部分细胞可分化为对方的组织，或生成<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9#不定根" title="根">不定根</a>或不定枝<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008812–814-186">[184]</a>，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%8A%E8%8E%96%E8%88%87%E5%A1%8A%E6%A0%B9" title="塊莖與塊根">块茎</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%8A%E8%8E%96%E8%88%87%E5%A1%8A%E6%A0%B9" title="塊莖與塊根">块根</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%8D%E5%8C%90%E8%8E%96" title="匍匐莖">匍匐莖</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008740-187">[185]</a>靠近地面的根系，例如在<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%B3%E6%A0%91" title="柳树">柳树</a>中所见到的，可发展出独立的地上部分，并最终形成全新植株。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003185–208-188">[186]</a>地上或地下部分缺失时，另一部分通常可以再生长。因此仅凭单片叶子（例如<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2%E5%A0%87%E5%B1%AC" title="非洲堇屬">非洲堇属</a>）<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMithilaHallVictorSaxena2003408–414-189">[187]</a>，甚至单个细胞（可分化为<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%92%E5%82%B7%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94" title="癒傷組織">愈伤组织</a>）<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008812–814-186">[184]</a>都可能繁育成完整植株。在维管植物中，木质部和韧皮部作为传输组织，负责在地上与地下部分之间运输物质。根部有时可用于储存营养物质，例如糖<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008739-183">[181]</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%96%E7%94%A8%E7%94%9C%E8%8F%9C" title="糖用甜菜">糖用甜菜</a>）或淀粉<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003185–208-188">[186]</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%A1%E8%90%9D%E5%8D%9C" title="胡萝卜">胡萝卜</a>）。 茎的功能主要是为叶和繁殖器官提供支撑，但在肉质植物中也可储存水分（<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%8E%8C" title="仙人掌">仙人掌</a>）或营养物质（<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E9%93%83%E8%96%AF" title="马铃薯">土豆</a>）。茎有时也可用于<a href="/wiki/%E7%87%9F%E9%A4%8A%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="營養繁殖">营养繁殖</a>，例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%89%E8%8E%93" title="草莓">草莓</a>的匍匐茎繁殖，或是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A3%93%E6%A2%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="壓條（页面不存在）">壓條</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layering" class="extiw" title="en:Layering">Layering</a>）繁殖。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellReeceUrryCain2008741-190">[188]</a>叶负责收集光照，并将其用于光合作用。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003114–153-191">[189]</a>种子植物中的裸子植物，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%BE%E6%9F%8F%E9%96%80" title="松柏門">松柏</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E9%93%81%E7%9B%AE" title="苏铁目">苏铁</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%B6%E6%9D%8F%E5%B1%9E" title="银杏属">银杏</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%B0%E9%BA%BB%E8%97%A4" title="买麻藤">买麻藤</a>，可产生裸露的种子。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon200511-192">[190]</a>而被子植物可开花并产生种皮包裹的种子。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003720–750-152">[150]</a>木质植物，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%9C%E9%B5%91%E8%8A%B1%E5%B1%AC" title="杜鵑花屬">杜鹃</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%8E%E5%B1%9E" title="栎属">栎树</a>可产生两种额外结构：木材（次生木质部）和树皮（次生韧皮部和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%A0%93%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E5%B1%A4" title="木栓形成層">木栓</a>）。木质植物包含所有裸子植物和部分被子植物。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003209–243-193">[191]</a>其中部分有性繁殖，部分无性繁殖，还有部分两种方式兼有。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003244–277-194">[192]</a> 尽管对于植物主要形态类别，如根、茎、叶、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%9B%E7%8A%B6%E4%BD%93" title="毛状体">毛状体</a>的区分十分有用，但这些类别并非独立，而是由中间形相连，因此各结构组成了连续的统一体。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattlerJeune1992249–269-195">[193]</a>此外各结构也可视为各过程，因此完整植株即是过程的组合。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESattler1992708–714-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="系统植物学">系统植物学</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=18" title="编辑章节：系统植物学">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r85099211"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">更多信息：<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学">生物分类学</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HerbPrepLG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photograph of a botanist preparing plant specimens for the herbarium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/HerbPrepLG.jpg/220px-HerbPrepLG.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/HerbPrepLG.jpg/330px-HerbPrepLG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/HerbPrepLG.jpg/440px-HerbPrepLG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>植物学家在制作植物标本</figcaption></figure> 系统植物学属于系统生物学的一个分支，该学科关注各生物的分布范围、差异及相互关系，尤其注重生物的<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化">演化</a>历史。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELilburnHarrisonColeGarrity2006-196">[194]</a>它的相关学科包括生物分类、科学分类学和<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6" title="系统发生学">系统发生学</a>。植物学家在分类物种时会依据类别将其归类，例如归为某个<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%9E" title="属">属</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D" title="物种">种</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学">生物分类学</a>是科学分类系统的一个形式，现代分类学源于18世纪植物学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88" title="卡尔·林奈">卡尔·林奈</a>的工作，林奈根据生物体的外观形态将其分类。这些分类后来因<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="查尔斯·达尔文">达尔文</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="共同起源">共同祖先</a>理论作了适当调整，也即按照生物的演化祖先而非<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E5%9E%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="表型">外表特征相似性</a>分类。尽管科学家对于如何分类生物还有争论，但以生物DNA序列为基础数据的现代<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6" title="分子系统发生学">分子系统发生学</a>技术已经推动许多有关演化历程的修正，并预计未来仍将继续。现代生物学应用最广泛的分类系统是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="林奈分类学（页面不存在）">林奈分类学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" class="extiw" title="en:Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a>），该理论依层级分类生物，各物种都以<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95" title="二名法">二名法</a>命名。《<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB%E3%80%81%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%92%8C%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95%E8%A7%84" title="国际藻类、真菌和植物命名法规">国际藻类、真菌和植物命名法规</a>》规范了植物学的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%8D" title="學名">科学命名</a>，法规由<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A" title="国际植物学大会">国际植物学大会</a>负责管理。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNeillBarrieBuckDemoulin2011Preamble,_para._7-197">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–551-198">[196]</a> 依据生物分类学，<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物界</a>属于真核生物<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%9F_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="域 (生物)">域</a>，各生物依次向下归类，直至<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D" title="物种">物种</a>层级。层级由高到低分别为：<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%8C_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="界 (生物)">界</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%97%A8_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="门 (生物)">门</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B2" title="纲">纲</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%AE_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="目 (生物)">目</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="科 (生物)">科</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%9E" title="属">属</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D" title="物种">种</a>。植物的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%8D" title="學名">拉丁学名</a>由其属和属下的种名组成，由此生成独一无二的名称。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–551-198">[196]</a>例如<a href="/wiki/%E9%B8%A2%E5%B0%BE" title="鸢尾">鸢尾</a>的学名为Iris tectorum，其中Iris为其属名，表示该物种属于<a href="/wiki/%E9%B8%A2%E5%B0%BE%E5%B1%9E" title="鸢尾属">鸢尾属</a>，而tectorum是其<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E5%8A%A0%E8%AF%8D" title="种加词">种加词</a>。属名首字母需大写，种加词小写，整个学名需以斜体表示，如果无法斜体，则需添加下划线。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003528–555-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy2006-200">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilyn-Roberts2000198-201">[199]</a> 生物群的演化史与遗传关系称为系统发生，对此的研究称为<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6" title="系统发生学">系统发生学</a>。该学科的基础方法是利用生物间的遗传相似性探究其关系。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012438–444-202">[200]</a>例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%8E%8C%E5%B1%AC" title="葉仙人掌屬">叶仙人掌属</a>枝叶繁茂，与其它叶片呈针尖状的典型<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%8E%8C" title="仙人掌">仙人掌</a>（例如<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E7%90%A5%E5%B1%9E" title="金琥属">金琥属</a>）的外观非常不同。然而叶仙人掌属和金琥属都有由<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%BA%E5%BA%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="刺座（页面不存在）">刺座</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areole" class="extiw" title="en:Areole">Areole</a>）（高度特化的垫状结构）产生的尖刺，这表明这两个属存在演化上的亲缘关系。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012446–449-203">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson200126–27-204">[202]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">两种形态差异巨大的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%8E%8C" title="仙人掌">仙人掌</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:205px;max-width:205px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg/203px-Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg" decoding="async" width="203" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg/305px-Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg/406px-Pereskia_aculeata5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%8E%8C%E5%B1%AC" title="葉仙人掌屬">葉仙人掌屬</a> Pereskia aculeata</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:183px;max-width:183px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg/181px-Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg/272px-Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg/362px-Bogarub-echinocactus-grusonii-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E7%90%A5%E5%B1%9E" title="金琥属">金琥属</a> Echinocactus grusonii</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">虽然叶仙人掌属枝繁叶茂，但其刺座结构显示出它和“典型”的仙人掌金琥属有相近的演化关系。</div></div></div></div> 因植物相似性而作出的亲缘关系判断必须十分仔细，因为<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%8B%E5%90%8C%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="趋同演化">趋同演化</a>也使不同植物物种独立演化出相似特征。部分<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%9F%E5%B1%AC" title="大戟屬">大戟屬</a>物种有和仙人掌相似的无叶球茎，这是因适应水栖环境而发生的形态演化，假若仔细观察就可发现，这些物种的花和仙人掌的花在结构上有显著不同，因此它们间的亲缘关系并不相近。<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%AF%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="支序分類學">支序分类学</a>采用系统方法分析生物性状，以更好的在与演化关系无关的相似性状——例如不同生物群体独立演化出的相似特征（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8C%E5%A1%91%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="同塑性（页面不存在）">同塑性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoplasy" class="extiw" title="en:Homoplasy">Homoplasy</a>）），祖先遗留的特征（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%96%E5%BE%81%E5%92%8C%E5%85%B1%E7%A5%96%E5%BE%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="祖征和共祖征（页面不存在）">祖征</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomorphy_and_synapomorphy" class="extiw" title="en:Apomorphy and synapomorphy">Apomorphy and synapomorphy</a>））——和从<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E8%BF%91%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E7%A5%96%E5%85%88" title="最近共同祖先">最近共同祖先</a>身上承袭的性状（<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%9C%89%E8%A1%8D%E5%BE%B5" title="共有衍徵">共有衍徵</a>）之间作出区分。只有衍徵，例如上述仙人掌植物的刺座，才可提供生物间最近共同祖先的证据。支序分类学分析的结果以<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%AF%E5%BA%8F%E5%9B%BE" title="支序图">支序图</a>形式展示，以树状结构展示出生物的演化支和后代。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012442–450-205">[203]</a> 自1990年代起，基于分子特征和遗传序列的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6" title="分子系统发生学">分子系统发生学</a>取代了先前以形态特征为判断依据的传统方法，人们不必再依靠观察形态特征，例如是否有刺、刺座等信息判断植物的演化关系。两种方法的区别在于，分子系统发生学直接使用植物的遗传序列为数据，而不再依赖由这些遗传序列表现出的形态特征。<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E8%8E%B1%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E5%AE%89%E4%B8%9C%E5%B0%BC%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E6%96%AF" title="克莱夫·安东尼·斯特斯">克莱夫·安东尼·斯特斯</a>表示这种方法“直接取得了演化的遗传基础”。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace2010a104-206">[204]</a>例如，以往人们认为真菌属于植物，或至少更接近植物而不是动物。然而基因证据显示，多细胞生物的演化关系应如下面树状图所示——真菌更接近动物而非植物。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2012453-207">[205]</a> <div style="float: left; margin-right: 15px;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r62996521">.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{width:0.7em;padding:0 0.15em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0 0.15em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r62996521"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r62996521"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r62996521"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> 植物 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel">  </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r62996521"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r62996521"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> 真菌 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel">  </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> 动物 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last">  </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> 1998年，<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E7%B3%BB%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%A6%E7%BB%84" title="被子植物种系发生学组">被子植物种系发生学组</a>在分析了大部分<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="被子植物">被子植物</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="科 (生物)">科</a>后发表了《<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9APG%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E6%B3%95" title="被子植物APG分类法">被子植物APG分类法</a>》。该成果解答了过去的许多疑问，例如哪一科代表了被子植物最早的分支。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurger2013-51">[51]</a>对植物关系的研究有助于植物学家更好的理解植物的演化过程。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChase_et_al.2003399–436-208">[206]</a>除了对<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="模式生物">模式植物</a>的研究以及日渐常用的遗传证据外，分类学家也在讨论和尝试更好的将植物放入<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%96%AE%E5%85%83" title="分類單元">分类单元</a>。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapon2005223-209">[207]</a>其它科技，例如计算机和<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="电子显微镜">电子显微镜</a>的发展极大促进了植物学研究的精细程度，并可在短时间内分析大量数据。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1981459–459-210">[208]</a> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="符号">符号</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=19" title="编辑章节：符号">编辑</a>]</div> 植物学中曾应用一些符号，其中部分已经过时，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88" title="卡尔·林奈">林奈</a>曾用行星符号表示木质、草本和多年生植物，而<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E9%9F%A6%E5%B0%94%E7%99%BB%E8%AF%BA" title="卡尔·路德维希·韦尔登诺">韦尔登诺</a>曾用♄（<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E6%98%9F" title="土星">土星</a>符号）代表无性植物，用☿（<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E6%98%9F" title="水星">水星</a>符号）代表<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%8C%E9%9B%84%E5%90%8C%E9%AB%94" title="雌雄同體">雌雄同体</a>植物。以下是植物学中仍在使用的符号：<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2010-211">[209]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79074265">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width:30em;"> <dl><dd>♀ 雌性</dd> <dd>♂ 雄性</dd> <dd>⚥ <a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生殖形態學">雌雄同体</a></dd> <dd>⚲ 植物无性生殖</dd> <dd>◊ 未知性别</dd> <dd>☉ 一年生植物</dd> <dd>⚇ 两年生植物</dd> <dd>♾ 多年生植物</dd> <dd>☠ 有毒植物</dd> <dd>🛈 更多信息</dd> <dd>× 杂交</dd> <dd>+ 嫁接杂交</dd></dl> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参见">参见</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=20" title="编辑章节：参见">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79074265"><div class="div-col" style="column-width:30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%88%86%E6%94%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学分支（页面不存在）">植物学分支</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:Branches of botany">Branches of botany</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物演化史（页面不存在）">植物演化史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" class="extiw" title="en:Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E8%AF%AD%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学术语表（页面不存在）">植物学术语表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" class="extiw" title="en:Glossary of botanical terms">Glossary of botanical terms</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E8%AF%AD%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物形态学术语表（页面不存在）">植物形态学术语表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" class="extiw" title="en:Glossary of plant morphology">Glossary of plant morphology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%9F%E5%88%8A%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学期刊列表（页面不存在）">植物学期刊列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botany_journals" class="extiw" title="en:List of botany journals">List of botany journals</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学家列表（页面不存在）">植物学家列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botanists" class="extiw" title="en:List of botanists">List of botanists</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9B%AD%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物园列表（页面不存在）">植物园列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botanical_gardens" class="extiw" title="en:List of botanical gardens">List of botanical gardens</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6%E5%90%8D%E7%A7%B0%E7%BC%A9%E5%86%99%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8_(A)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学家名称缩写列表 (A)（页面不存在）">植物学家名称缩写列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(A)" class="extiw" title="en:List of botanists by author abbreviation (A)">List of botanists by author abbreviation (A)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%A9%AF%E5%8C%96%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="驯化植物列表（页面不存在）">驯化植物列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_domesticated_plants" class="extiw" title="en:List of domesticated plants">List of domesticated plants</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9#開花植物多樣性" title="被子植物">开花植物列表</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物分类系统列表（页面不存在）">植物分类系统列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" class="extiw" title="en:List of systems of plant taxonomy">List of systems of plant taxonomy</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E7%BA%B2%E8%A6%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学纲要（页面不存在）">植物学纲要</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:Outline of botany">Outline of botany</a>）</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="注释">注释</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=21" title="编辑章节：注释">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="notelist" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> 这种情况称作<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E5%80%8D%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="多倍體">多倍体</a>，在植物中很常见。 