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id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Melting_and_boiling_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melting_and_boiling_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Melting and boiling properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Melting_and_boiling_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solubility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solubility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Solubility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solubility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid_state_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid_state_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Solid state properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid_state_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Nomenclature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nomenclature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nomenclature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structural_drawings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_drawings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Structural drawings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_drawings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_organic_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_organic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Classification of organic compounds</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_of_organic_compounds-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification of organic compounds subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_organic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Functional_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Functional groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aliphatic_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aliphatic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Aliphatic compounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aliphatic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aromatic_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aromatic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Aromatic compounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aromatic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heterocyclic_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heterocyclic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Heterocyclic compounds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heterocyclic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Polymers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biomolecules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biomolecules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Biomolecules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biomolecules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Small_molecules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small_molecules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Small molecules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small_molecules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fullerenes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fullerenes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Fullerenes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fullerenes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Organic reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Organic synthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Organic chemistry</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" 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Available in 128 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-128" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">128 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organiese_chemie" title="Organiese chemie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Organiese chemie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organische_Chemie" title="Organische Chemie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Organische Chemie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="कार्बनिक रसायन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="कार्बनिक रसायन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C5%8Dles_gesceaftcr%C3%A6ft" title="Cōles gesceaftcræft – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Cōles gesceaftcræft" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%B9%D8%B6%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كيمياء عضوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كيمياء عضوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimica_organica" title="Quimica organica