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> 在一些蓝藻中也发现了叶绿素b。蓝菌和部分藻类中还存在许多其它种类的叶绿素，但均未在陆生植物中发现。<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimArchibald20091–39-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoweBarbrookNisbetLockhart20082675–2685-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakaichi20111101–1118-85">[84]</a> </li> </ol> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献">参考文献</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=22" title="编辑章节：参考文献">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="脚注">脚注</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=23" title="编辑章节：脚注">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoyal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew2016-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoyal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew2016_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoyal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew2016">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Plant_List-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThe_Plant_List_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Plant_List">The Plant List</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE马炜梁20229-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE马炜梁20229_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF马炜梁2022">马炜梁 2022</a>，第9頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE中国科学院植物研究所-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE中国科学院植物研究所_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF中国科学院植物研究所">中国科学院植物研究所</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner200016-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner200016_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSumner2000">Sumner 2000</a>，第16頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29_6-0">6.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReed19427–29_6-1">6.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFReed1942">Reed 1942</a>，第7–29頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberlies1998155_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOberlies1998">Oberlies 1998</a>，第155頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE北京市园林学校199010-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE北京市园林学校199010_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF北京市园林学校1990">北京市园林学校 1990</a>，第10頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamLuHuang1986-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamLuHuang1986_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeedhamLuHuang1986">Needham, Lu & Huang 1986</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142_10-0">10.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene1909140–142_10-1">10.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreene1909">Greene 1909</a>，第140–142頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE周云龙200410-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE周云龙200410_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF周云龙2004">周云龙 2004</a>，第10頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennettHammond190230-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennettHammond190230_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennettHammond1902">Bennett & Hammond 1902</a>，第30頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003532-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMauseth2003532_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMauseth2003">Mauseth 2003</a>，第532頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallal2010197-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallal2010197_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallal2010">Dallal 2010</a>，第197頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanaino200293-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanaino200293_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPanaino2002">Panaino 2002</a>，第93頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevey1973116-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevey1973116_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevey1973">Levey 1973</a>，第116頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill1915-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill1915_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHill1915">Hill 1915</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Museum_of_Wales2007-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Museum_of_Wales2007_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNational_Museum_of_Wales2007">National Museum of Wales 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYanivBachrach2005157-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYanivBachrach2005157_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYanivBachrach2005">Yaniv & Bachrach 2005</a>，第157頁. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpragueSprague1939-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpragueSprague1939_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpragueSprague1939">Sprague & Sprague 1939</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaggoner2001-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaggoner2001_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaggoner2001">Waggoner 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE吴增华侯学良2015-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE吴增华侯学良2015_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF吴增华侯学良2015">吴增华 & 侯学良 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharf200973–117-23"><a 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.refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREF马炜梁2022" class="citation book">马炜梁. 植物学第3版. 北京: 高等教育出版社. 2022. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787040581683" title="Special:网络书源/9787040581683">ISBN 9787040581683</a>.</cite><span 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Ohio University. 2013 [2013-06-03]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohio.edu/people/braselto/readings/plantbiol.html">原始内容</a>存档于2015-09-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft.aulast=Braselton&rft.btitle=What+is+Plant+Biology%3F&rft.date=2013&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Ohio+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohio.edu%2Fpeople%2Fbraselto%2Freadings%2Fplantbiol.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFBurger2013" class="citation web">Burger, William C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121023131822/http://fieldmuseum.org/explore/angiosperm-origins-monocots-first-scenario">Angiosperm Origins: A Monocots-First Scenario</a>. Chicago: The Field Museum. 2013 [2023-01-11]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fieldmuseum.org/explore/angiosperm-origins-monocots-first-scenario">原始内容</a>存档于2012-10-23）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft.aulast=Burger&rft.btitle=Angiosperm+Origins%3A+A+Monocots-First+Scenario&rft.date=2013&rft.genre=unknown&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=The+Field+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffieldmuseum.org%2Fexplore%2Fangiosperm-origins-monocots-first-scenario&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFBurrows1990" class="citation book">Burrows, W.J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cropgeneticresou0000unse">Processes of Vegetation Change</a><img alt="需要免费注册" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/14px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/18px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. London: Unwin Hyman. 1990. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-04-580013-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-04-580013-1">ISBN 978-0-04-580013-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=W.J.&rft.aulast=Burrows&rft.btitle=Processes+of+Vegetation+Change&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-04-580013-1&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Unwin+Hyman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcropgeneticresou0000unse&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  含有內容需登入查看的頁面 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%85%A7%E5%AE%B9%E9%9C%80%E7%99%BB%E5%85%A5%E6%9F%A5%E7%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有內容需登入查看的頁面">link</a>)</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFButz2007" class="citation book">Butz, Stephen D. Science of Earth Systems 2. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4180-4122-9" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4180-4122-9">ISBN 978-1-4180-4122-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rft.aulast=Butz&rft.btitle=Science+of+Earth+Systems&rft.date=2007&rft.edition=2&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4180-4122-9&rft.place=Clifton+Park%2C+NY&rft.pub=Delmar+Cengage+Learning&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFCampbellReeceUrryCain2008" class="citation book">Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa Andrea; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven Alexander; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert Bradley. Biology 8. San Francisco: Pearson – Benjamin Cummings. 2008. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-321-54325-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-321-54325-7">ISBN 978-0-321-54325-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Cain%2C+Michael+L.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Robert+Bradley&rft.au=Minorsky%2C+Peter+V.&rft.au=Reece%2C+Jane+B.&rft.au=Urry%2C+Lisa+Andrea&rft.au=Wasserman%2C+Steven+Alexander&rft.aufirst=Neil+A.&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.date=2008&rft.edition=8&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-321-54325-7&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Pearson+%E2%80%93+Benjamin+Cummings&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFde_Candolle2006" class="citation book">de Candolle, Alphonse. Origin of Cultivated Plants. Glacier National Park, MT: Kessinger Publishing. 2006. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4286-0946-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4286-0946-4">ISBN 978-1-4286-0946-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Alphonse&rft.aulast=de+Candolle&rft.btitle=Origin+of+Cultivated+Plants&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4286-0946-4&rft.place=Glacier+National+Park%2C+MT&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFCapon2005" class="citation book">Capon, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/botanyforgardene0000capo_k8y2">Botany for Gardeners</a> 2nd. 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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 2004, 271 (1545): 1251–1262 [2012-10-10]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691724">PMC 1691724</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15306349">PMID 15306349</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2004.2705">doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2705</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110110023752/http://www.cladocera.de/protozoa/cavalier-smith_2004_prs.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2011-01-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Only+Six+Kingdoms+of+Life&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.aulast=Cavalier-Smith&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1545&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London+B&rft.pages=1251-1262&rft.volume=271&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1691724&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cladocera.de%2Fprotozoa%2Fcavalier-smith_2004_prs.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2004.2705&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15306349&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFChaffey2007" class="citation journal">Chaffey, Nigel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802946">Esau's Plant Anatomy, Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: their Structure, Function, and Development</a>. 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Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes. 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-17-438746-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-17-438746-6">ISBN 978-0-17-438746-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Horsfall%2C+Peter&rft.au=MacDonald%2C+Averil&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Jan&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+Pat&rft.aufirst=Jasmin&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.btitle=Science+Web&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-17-438746-6&rft.place=Cheltenham%2C+UK&rft.pub=Nelson+Thornes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscienceweb0000jasm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFChase_et_al.2003" class="citation journal">Chase, Mark W.; Bremer, Birgitta; Bremer, Kåre; Reveal, James L.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Stevens, Peter S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ktriop.bio.ug.edu.pl/upload/preview/0f0c6bdcb447f9defaa482c50120a62d.pdf">An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group Classification for the Orders and Families of Flowering Plants: APG II</a> (PDF). 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The New Phytologist. 1987, 106 (1): 283–295. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2433023">JSTOR 2433023</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1987.tb04695.x">doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1987.tb04695.x</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Botanical+Contributions+to+Contemporary+Ecological+Theory&rft.au=Hodgson%2C+J.G.&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft.aulast=Grime&rft.date=1987&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=The+New+Phytologist&rft.pages=283-295&rft.volume=106&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2433023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1987.tb04695.x&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFGust1996" class="citation web">Gust, Devens. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120209225717/http://bioenergy.asu.edu/photosyn/study.html">Why Study Photosynthesis?</a>. 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Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Science. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-632-05267-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-632-05267-7">ISBN 978-0-632-05267-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Pellmyr%2C+O.&rft.aufirst=C.M.&rft.aulast=Herrera&rft.btitle=Plant+Animal+Interactions%3A+An+Evolutionary+Approach&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-632-05267-7&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Blackwell+Science&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplantanimalinter0000unse_p8f1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFHill1915" class="citation journal">Hill, Arthur W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archive.org/download/historyfunctions00hilluoft/historyfunctions00hilluoft.pdf">The History and Functions of Botanic Gardens</a> (PDF). 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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2008, 363 (1504): 2675–2685. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2606771">PMC 2606771</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18468982">PMID 18468982</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0050">doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Plastids&rft.au=Barbrook%2C+A.C.&rft.au=Larkum%2C+A.W.D.&rft.au=Lockhart%2C+P.J.&rft.au=Nisbet%2C+R.E.R&rft.aufirst=C.J.&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1504&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.pages=2675-2685&rft.volume=363&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2606771&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2606771&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0050&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18468982&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFHunter2008" class="citation web">Hunter, Philip. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080501094940/https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/whatgenesremember">What Genes Remember</a>. May 2008 [2013-08-24]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/whatgenesremember">原始内容</a>存档于2008-05-01）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.btitle=What+Genes+Remember&rft.date=2008-05&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.prospectmagazine.co.uk%2Fmagazine%2Fwhatgenesremember&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFJanzenForrestSpougeHajibabaei2009" class="citation journal">Janzen, Daniel H. with the CBOL Plant Working Group; Forrest, L.L.; Spouge, J.L.; Hajibabaei, M.; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722355">A DNA Barcode for Land Plants</a>. 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New Phytologist. 2006, 171 (1): 7–25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3694480">JSTOR 3694480</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16771979">PMID 16771979</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2006.01755.x">doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01755.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Photosynthetic+Flexibility+and+Ecophysiological+Plasticity%3A+Questions+and+Lessons+from+Clusia%2C+the+Only+CAM+Tree%2C+in+the+Neotropics&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft.aulast=L%C3%BCttge&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.pages=7-25&rft.volume=171&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3694480&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2006.01755.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16771979&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMann1987" class="citation book">Mann, J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secondarymetabol00mann">Secondary Metabolism, 2nd ed</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1987. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-855529-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-19-855529-2">ISBN 978-0-19-855529-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.btitle=Secondary+Metabolism%2C+2nd+ed&rft.date=1987&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-19-855529-2&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecondarymetabol00mann&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMauseth2003" class="citation book">Mauseth, James D. Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology 3rd. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7637-2134-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7637-2134-3">ISBN 978-0-7637-2134-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft.aulast=Mauseth&rft.btitle=Botany+%3A+An+Introduction+to+Plant+Biology&rft.date=2003&rft.edition=3rd&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-2134-3&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+MA&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Learning&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMauseth2012" class="citation book">Mauseth, James D. Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology 5th. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. 2012. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4496-6580-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4496-6580-7">ISBN 978-1-4496-6580-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft.aulast=Mauseth&rft.btitle=Botany+%3A+An+Introduction+to+Plant+Biology&rft.date=2012&rft.edition=5th&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4496-6580-7&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+MA&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett+Learning&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li></ul></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMcNeillBarrieBuckDemoulin2011" class="citation book">McNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.; Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp, S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema, J.H.; Turland, N.J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011</a>. 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Gantner Verlag KG. 2011 [2023-01-11]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-3-87429-425-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-3-87429-425-6">ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131104060236/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title">存档</a>于2013-11-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Barrie%2C+F.R.&rft.au=Buck%2C+W.R.&rft.au=Demoulin%2C+V.&rft.au=Greuter%2C+W.&rft.au=Hawksworth%2C+D.L.&rft.au=Herendeen%2C+P.S.&rft.au=Knapp%2C+S.&rft.au=Marhold%2C+K.&rft.au=Prado%2C+J.&rft.au=Prud%27homme+Van+Reine%2C+W.F.&rft.au=Smith%2C+G.F.&rft.au=Turland%2C+N.J.&rft.au=Wiersema%2C+J.H.&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.btitle=International+Code+of+Nomenclature+for+algae%2C+fungi%2C+and+plants+%28Melbourne+Code%29+adopted+by+the+Eighteenth+International+Botanical+Congress+Melbourne%2C+Australia%2C+July+2011&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-3-87429-425-6&rft.pub=A.R.G.+Gantner+Verlag+KG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iapt-taxon.org%2Fnomen%2Fmain.php%3Fpage%3Dtitle&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMedbury1993" class="citation web">Medbury, Scot. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150609153849/http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/1993-53-3-taxonomy-and-arboretum-design.pdf">Taxonomy and Arboreturm Design</a> (PDF). Harvard University. 1993 [2013-07-26]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/1993-53-3-taxonomy-and-arboretum-design.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2015-06-09）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Scot&rft.aulast=Medbury&rft.btitle=Taxonomy+and+Arboreturm+Design&rft.date=1993&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu%2Fpdf%2Farticles%2F1993-53-3-taxonomy-and-arboretum-design.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMithilaHallVictorSaxena2003" class="citation journal">Mithila, J.; Hall, J.C.; Victor, J.M.; Saxena, P.K. Thidiazuron Induces Shoot Organogenesis at Low Concentrations and Somatic Embryogenesis at High Concentrations on Leaf and Petiole Explants of African Violet (Saintpaulia ionantha Wendl). Plant Cell Reports. January 2003, 21 (5): 408–414. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12789442">PMID 12789442</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28072754">S2CID 28072754</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00299-002-0544-y">doi:10.1007/s00299-002-0544-y</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Thidiazuron+Induces+Shoot+Organogenesis+at+Low+Concentrations+and+Somatic+Embryogenesis+at+High+Concentrations+on+Leaf+and+Petiole+Explants+of+African+Violet+%28Saintpaulia+ionantha+Wendl%29&rft.au=Hall%2C+J.C.&rft.au=Saxena%2C+P.K.&rft.au=Victor%2C+J.M.&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=Mithila&rft.date=2003-01&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=Plant+Cell+Reports&rft.pages=408-414&rft.volume=21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28072754&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00299-002-0544-y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12789442&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMorgensen1996" class="citation journal">Morgensen, H.L. The Hows and Whys of Cytoplasmic Inheritance in Seed Plants. American Journal of Botany. 1996, 83 (3): 383–404. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2446172">JSTOR 2446172</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2446172">doi:10.2307/2446172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=The+Hows+and+Whys+of+Cytoplasmic+Inheritance+in+Seed+Plants&rft.aufirst=H.L.&rft.aulast=Morgensen&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.pages=383-404&rft.volume=83&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2446172&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2446172&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMorton1981" class="citation book">Morton, Alan G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbotanic0000mort">History of Botanical Science: An Account of the Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present Day</a><img alt="需要免费注册" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/14px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/18px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. London: Academic Press. 1981. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-12-508380-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-12-508380-5">ISBN 978-0-12-508380-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Alan+G.&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.btitle=History+of+Botanical+Science%3A+An+Account+of+the+Development+of+Botany+from+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.date=1981&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-12-508380-5&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofbotanic0000mort&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  含有內容需登入查看的頁面 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%85%A7%E5%AE%B9%E9%9C%80%E7%99%BB%E5%85%A5%E6%9F%A5%E7%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有內容需登入查看的頁面">link</a>)</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamLuHuang1986" class="citation book">Needham, Joseph; Lu, Gwei-djen; Huang, Hsing-Tsung. Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 6 Part 1 Botany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Huang%2C+Hsing-Tsung&rft.au=Lu%2C+Gwei-djen&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%2C+Vol.+6+Part+1+Botany&rft.date=1986&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFNobel1983" class="citation book">Nobel, P.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biophysicalplant0000nobe">Biophysical Plant Physiology and Ecology</a>. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. 1983. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7167-1447-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7167-1447-7">ISBN 978-0-7167-1447-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=P.S.&rft.aulast=Nobel&rft.btitle=Biophysical+Plant+Physiology+and+Ecology&rft.date=1983&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-1447-7&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiophysicalplant0000nobe&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFOberlies1998" class="citation book">Oberlies, Thomas. Die Religion des Rgveda. Wien: Sammlung De Nobili. 1998. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-3-900271-31-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-3-900271-31-2">ISBN 978-3-900271-31-2</a> （德语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.aulast=Oberlies&rft.btitle=Die+Religion+des+Rgveda&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-3-900271-31-2&rft.place=Wien&rft.pub=Sammlung+De+Nobili&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFPadmanabhanDinesh-Kumar2010" class="citation journal">Padmanabhan, Meenu S.; Dinesh-Kumar, S.P. All Hands on Deck – The Role of Chloroplasts, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and the Nucleus in Driving Plant Innate Immunity. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions. 2010, 23 (11): 1368–1380. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20923348">PMID 20923348</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1094%2FMPMI-05-10-0113">doi:10.1094/MPMI-05-10-0113</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=All+Hands+on+Deck+%E2%80%93+The+Role+of+Chloroplasts%2C+Endoplasmic+Reticulum%2C+and+the+Nucleus+in+Driving+Plant+Innate+Immunity&rft.au=Dinesh-Kumar%2C+S.P.&rft.aufirst=Meenu+S.&rft.aulast=Padmanabhan&rft.date=2010&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=11&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Plant-Microbe+Interactions&rft.pages=1368-1380&rft.volume=23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1094%2FMPMI-05-10-0113&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20923348&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFPanaino2002" class="citation book">Panaino, Antonio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hUNFLpQSqbkC&pg=PA93">Ideologies as Intercultural Phenomena: Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, Held in Chicago, October 27–31, 2000</a>. Bologna: Mimesis Edizioni. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-88-8483-107-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-88-8483-107-1">ISBN 978-88-8483-107-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.aulast=Panaino&rft.btitle=Ideologies+as+Intercultural+Phenomena%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Third+Annual+Symposium+of+the+Assyrian+and+Babylonian+Intellectual+Heritage+Project%2C+Held+in+Chicago%2C+October+27%E2%80%9331%2C+2000&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-88-8483-107-1&rft.place=Bologna&rft.pub=Mimesis+Edizioni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhUNFLpQSqbkC%26pg%3DPA93&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%A4%B1%E6%95%88%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5" title="Wikipedia:失效链接">失效連結</a>]</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFPorleyHodgetts2005" class="citation book">Porley, Ron; Hodgetts, Nick. Mosses and Liverworts. New Naturalist series No. 97 (London: HarperCollins UK). 2005. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-00-220212-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-00-220212-1">ISBN 978-0-00-220212-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Hodgetts%2C+Nick&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft.aulast=Porley&rft.btitle=Mosses+and+Liverworts&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-00-220212-1&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperCollins+UK&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFPossinghamRose1976" class="citation journal">Possingham, J.V.; Rose, R.J. Chloroplast Replication and Chloroplast DNA Synthesis in Spinach Leaves. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 1976-05-18, 193 (1112): 295–305. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976RSPSB.193..295P">Bibcode:1976RSPSB.193..295P</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2691108">S2CID 2691108</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.1976.0047">doi:10.1098/rspb.1976.0047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Chloroplast+Replication+and+Chloroplast+DNA+Synthesis+in+Spinach+Leaves&rft.au=Rose%2C+R.J.&rft.aufirst=J.V.&rft.aulast=Possingham&rft.date=1976-05-18&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1112&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.pages=295-305&rft.volume=193&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2691108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976RSPSB.193..295P&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.1976.0047&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFProctorYeo1973" class="citation book">Proctor, M.; Yeo, P. The Pollination of Flowers, New Naturalist series. London: Harper Collins. 1973. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-00-219504-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-00-219504-1">ISBN 978-0-00-219504-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Yeo%2C+P.&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.aulast=Proctor&rft.btitle=The+Pollination+of+Flowers%2C+New+Naturalist+series&rft.date=1973&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-00-219504-1&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRavenEvertEichhorn2005" class="citation book">Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray H.; Eichhorn, Susan E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0">Biology of Plants</a><img alt="需要免费注册" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/14px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/18px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /> 7th. 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Freeman. 2005. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7167-1007-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7167-1007-3">ISBN 978-0-7167-1007-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Eichhorn%2C+Susan+E.&rft.au=Evert%2C+Ray+H.&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft.aulast=Raven&rft.btitle=Biology+of+Plants&rft.date=2005&rft.edition=7th&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiologyofplants00rave_0&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  含有內容需登入查看的頁面 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%85%A7%E5%AE%B9%E9%9C%80%E7%99%BB%E5%85%A5%E6%9F%A5%E7%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有內容需登入查看的頁面">link</a>)</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFReed1942" class="citation book">Reed, Howard S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofpl0000reed">A Short History of the Plant Sciences</a><img alt="需要免费注册" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/14px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/18px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. New York: Ronald Press. 1942.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Howard+S.&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Plant+Sciences&rft.date=1942&rft.genre=book&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Ronald+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistoryofpl0000reed&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  含有內容需登入查看的頁面 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%85%A7%E5%AE%B9%E9%9C%80%E7%99%BB%E5%85%A5%E6%9F%A5%E7%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有內容需登入查看的頁面">link</a>)</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFReik2007" class="citation journal">Reik, Wolf. Stability and Flexibility of Epigenetic Gene Regulation in Mammalian Development. Nature. 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American Journal of Botany. 1995, 82 (5): 596. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2445418">JSTOR 2445418</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2445418">doi:10.2307/2445418</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024044210/https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/14619/1/Renner%26RicklefsDioecyAJB1995.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2017-10-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Dioecy+and+its+Correlates+in+the+Flowering+Plants&rft.au=Ricklefs%2C+R.E.&rft.aufirst=S.S.&rft.aulast=Renner&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.pages=596&rft.volume=82&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2445418&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fepub.ub.uni-muenchen.de%2F14619%2F1%2FRenner%2526RicklefsDioecyAJB1995.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2445418&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRochaixGoldschmidt-ClermontMerchant1998" class="citation book">Rochaix, J.D.; Goldschmidt-Clermont, M.; Merchant, Sabeeha. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=apv1hktfq_8C&pg=PA550">The Molecular Biology of Chloroplasts and Mitochondria in Chlamydomonas</a>. 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The Ti-plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a Natural Vector for the Introduction of Nif Genes in Plants? 9. 1977: 159–179. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4684-0882-9" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4684-0882-9">ISBN 978-1-4684-0882-9</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/336023">PMID 336023</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-0880-5_12">doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-0880-5_12</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.au=Van+Montagu%2C+M.&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=Schell&rft.btitle=The+Ti-plasmid+of+Agrobacterium+tumefaciens%2C+a+Natural+Vector+for+the+Introduction+of+Nif+Genes+in+Plants%3F&rft.date=1977&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4684-0882-9&rft.pages=159-179&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4684-0880-5_12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F336023&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSchoening2005" class="citation web">Schoening, Steve. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150718113726/http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/weedhome/pdfs/noxious_weed_plan.pdf">California Noxious and Invasive Weed Action Plan</a> (PDF). California Department of Food and Agriculture. 2005 [2012-03-01]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/weedhome/pdfs/noxious_weed_plan.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2015-07-18）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft.aulast=Schoening&rft.btitle=California+Noxious+and+Invasive+Weed+Action+Plan&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=California+Department+of+Food+and+Agriculture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdfa.ca.gov%2Fweedhome%2Fpdfs%2Fnoxious_weed_plan.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSchnurrShockeyDe_BoerBrowse2002" class="citation journal">Schnurr, J.A.; Shockey, J.M.; De Boer, G.J.; Browse, J.A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_plant-physiology_2002-08_129_4/page/1700">Fatty Acid Export from the Chloroplast. 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Plant Physiology. 2002, 129 (4): 1700–1709. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC166758">PMC 166758</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12177483">PMID 12177483</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.003251">doi:10.1104/pp.003251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Fatty+Acid+Export+from+the+Chloroplast.+Molecular+Characterization+of+a+Major+Plastidial+Acyl-Coenzyme+a+Synthetase+from+Arabidopsis&rft.au=Browse%2C+J.A.&rft.au=De+Boer%2C+G.J.&rft.au=Shockey%2C+J.M.&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rft.aulast=Schnurr&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&rft.pages=1700-1709&rft.volume=129&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC166758&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_plant-physiology_2002-08_129_4%2Fpage%2F1700&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.003251&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12177483&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSilyn-Roberts2000" class="citation book">Silyn-Roberts, Heather. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hVUU7Gq8QskC&q=species%20epithet%20capitalize&pg=PA198">Writing for Science and Engineering: Papers, Presentation</a>. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. 2000 [2023-01-11]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7506-4636-9" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7506-4636-9">ISBN 978-0-7506-4636-9</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210173322/https://books.google.com/books?id=hVUU7Gq8QskC&q=species%20epithet%20capitalize&pg=PA198">存档</a>于2023-02-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft.aulast=Silyn-Roberts&rft.btitle=Writing+for+Science+and+Engineering%3A+Papers%2C+Presentation&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-4636-9&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhVUU7Gq8QskC%26q%3Dspecies%2520epithet%2520capitalize%26pg%3DPA198&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSmall2012" class="citation book">Small, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T2ueAopatF0C&pg=PA118">Dynamics of Biological Systems</a>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 2012 [2023-01-11]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4398-5336-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4398-5336-8">ISBN 978-1-4398-5336-8</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210173342/https://books.google.com/books?id=T2ueAopatF0C&pg=PA118">存档</a>于2023-02-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.aulast=Small&rft.btitle=Dynamics+of+Biological+Systems&rft.date=2012&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-5336-8&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT2ueAopatF0C%26pg%3DPA118&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSobotkaSákováCurn2000" class="citation journal">Sobotka, Roman; Sáková, Lenka; Curn, Vladislav. Molecular Mechanisms of Self-incompatibility in Brassica. 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Watsonia. 2010a, 28 [2013-07-06]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.watsonia.org.uk/Wats28p103.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2011-07-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Classification+by+molecules%3A+What%27s+in+it+for+field+botanists%3F&rft.aufirst=Clive+A.&rft.aulast=Stace&rft.date=2010&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Watsonia&rft.volume=28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.watsonia.org.uk%2FWats28p103.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFStace2010b" class="citation book">Stace, Clive. New Flora of the British Isles 3rd. 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Belmomt, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cenpage Learning. 2009. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-111-58097-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-111-58097-1">ISBN 978-1-111-58097-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.aufirst=Cecie&rft.aulast=Starr&rft.btitle=The+Unity+and+Diversity+of+Life&rft.date=2009&rft.edition=AP&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-111-58097-1&rft.place=Belmomt%2C+CA&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole%2C+Cenpage+Learning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdAyuAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA299&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%A4%B1%E6%95%88%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5" title="Wikipedia:失效链接">失效連結</a>]</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFStewartRothwell1993" class="citation book">Stewart, Wilson Nichols; Rothwell, Gar W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/paleobotanyevolu0000stew">Paleobiology and the Evolution of Plants</a>. 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The Plant Cell. 2008, 20 (5): 1189–1198. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2438469">PMC 2438469</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18515500">PMID 18515500</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1105%2Ftpc.108.058735">doi:10.1105/tpc.108.058735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Roots+of+Modern+Plant+Biotechnology&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.aulast=Sussex&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=The+Plant+Cell&rft.pages=1189-1198&rft.volume=20&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2438469&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2438469&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1105%2Ftpc.108.058735&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18515500&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFTaizZeiger2002" class="citation book">Taiz, Lincoln; Zeiger, Eduardo. 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June 2011, 9 (12): 1101–1118. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3131562">PMC 3131562</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21747749">PMID 21747749</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmd9061101">doi:10.3390/md9061101</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Carotenoids+in+Algae%3A+Distributions%2C+Biosyntheses+and+Functions&rft.aufirst=Shinichi&rft.aulast=Takaichi&rft.date=2011-06&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=12&rft.jtitle=Marine+Drugs&rft.pages=1101-1118&rft.volume=9&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3131562&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3131562&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fmd9061101&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21747749&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite id="CITEREFTansley1935" class="citation journal">Tansley, A.G. 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[2023-02-02]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202183938/https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/embryophytes/land-plant-origins/">存档</a>于2023-02-02） （美国英语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&rft.atitle=Origin+of+Land+Plants&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Atlas+of+Ancient+Life&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalatlasofancientlife.org%2Flearn%2Fembryophytes%2Fland-plant-origins%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部链接">外部链接</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&section=25" title="编辑章节：外部链接">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655521">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E5%9F%BA%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8" title="維基教科書">維基教科書</a>中的相關電子教程：<a href="https://zh.wikibooks.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" class="extiw" title="b:植物学">植物学</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r82655521"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="font-size:small;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r82655520"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%AB%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90" title="维基共享资源">维基共享资源</a>上的相关多媒体资源：<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Botany" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Botany">植物学</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r80540462"><div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-3" style="-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E6%94%BE%E5%BC%8F%E7%9B%AE%E5%BD%95" title="开放式目录">开放目录项目</a>中的“<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://curlie.org/Science/Biology/Botany/">Botany</a>”</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110103035558/http://huntbot.andrew.cmu.edu/HIBD/Departments/Databases.shtml">Botany databases</a> at the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kuleuven-kortrijk.be/bioweb/?page=guide&lang=en/">High quality pictures of plants and information about them</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20120131150733/http://www.kuleuven-kortrijk.be/bioweb/?page=guide&lang=en%2F">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） from Catholic University of Leuven</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090510230926/http://wildflower.utexas.edu/">Native Plant Information Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plants.usda.gov/index.html">USDA plant database</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20101202091149/http://plants.usda.gov/index.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/www-vl/">The Virtual Library of Botany</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110515013454/http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/www-vl/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120110161145/http://v2.cvh.org.cn/">中国数字植物标本馆</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84261037">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{text-align:center;padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em;width:auto;padding-left:0.2em;position:absolute;left:1em}.mw-parser-output .navbox .mw-collapsible-toggle{margin-left:0.5em;position:absolute;right:1em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="植物学" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;background:#90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Template:植物学"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Template talk:植物学"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:植物学"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="植物学" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">植物学</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物學史（页面不存在）">植物學史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:History of botany">History of botany</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%A4%A7%E7%B6%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物學大綱（页面不存在）">植物學大綱</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:Outline of botany">Outline of botany</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%88%86%E6%94%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物學分支（页面不存在）">分支學科</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:Branches of botany">Branches of botany</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="考古植物學（页面不存在）">考古植物學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="extiw" title="en:Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="天體植物學（页面不存在）">天體植物學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobotany" class="extiw" title="en:Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E8%97%93%E5%AD%A6" title="苔藓学">苔藓学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%B9%E6%9C%A8%E5%AD%B8" title="樹木學">樹木學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="民族植物學">民族植物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古植物学">古植物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="藻类学">藻类学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="植物化学">植物化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="植物地理学">植物地理学</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%B0%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%8B%98%E6%8E%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="地植物學勘探（页面不存在）">地植物學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" class="extiw" title="en:Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotanical prospecting</a>））</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="植物解剖學">植物解剖學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="植物生态学">植物生态学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物病理學">植物病理學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%">植物類群</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E9%A1%9E" title="藻類">藻類</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0%E9%AB%94%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="原始色素體生物">原始质体生物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E8%97%93%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="苔藓植物">苔藓植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%B6%AD%E7%AE%A1%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="非維管植物">非维管植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%AE%A1%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="维管植物">维管植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="种子植物">种子植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%95%A8%E9%A1%9E%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="蕨類植物">蕨類植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A3%B8%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="裸子植物">裸子植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E5%AD%90%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="被子植物">被子植物</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="植物解剖學">植物解剖學</a> 和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物形態學">形態學</a> （<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93%E8%AA%9E%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物形態學術語表（页面不存在）">術語表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" class="extiw" title="en:Glossary of plant morphology">Glossary of plant morphology</a>））</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#D4EED4; text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="植物细胞学">植物细胞学</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81" title="細胞壁">細胞壁</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E9%AB%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="成膜體（页面不存在）">成膜體</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phragmoplast" class="extiw" title="en:Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0%E9%AB%94" title="色素體">色素體</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E7%94%9F%E8%B3%AA%E7%B5%B2" title="原生質絲">原生質絲</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%B2%E8%83%9E" title="液胞">液胞</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#D4EED4; text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6)" title="组织 (生物学)">組織</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%A0%93%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E5%B1%A4" title="木栓形成層">木栓</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87_(%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9)" title="基本组织 (植物)">基本組織</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%91%89%E8%82%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="葉肉（页面不存在）">葉肉</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" class="extiw" title="en:Leaf">Leaf#Mesophyll</a>））</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E7%94%9F%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="分生组织">分生组织</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%AE%E8%97%8F%E5%99%A8%E5%AE%98" title="贮藏器官">贮藏器官</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%AE%A1%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="维管组织">维管组织</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%AE%A1%E6%9D%9F" title="维管束">维管束</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%9D%90" title="木材">木材</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#D4EED4; text-align:center;;width:1%">營養器官</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%B3%9E%E8%8C%8E" title="鳞茎">鳞茎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9" title="根">根</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E6%A0%B9" title="假根">假根</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B9%E8%8C%8E" title="根茎">根茎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot" title="Shoot">地上部</a>〔<a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%BD" title="芽">芽</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89" title="葉">葉</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BD%8E%E5%87%BA%E8%91%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="低出葉（页面不存在）">低出葉</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataphyll" class="extiw" title="en:Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89%E6%9F%84" title="葉柄">葉柄</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%84%A1%E6%9F%84%E8%8A%B1%E8%91%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="無柄花葉（页面不存在）">無柄花葉</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" class="extiw" title="en:Sessility (botany)">Sessility (botany)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%8E" title="茎">茎</a>〕</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#D4EED4; text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%AE%96%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生殖形態學">生殖器官</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%B8%E5%8D%B5%E5%99%A8" title="頸卵器">頸卵器</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%84%E8%95%8A" title="雄蕊">雄蕊群</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89" title="花粉">花粉</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%84%E8%95%8A" title="雄蕊">雄蕊</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%80%80%E5%8C%96%E9%9B%84%E8%95%8A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="退化雄蕊（页面不存在）">退化雄蕊</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staminode" class="extiw" title="en:Staminode">Staminode</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B5%A8%E6%B0%88%E5%B1%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="絨氈層（页面不存在）">絨氈層</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" class="extiw" title="en:Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum (botany)</a>））</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1" title="花">花</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E8%A2%AB%E5%8D%B7%E5%8F%A0%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花被卷叠式（页面不存在）">花被卷叠式</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" class="extiw" title="en:Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation (botany)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="ABC模型">花朵發育</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1" title="花">花图式</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E5%BC%8F" title="花式">花程式</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E5%B0%8D%E7%A8%B1%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花對稱性（页面不存在）">花對稱性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floral_symmetry" class="extiw" title="en:Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AE%E7%94%9F" title="轮生">轮生</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E5%AE%9E" title="果实">果实</a>〔<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9E%9C%E5%AF%A6%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="果實解剖學（页面不存在）">果實解剖學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="extiw" title="en:Fruit anatomy">Fruit anatomy</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%86%E6%9E%9C" title="浆果">浆果</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B4%E6%9E%9C" title="蒴果">蒴果</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%9A%E6%9E%9C" title="坚果">坚果</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E6%A0%B8" title="果核">果核</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E5%AD%90" title="種子">種子</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E5%AD%90%E4%BC%A0%E6%92%AD" title="种子传播">種子傳播</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_dispersal" class="extiw" title="en:Seed dispersal">Seed dispersal</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9A%E4%B9%B3" title="胚乳">胚乳</a>）〕</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E5%AD%90%E9%AB%94" title="配子體">配子體</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%88%E8%95%8A%E6%9F%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="合蕊柱（页面不存在）">合蕊柱</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_(botany)" class="extiw" title="en:Column (botany)">Column (botany)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%8C%E8%8A%B1%E5%99%A8" title="雌花器">雌蕊群</a>〔<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E6%88%BF" title="子房">子房</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AD%90%E6%88%BF%E5%AE%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="子房室（页面不存在）">子房室</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locule" class="extiw" title="en:Locule">Locule</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9A%E7%8F%A0" title="胚珠">胚珠</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%B1%E9%A0%AD_(%E8%8A%B1)" title="柱頭 (花)">柱頭</a>〕</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E4%B8%9D%E6%89%98" title="被丝托">被丝托</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E5%BA%8F" title="花序">花序</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%9E%E7%89%87" title="苞片">苞片</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E6%A2%97" title="花梗">花梗</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%80%BB%E7%8A%B6%E8%8A%B1%E5%BA%8F" title="总状花序">总状花序</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%96%E5%BD%A2%E8%8A%B1%E5%BA%8F" title="繖形花序">繖形花序</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E8%A2%AB" title="花被">花被</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E8%A2%AB%E7%89%87" title="花被片">花被片</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%93%A3" title="花瓣">花瓣</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E8%90%BC" title="花萼">花萼</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%83%9A%E8%83%8E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物胚胎（页面不存在）">植物胚胎</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" class="extiw" title="en:Embryo">Embryo#Plant_embryos</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E6%89%98&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花托（页面不存在）">花托</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" class="extiw" title="en:Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle (botany)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E8%91%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="孢子葉（页面不存在）">孢子葉</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporophyll" class="extiw" title="en:Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%93" title="孢子体">孢子体</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#D4EED4; text-align:center;;width:1%">表層構造</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%A7%92%E8%B4%A8%E5%B1%82" title="植物角质层">植物角质层</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E7%9A%AE%E8%A0%9F%E8%B3%AA" title="表皮蠟質">表皮蠟質</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E7%9A%AE_(%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9)" title="表皮 (植物)">表皮</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E8%9C%9C" title="花蜜">花蜜</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E5%AD%94" title="气孔">气孔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%BA" title="刺">刺</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%9B%E7%8A%B6%E4%BD%93" title="毛状体">毛状体</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生理學">植物生理學</a> 和相關物質</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%8A%E7%B2%89%E5%B1%A4" title="糊粉層">糊粉層</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9B%86%E6%B5%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="集流（页面不存在）">集流</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_movement" class="extiw" title="en:Bulk movement">Bulk movement</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A4%E7%BB%B4%E7%B4%A0" title="纤维素">纤维素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%90%A5%E5%85%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="植物营养学">植物營養</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用">光合作用</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E7%BB%BF%E7%B4%A0" title="叶绿素">叶绿素</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%BB%91%E8%89%B2%E7%B4%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物黑色素（页面不存在）">植物黑色素</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytomelanin" class="extiw" title="en:Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BF%80%E7%B4%A0" title="植物激素">植物激素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%B9%E6%B6%B2" title="樹液">樹液</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%80%E7%B2%89" title="淀粉">淀粉</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E7%B3%96" class="mw-redirect" title="食糖">食糖</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B8%E8%85%BE%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="蒸腾作用">蒸腾作用</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A8%E5%A3%93" title="膨壓">膨壓</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%">植物生長 和習性</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%A0%E6%80%A7" class="mw-disambig" title="习性">植物習性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" class="extiw" title="en:Habit (biology)">Habit (biology)#Structure</a>）〔<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A2%8A%E7%8B%80%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="墊狀植物（页面不存在）">墊狀植物</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushion_plant" class="extiw" title="en:Cushion plant">Cushion plant</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%93%AE%E5%BA%A7%E7%8B%80%E8%91%89%E5%8F%A2" title="蓮座狀葉叢">蓮座狀植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%81%8C%E6%9C%A8" title="灌木">灌木</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%8D%E5%8C%90%E7%81%8C%E6%9C%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="匍匐灌木（页面不存在）">匍匐灌木</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" class="extiw" title="en:Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrub</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E7%81%8C%E6%9C%A8" title="亚灌木">亚灌木</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%82%89%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="多肉植物">多肉植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%91" title="树">树</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%97%A4%E6%9C%AC%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="藤本植物">藤本植物</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E8%B3%AA%E8%97%A4%E6%9C%AC" title="木質藤本">木質藤本</a>）〕</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%89%E6%9C%AC%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="草本植物">草本植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%9C%AC%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="木本植物">木本植物</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%A1%E7%94%9F%E7%94%9F%E9%95%BF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="次生生长（页面不存在）">次生生長</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_growth" class="extiw" title="en:Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="植物繁殖">繁殖</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物演化（页面不存在）">演化</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_evolution" class="extiw" title="en:Plant evolution">Plant evolution</a>） 和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="植物生态学">生態學</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E4%BB%A3%E4%BA%A4%E6%9B%BF" title="世代交替">世代交替</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E5%8F%97%E7%B2%BE" title="双受精">双受精</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E7%99%BC%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物演化發育生物學（页面不存在）">植物演化發育</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" class="extiw" title="en:Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Plant evolutionary developmental biology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物演化史（页面不存在）">植物演化史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" class="extiw" title="en:Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a>）（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E8%BB%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物演化時間軸（页面不存在）">時間軸</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" class="extiw" title="en:Timeline of plant evolution">Timeline of plant evolution</a>））</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%9B%B8" title="植物相">植物区系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E8%8A%BD" title="发芽">发芽</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A0%E7%B2%89" title="传粉">授粉</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%8E%88%E7%B2%89" title="人工授粉">人工授粉</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8E%88%E7%B2%89%E8%80%85&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="授粉者（页面不存在）">授粉者</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator" class="extiw" title="en:Pollinator">Pollinator</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%B2%89%E7%AE%A1" title="花粉管">花粉管</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A0%E7%B2%89" title="传粉">自花授粉</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E5%9B%8A" title="孢子囊">孢子囊</a>〔<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E5%9B%8A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="小孢子囊（页面不存在）">小孢子囊</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsporangia" class="extiw" title="en:Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a>）（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="小孢子（页面不存在）">小孢子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microspore" class="extiw" title="en:Microspore">Microspore</a>））</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90%E5%9B%8A" title="孢子囊">大孢子囊</a>（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大孢子（页面不存在）">大孢子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaspore" class="extiw" title="en:Megaspore">Megaspore</a>））</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A2%E5%AD%90" title="孢子">孢子</a>〕</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%">命名和<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学">分類</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="植物分类学">植物分类学</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物命名法（页面不存在）">植物命名法</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" class="extiw" title="en:Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a>）（<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%8D" title="植物學名">植物學名</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E7%A2%BA%E5%90%8D%E7%A8%B1" title="正確名稱">正確名稱</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E4%BD%9C%E8%80%85%E5%BC%95%E8%AF%81" title="植物学作者引证">作者引證</a></li> <li>《<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB%E3%80%81%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%92%8C%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95%E8%A7%84" title="国际藻类、真菌和植物命名法规">國際藻類、真菌和植物命名法规</a>》</li> <li>《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95%E8%A6%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="國際栽培植物命名法規（页面不存在）">國際栽培植物命名法規</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" class="extiw" title="en:International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants</a>）》）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="栽培植物分類學（页面不存在）">栽培植物分類學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" class="extiw" title="en:Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a>）〔<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9F%91%E6%A9%98%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="柑橘分類學（页面不存在）">柑橘分類學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" class="extiw" title="en:Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="栽培植物">栽培植物</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9%E5%93%81%E7%A7%8D" title="栽培品种">栽培品种</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%81%E7%A8%AE%E7%BE%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="品種群（页面不存在）">品種群</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivar_group" class="extiw" title="en:Cultivar group">Cultivar group</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grex_(%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D%E5%AD%B8)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Grex (園藝學)（页面不存在）">Grex</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" class="extiw" title="en:Grex (horticulture)">Grex (horticulture)</a>））〕</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="植物系統學史">植物系統學史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E6%A8%99%E6%9C%AC%E9%A4%A8" title="植物標本館">植物標本館</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8%E6%9C%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="國際植物分類學會（页面不存在）">國際植物分類學會</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" class="extiw" title="en:International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物分類系統列表（页面不存在）">植物分類系統</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" class="extiw" title="en:List of systems of plant taxonomy">List of systems of plant taxonomy</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E9%98%B6%E5%85%83" title="分类阶元">分类阶元</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%">經營管理</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E5%AD%A6" title="农学">農藝學</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E5%8D%89%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花卉栽培（页面不存在）">花卉栽培</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floriculture" class="extiw" title="en:Floriculture">Floriculture</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E4%B8%9A" title="林业">林业</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%AD%E8%89%BA" title="园艺">园艺</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;width:1%">相關列表 和條目</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93%E8%AA%9E%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物學術語表（页面不存在）">植物學術語表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" class="extiw" title="en:Glossary of botanical terms">Glossary of botanical terms</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E4%BA%BA%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物命名人列表（页面不存在）">植物命名人列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botanists" class="extiw" title="en:List of botanists">List of botanists</a>）（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8C%89%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E4%BA%BA%E7%B8%AE%E5%AF%AB%E6%8E%92%E5%88%97%E7%9A%84%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%90%8D%E4%BA%BA%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8_(W%E2%80%93Z)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="按命名人縮寫排列的植物命名人列表 (W–Z)（页面不存在）">按命名人縮寫排列的植物命名人列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" class="extiw" title="en:List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)</a>））</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%80%83%E5%AF%9F" title="植物考察">植物考察</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#C3EEC3; text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg/16px-Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg/24px-Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg/32px-Rose_Amber_Flush_20070601.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="Portal:植物">主題</a></li> <li><img alt="专题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/WikiProject:%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="WikiProject:植物">專題</a></li> <li><img alt="分类" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="Category:植物學">維基分類</a></li> <li><img alt="共享资源页面" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Botany" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Botany">維基共享資源</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="生物学" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Template:生物学"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Template talk:生物学"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:生物学"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="生物学" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学">生物学</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #90EE90;;width:1%">背景</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="生物学史">生物学史</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物学史（页面不存在）">植物学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_botany" class="extiw" title="en:History of botany">History of botany</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="解剖学史">解剖学史</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2_(1859%E5%B9%B4%E4%B9%8B%E5%89%8D)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="动物学史 (1859年之前)（页面不存在）">动物学史 (1859年之前)</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_zoology_(through_1859)" class="extiw" title="en:History of zoology (through 1859)">History of zoology (through 1859)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2_(1859%E5%B9%B4%E4%B9%8B%E5%90%8E)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="动物学史 (1859年之后)（页面不存在）">动物学史 (1859年之后)</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_zoology_(since_1859)" class="extiw" title="en:History of zoology (since 1859)">History of zoology (since 1859)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物分类学史（页面不存在）">植物分类学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" class="extiw" title="en:History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="古生物学史（页面不存在）">古生物学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology" class="extiw" title="en:History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="生态学史（页面不存在）">生态学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ecology" class="extiw" title="en:History of ecology">History of ecology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="模式生物史（页面不存在）">模式生物史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" class="extiw" title="en:History of model organisms">History of model organisms</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="藻类学史（页面不存在）">藻类学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_phycology" class="extiw" title="en:History of phycology">History of phycology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="遗传学史（页面不存在）">遗传学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_genetics" class="extiw" title="en:History of genetics">History of genetics</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="生物化学的历史">生物化学的历史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="分子生物學史">分子生物學史</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RNA生物学史（页面不存在）">RNA生物学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" class="extiw" title="en:History of RNA biology">History of RNA biology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="分子演化学史（页面不存在）">分子演化学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" class="extiw" title="en:History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="免疫学史（页面不存在）">免疫学史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" class="extiw" title="en:Timeline of immunology">Timeline of immunology</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="生物技术史（页面不存在）">生物技术史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" class="extiw" title="en:History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a>）</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #90EE90;;width:1%">主領域</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="生物化学">生物化学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学">分子生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="结构生物学">结构生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="糖生物学">糖生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B4%A8%E7%BB%84%E5%AD%A6" title="蛋白质组学">蛋白质组学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84%E5%AD%B8" title="基因組學">基因組學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%84%82%E7%B1%BB%E7%BB%84%E5%AD%A6" title="脂类组学">脂类组学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E8%B0%A2%E7%89%A9%E7%BB%84%E5%AD%A6" title="代谢物组学">代谢物组学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="系统生物学">系统生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="细胞生物学">细胞生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生理学">生理学</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="植物生理學">植物生理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生理学">動物生理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E4%BD%93%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="人体生理学">人体生理学</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%A6" title="生物信息学">生物資訊學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E5%AD%A6" title="免疫学">免疫学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="時間生物學">時間生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E7%99%BC%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="演化發育生物學">演化發育生物學</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="演化生物学">演化生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="发育生物学">发育生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="分子遺傳學">分子遺傳學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9A%E8%83%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="胚胎学">胚胎学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="古生物学">古生物学</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%A6" title="解剖学">解剖学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="遗传学">遗传学</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0%E5%AD%A6" title="细胞遗传学">细胞遗传学</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E8%A7%80%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="表觀遺傳學">表觀遺傳學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="神经科学">神经科学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E5%AD%A6" title="组织学">组织学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%AD%B8" title="生物統計學">生物統計學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学">生物分类学</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">植物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="动物学">动物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%AD%B8" title="真菌學">真菌學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="微生物学">微生物学</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92%E5%AD%A6" title="病毒学">病毒学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F%E8%99%AB%E5%AD%A6" title="寄生虫学">寄生虫学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="生态学">生态学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="海洋生物学">海洋生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="天體生物學">天體生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%97%85%E5%AD%A6" title="流行病学">流行病学</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #90EE90;;width:1%">跨領域</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E7%90%86%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="數理生物學">數理生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物物理学">生物物理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="生物力学">生物力学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="量子生物学">量子生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="化學生物學">化學生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%88%E6%88%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="合成生物学">合成生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="生物地理学">生物地理学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="保育生物學">保育生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8E%E6%B8%A9%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="低温生物学">低温生物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="繁殖">繁殖</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96%E6%96%B9%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="生物繁殖方式（页面不存在）">生物繁殖方式</a>（維基數據所列：<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130077803" class="extiw" title="d:Q130077803">Q130077803</a>）</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #90EE90;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="分类" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:生物学">分類</a></li> <li><img alt="主题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:生物学">主題</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">共享资源</a></li> <li><img alt="专题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/WikiProject:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="WikiProject:生物學">專題</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="园艺" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="Template:園藝"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="Template talk:園藝"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:園藝"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="园艺" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%AD%E8%89%BA" title="园艺">园艺</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%AD%E8%89%BA" title="园艺">园艺</a>概要</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="園藝歷史（页面不存在）">歷史</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_gardening" class="extiw" title="en:History of gardening">History of gardening</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97%E8%AE%BE%E8%AE%A1" title="园林设计">設計</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E8%BC%94%E5%8A%A9%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D%E8%A8%AD%E8%A8%88&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="電腦輔助園藝設計（页面不存在）">電腦輔助</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_garden_design" class="extiw" title="en:Computer-aided garden design">Computer-aided garden design</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7" title="園藝工具">園林工具</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%A0%E8%89%B2%E6%A4%8D%E7%94%9F%E7%89%86" title="綠色植生牆">綠牆</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E5%8C%BA%E5%86%9C%E5%9C%83" title="社区农圃">社区农圃</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AB%E5%AE%A4" title="溫室">溫室</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A4%BE%E5%8C%BA%E8%8A%B1%E5%9B%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="社区花园（页面不存在）">社区花园</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_gardening" class="extiw" title="en:Community gardening">Community gardening</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E6%99%AF%E8%A7%80" title="自然景觀">景觀</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E5%A3%87%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花壇園（页面不存在）">花壇</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parterre" class="extiw" title="en:Parterre">Parterre</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%AD%E5%9C%B0%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9" title="园地栽培">园地栽培</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%9E%B6%E5%BA%8A%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="高架床園藝">高架床園藝</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:RegaderaMetalica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RegaderaMetalica.jpg/100px-RegaderaMetalica.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RegaderaMetalica.jpg/150px-RegaderaMetalica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RegaderaMetalica.jpg/200px-RegaderaMetalica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">園藝類別</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E5%8C%BA%E5%86%9C%E5%9C%83" title="社区农圃">社區園藝</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%AE%E6%9E%97%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="森林園藝">森林園藝</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9B%86%E7%B4%84%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="集約園藝（页面不存在）">集約園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_intensive_gardening" class="extiw" title="en:French intensive gardening">French intensive gardening</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A1%97%E9%A0%AD%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="街頭園藝（页面不存在）">街頭園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_gardening" class="extiw" title="en:Guerrilla gardening">Guerrilla gardening</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%9E%B6%E5%BA%8A%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="高架床園藝">高床園藝</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%80%E7%B1%B3%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="一米園藝（页面不存在）">一米園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_foot_gardening" class="extiw" title="en:Square foot gardening">Square foot gardening</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%B8%E7%BA%8C%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="永續園藝（页面不存在）">永續園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_gardening" class="extiw" title="en:Sustainable gardening">Sustainable gardening</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%81%E6%B0%B4%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92" title="省水花園">省水花園</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%92%E6%9E%97%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="園林列表（页面不存在）">園林</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_garden_types" class="extiw" title="en:List of garden types">List of garden types</a>）<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97%E7%B1%BB%E5%88%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="园林类别（页面不存在）">類別</a>（維基數據所列：<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q96338860" class="extiw" title="d:Q96338860">Q96338860</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="實用或小型園林" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">實用或 小型園林</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%92%E6%9E%97" title="園林">庭園</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%89%8D%E9%99%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="前院（页面不存在）">前院</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_yard" class="extiw" title="en:Front yard">Front yard</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%8C%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="後花園（页面不存在）">後花園</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Back garden">Back garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E9%99%A2" title="後院">後院</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E8%8F%9C%E5%9C%92" title="果菜園">家庭菜園</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E5%9C%92" title="果園">果園</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E5%9B%AD" title="葡萄园">葡萄园</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%92" title="植物園">植物園</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%95%A8%E9%A1%9E%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="蕨類庭園（页面不存在）">蕨類</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernery" class="extiw" title="en:Fernery">Fernery</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="實驗花園（页面不存在）">實驗</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Trial garden">Trial garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%86%B1%E5%B8%B6%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="熱帶花園（页面不存在）">熱帶</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Tropical garden">Tropical garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92" title="水庭園">水生</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8E%E7%94%9F%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="野生園（页面不存在）">野生</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Wildlife garden">Wildlife garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%8E%8C%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92" title="仙人掌花園">仙人掌</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E5%8D%89%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花卉庭園（页面不存在）">花園</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Flower garden">Flower garden</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8E%AB%E7%91%B0%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="玫瑰花園（页面不存在）">玫瑰</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Rose garden">Rose garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%9B%86%E6%A0%BD%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="盆栽花園（页面不存在）">盆栽</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Container garden">Container garden</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%92" title="動物園">動物園</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%9D%B4%E8%9D%B6%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="蝴蝶園（页面不存在）">蝴蝶園</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_zoo" class="extiw" title="en:Butterfly zoo">Butterfly zoo</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%91%E8%88%8D%E8%8A%B1%E5%9B%AD" title="村舍花园">村舍</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%8D%E7%89%86%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92_(%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="圍牆花園 (園藝)（页面不存在）">圍牆</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walled_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Walled garden">Walled garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%8B%E9%A0%82%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92" title="屋頂花園">屋頂花園</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%A8%E6%B0%B4%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92" title="雨水花園">雨水</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%94%AD%E8%94%BD%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="蔭蔽花園（页面不存在）">蔭蔽</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shade_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Shade garden">Shade garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%9C%E5%88%A9%E8%8A%B1%E5%9B%AD" title="胜利花园">勝利</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%82%E5%A0%B4%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92%EF%BC%88%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%EF%BC%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="市場花園（庭園）（页面不存在）">市場</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Market garden">Market garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E5%8D%97%E5%B8%95%E5%A2%BE%E7%94%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="奇南帕墾田">奇南帕</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%84%9F%E5%AE%98%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="感官花園（页面不存在）">感官</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Sensory garden">Sensory garden</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%99%82%E7%99%92%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="療癒花園（页面不存在）">療癒</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Therapeutic garden">Therapeutic garden</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%86%AC%E6%99%AF%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="冬景花園（页面不存在）">冬景</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Winter garden">Winter garden</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">綠色雕 塑園林</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B5%90%E7%B4%8B%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="結紋庭園（页面不存在）">結紋</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knot_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Knot garden">Knot garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%B7%E8%B7%AF%E5%9C%92" title="迷路園">迷園</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E5%A3%87%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花壇園（页面不存在）">花壇園</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parterre" class="extiw" title="en:Parterre">Parterre</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">主題或 大型園林</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%81%96%E7%B6%93%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="聖經花園（页面不存在）">聖經</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Biblical garden">Biblical garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%81%96%E6%AF%8D%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="聖母花園（页面不存在）">聖母</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Mary garden">Mary garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%81%96%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="聖園（页面不存在）">聖園</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Sacred garden">Sacred garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8C%E8%89%B2%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="同色花園（页面不存在）">同色</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Color garden">Color garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%BA%E4%B8%AD%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92%EF%BC%88%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%EF%BC%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="空中花園（庭園）（页面不存在）">空中</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging_garden_(cultivation)" class="extiw" title="en:Hanging garden (cultivation)">Hanging garden (cultivation)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="哲學花園（页面不存在）">哲學</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Philosophical garden">Philosophical garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="雕塑花園（页面不存在）">雕塑</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Sculpture garden">Sculpture garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%91%E9%96%92%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="休閒花園（页面不存在）">休閒</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Pleasure garden">Pleasure garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%98%E5%9B%AD" title="橘园">橘園</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">建筑风格 </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E4%BA%9A%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东亚园林（页面不存在）">东亚</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%92%E6%9E%97" title="中國園林">中國</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E5%B7%9E%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97" class="mw-redirect" title="苏州园林">江南园林</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%B1%B1%E4%BA%94%E5%9B%AD" title="三山五园">北方园林</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B6%BA%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%92%E6%9E%97" title="嶺南園林">岭南园林</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%B7%9D%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97" title="四川园林">巴蜀园林</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92" title="日本庭園">日本</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%AF%E5%B1%B1%E6%B0%B4" title="枯山水">枯山水</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9E%E6%B8%B8%E5%BC%8F%E5%BA%AD%E5%9B%AD" title="回游式庭园">回游式庭园</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="朝鲜园林（页面不存在）">朝鲜半岛</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Korean garden">Korean garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%A7%E5%BC%8F%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="欧式园林（页面不存在）">欧洲</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E5%BC%8F%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="法式园林（页面不存在）">法國</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B8%E5%9E%8B%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="法國典型庭園（页面不存在）">典型</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_formal_garden" class="extiw" title="en:French formal garden">French formal garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B%E6%99%AF%E8%A7%80%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="法國景觀庭園（页面不存在）">景觀</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_landscape_garden" class="extiw" title="en:French landscape garden">French landscape garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B%E6%96%87%E8%97%9D%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="法國文藝復興時期庭園（页面不存在）">文藝復興</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_of_the_French_Renaissance" class="extiw" title="en:Gardens of the French Renaissance">Gardens of the French Renaissance</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8D%B7%E8%98%AD%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="荷蘭庭園（页面不存在）">荷蘭</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Dutch garden">Dutch garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%BC%8F%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92" title="英式庭園">英國</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%A9%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="義大利庭園（页面不存在）">義大利</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Italian Renaissance garden">Italian Renaissance garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西班牙庭園（页面不存在）">西班牙</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_garden" class="extiw" title="en:Spanish garden">Spanish garden</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="希臘庭園（页面不存在）">希臘</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_gardens" class="extiw" title="en:Greek gardens">Greek gardens</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="羅馬庭園（页面不存在）">羅馬</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_gardens" class="extiw" title="en:Roman gardens">Roman gardens</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="拜占庭庭園（页面不存在）">拜占庭</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_gardens" class="extiw" title="en:Byzantine gardens">Byzantine gardens</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E5%9B%AD%E6%9E%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西亚园林（页面不存在）">西亚</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E6%96%AF%E5%9C%92%E6%9E%97" title="波斯園林">波斯</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%B4%E6%A0%BC%EF%BC%88%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%EF%BC%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="巴格（庭園）（页面不存在）">巴格</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagh_(garden)" class="extiw" title="en:Bagh (garden)">Bagh (garden)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%8F%E8%B5%AB%E5%B7%B4%E6%A0%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="夏赫巴格（页面不存在）">夏巴</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charbagh" class="extiw" title="en:Charbagh">Charbagh</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E5%A0%82%E8%8A%B1%E5%9B%AD" title="天堂花园">天堂</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E5%9C%92%E6%9E%97" title="伊斯蘭園林">伊斯蘭</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8E%AB%E5%8D%A7%E5%84%BF%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="莫卧儿庭園（页面不存在）">莫卧儿</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_gardens" class="extiw" title="en:Mughal gardens">Mughal gardens</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9%E5%93%81%E7%A7%8D" title="栽培品种">栽培植物</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%9C%AC%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="木本植物">木本植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%90%BD%E8%91%89%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="落葉植物">落葉植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E7%BB%BF%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="常绿植物">常绿植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E4%BA%BA%E6%8E%8C" title="仙人掌">仙人掌</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%81%8C%E6%9C%A8" title="灌木">灌木</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E7%81%8C%E6%9C%A8" title="亚灌木">亚灌木</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E5%8D%89%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花卉植物（页面不存在）">花卉植物</a>（德语：<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blume" class="extiw" title="de:Blume">Blume</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E5%B9%B4%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="多年生植物">多年生植物</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%80%E5%B9%B4%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="一年生植物">一年生植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%B9%B4%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="二年生植物">二年生植物</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%82%E8%B5%8F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="观赏植物">观赏植物</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A7%82%E8%B5%8F%E8%8D%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="观赏草（页面不存在）">观赏草</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornamental_grass" class="extiw" title="en:Ornamental grass">Ornamental grass</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%97%A4%E6%9C%AC%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="藤本植物">藤本植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%80%E8%91%89%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="觀葉植物">觀葉植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%91%E6%9C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="树木">树木</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%86%E6%A0%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="盆栽">盆栽</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%82%89%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="多肉植物">多肉植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B1%E7%94%9F%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="旱生植物">旱生植物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A6%86%E5%9C%9F%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9" title="覆土作物">覆土作物</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%AD%E8%89%BA" title="园艺">園藝學</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E4%B8%9A" title="农业">农业</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E6%8C%81%E7%BA%8C%E6%80%A7" title="可持續性">永續</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E6%80%A7%E5%9F%BA%E8%B3%AA%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="非動物性基質農業（页面不存在）">非動物</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stock-free" class="extiw" title="en:stock-free">stock-free</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%B4%E7%94%9F%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伴生栽培（页面不存在）">伴生</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companion_planting" class="extiw" title="en:Companion planting">Companion planting</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%B4%E7%94%9F%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="水生栽培（页面不存在）">水耕</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroculture" class="extiw" title="en:Hydroculture">Hydroculture</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%96%93%E4%BD%9C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="間作（页面不存在）">間作</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercropping" class="extiw" title="en:Intercropping">Intercropping</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8E%A1%E5%BE%8C%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="採後生理學（页面不存在）">收穫</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postharvest_physiology#Postharvest_Physiology" class="extiw" title="en:Postharvest physiology">Postharvest_physiology#Postharvest_Physiology</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9" title="农作物">農作物</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%BE%B2%E4%BD%9C%E7%89%A9%E7%94%A2%E5%80%BC%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="世界農作物產值列表（页面不存在）">產值</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_valuable_crops" class="extiw" title="en:List of most valuable crops">List of most valuable crops</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%9C%E6%A8%B9%E5%AD%B8" title="果樹學">果樹學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%94%AC%E8%8F%9C%E5%AD%B8" title="蔬菜學">蔬菜學</a></li> <li>都市 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD" title="都市農業">農業</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="都市園藝（页面不存在）">園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_horticulture" class="extiw" title="en:Urban horticulture">Urban horticulture</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="都市園藝（页面不存在）">林業</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_forestry" class="extiw" title="en:Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%83%BD%E5%B8%82%E7%B6%A0%E5%8C%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="都市綠化（页面不存在）">綠化</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_reforestation" class="extiw" title="en:Urban reforestation">Urban reforestation</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">植物学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E9%85%8D%E7%A8%AE" title="植物配種">育種</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="植物繁殖">繁殖</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%B9%E8%97%9D" title="樹藝">樹藝</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%AA%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="園藝植物誌（页面不存在）">植物誌</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticultural_flora" class="extiw" title="en:Horticultural flora">Horticultural flora</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8A%B1%E5%8D%89%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="花卉園藝（页面不存在）">花卉園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floriculture" class="extiw" title="en:Floriculture">Floriculture</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="民族園藝學（页面不存在）">民族園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_horticulture" class="extiw" title="en:Indigenous horticulture">Indigenous horticulture</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%86%B1%E5%B8%B6%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="熱帶園藝（页面不存在）">熱帶園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_horticulture" class="extiw" title="en:Tropical horticulture">Tropical horticulture</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E6%94%B9%E9%80%A0%E6%9E%97%E6%9C%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="基因改造林木（页面不存在）">基改林木</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" class="extiw" title="en:Genetically modified tree">Genetically modified tree</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AF%E8%A7%80%E8%A8%AD%E8%A8%88" title="景觀設計">景觀設計</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E6%A0%BD%E5%9F%B9" title="葡萄栽培">葡萄栽培</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E9%85%92%E5%B7%A5%E8%89%BA%E5%AD%A6" title="葡萄酒工艺学">葡萄酒工藝學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%9C%BA%E5%9B%AD%E8%89%BA" title="有机园艺">有機園藝</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E8%BE%B2%E6%B3%95" title="生物動力農法">生物動力農法</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%89%E6%A9%9F%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D%E8%88%87%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD%E4%B8%BB%E9%A1%8C%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="有機園藝與農業主題列表（页面不存在）">有機園藝與農業</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_gardening_and_farming_topics" class="extiw" title="en:List of organic gardening and farming topics">List of organic gardening and farming topics</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B4%A0%E9%A3%9F%E6%9C%89%E6%A9%9F%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="素食有機園藝（页面不存在）">素食有機園藝</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegan_organic_gardening" class="extiw" title="en:Vegan organic gardening">Vegan organic gardening</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">植物保護</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%97%85%E5%AE%B3%E9%A0%90%E6%B8%AC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="植物病害預測（页面不存在）">植物病害預測</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_disease_forecasting" class="extiw" title="en:Plant disease forecasting">Plant disease forecasting</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E8%8D%AF" title="农药">农药</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BE%B2%E8%97%A5%E6%A2%9D%E7%9B%AE%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="農藥條目索引（页面不存在）">索引</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles" class="extiw" title="en:Index of pesticide articles">Index of pesticide articles</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%80%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%89%82" title="杀真菌剂">殺真菌劑</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AE%BA%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%8A%91%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="殺真菌劑列表（页面不存在）">列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fungicides" class="extiw" title="en:List of fungicides">List of fungicides</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9B%9C%E8%8D%89%E9%98%B2%E6%B2%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="雜草防治（页面不存在）">雜草防治</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weed_control" class="extiw" title="en:Weed control">Weed control</a>） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%99%A4%E8%8D%89%E5%89%82" title="除草剂">除草剂</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="分类" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="Category:園藝">園藝分类</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Corn_01.JPG/16px-Corn_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Corn_01.JPG/24px-Corn_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Corn_01.JPG/32px-Corn_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%86%9C%E4%B8%9A%E5%92%8C%E5%86%9C%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:农业和农学">農業和農學主題</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/16px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/24px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%9C%92%E8%97%9D" title="Portal:園藝">園藝主題</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Horticulture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Horticulture">共享資源</a></li> <li><img alt="专题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/WikiProject:%E5%9B%AD%E8%89%BA%E5%AD%A6" title="WikiProject:园艺学">園藝學專題</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79005747">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="-&#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&#125;--&#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&#125;-_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="-&#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&#125;--&#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&#125;-_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/Help:%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6" title="Help:规范控制">规范控制数据库</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441#identifiers" title="編輯維基數據鏈接"><img alt="編輯維基數據鏈接" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各地</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525084">西班牙</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119460542">法国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119460542">BnF data</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4007842-5">德国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007283825105171">以色列</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85015976">美国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572140">日本</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114191&CON_LNG=ENG">捷克</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">学术</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vocab.getty.edu/page/aat/300054467">AAT</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008257">瑞士历史词典</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10640470">NARA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">检索自“<a dir="ltr" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=植物学&oldid=85091925">https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=植物学&oldid=85091925</a>”</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="Special:页面分类">分类</a>：<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="Category:植物學">植物學</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%8F%B2" title="Category:自然史">自然史</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%E5%88%86%E6%94%AF" title="Category:生物学分支">生物学分支</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">隐藏分类：<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E6%A2%9D%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:含有拉丁語的條目">含有拉丁語的條目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E6%A2%9D%E7%9B%AE" 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title="Category:CS1英语来源 (en)">CS1英语来源 (en)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90_(en-us)" title="Category:CS1美国英语来源 (en-us)">CS1美国英语来源 (en-us)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%AB%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E4%BA%86%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E5%8C%B9%E9%85%8D%E9%A1%B9" title="Category:维基共享资源分类链接使用了维基数据上的匹配项">维基共享资源分类链接使用了维基数据上的匹配项</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABBNE%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含BNE标识符的维基百科条目">包含BNE标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABBNF%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目">包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-694cf4987f-5j4m9","wgBackendResponseTime":276,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.617","walltime":"4.083","ppvisitednodes":{"value":22927,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1039139,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":14261,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":28,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":246,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":220114,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":5,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3216.877 1 -total"," 17.14% 551.212 225 Template:Sfn"," 13.24% 425.856 70 Template:Cite_journal"," 11.50% 369.905 63 Template:Cite_book"," 11.26% 362.143 1 Template:Science"," 10.18% 327.481 148 Template:Le"," 7.11% 228.728 3 Template:Sidebar"," 7.04% 226.628 2 Template:Navbox"," 5.46% 175.593 1 Template:園藝"," 4.87% 156.749 24 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[\"CITEREFCapon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalier-Smith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaffey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman_et_al.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChase_et_al.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiniFonsecaFernándezAdie2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCocking1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConeVedova2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopeland1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostaShaw2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCousensMortimer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDallal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwin1880\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemoleLedererMercier1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevosGale2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrhardtFrommer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEreshefsky1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairon-Demaret1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerroSalviRivière-RollandVermat2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinney1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlorosNewsomeFisher2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrances1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFry1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlynnMiyagishimaYoderOsteryoung2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordhHeadrick2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowikWesthoff2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraySargent1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimeHodgson1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGust1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaberlandt1902\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHancock2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinhorstCannon1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerreraPellmyr2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill1915\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoekMannJahns2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoweBarbrookNisbetLockhart2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanzenForrestSpougeHajibabaei2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJasechkoSharpGibsonBirks2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffreys2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuddCampbellKelloggStevens2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarp2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenrickCrane1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimArchibald2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlemmHeubleinFinkBohn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolattukudy1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKressWurdackZimmerWeigt2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhnleinTurner1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeCibrian-JaramilloKolokotronisKatari2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonelliCharnleyWebbBastow2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLepp2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevey1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisMcCourt2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLilburnHarrisonColeGarrity2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinZhongGrierson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLunn2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLópez-BautistaWatersChapman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLüttge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMann1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMauseth2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMauseth2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCutcheonEllisHancockTowers1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeillBarrieBuckDemoulin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedbury1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMissouri_Botanical_Garden2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMithilaHallVictorSaxena2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgensen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorton1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Museum_of_Wales2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Science_Foundation1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamLuHuang1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNobel1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOberlies1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnline_Etymology_Dictionary2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrigin_of_Land_Plants\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadmanabhanDinesh-Kumar2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanaino2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlant_Hormones2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorleyHodgetts2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossinghamRose1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProctorYeo1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavenEvertEichhorn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReed1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReik2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRennerRicklefs1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochaixGoldschmidt-ClermontMerchant1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoux1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoyal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussinEvertVanderveerSharkey1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSattler1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSattlerJeune1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavidan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharf2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharlemannLaurance2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchellVan_Montagu1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchnurrShockeyDe_BoerBrowse2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoening2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilyn-Roberts2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmall2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSobotkaSákováCurn2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpector2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpragueSprague1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStace2010a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStace2010b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarr2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewartRothwell1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoverSimmonds1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSumner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSunForouharLi_HmTu2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSussex2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaizZeiger2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakaichi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTansley1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorTaylorKrings2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeachEthnobotany2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Plant_List\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompsonFry2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_California-Davis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_Maryland_Medical_Center2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaggoner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWashington_Post2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWentThimann1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillis1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoese_et_al.1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYanivBachrach2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYatesMather1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZoharyHopf2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Candolle2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF中国科学院植物研究所\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF北京市园林学校1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF吴增华侯学良2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF周云龙2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF马炜梁2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"-\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Char\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 63,\n [\"Cite dictionary\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 70,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 24,\n [\"Clade\"] = 3,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"Dmoz\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang-de\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang-en\"] = 7,\n [\"Lang-la\"] = 3,\n [\"Le\"] = 86,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Main articles\"] = 3,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"NoteTA\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"ReflistF\"] = 1,\n [\"ReflistH\"] = 1,\n [\"Science\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 225,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 19,\n [\"Tsl\"] = 1,\n [\"Wayback\"] = 3,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"園藝\"] = 1,\n [\"植物学\"] = 1,\n [\"生物学\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","460","20.4"],["?","400","17.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","260","11.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpensiveData","120","5.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","4.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","3.5"],["(for 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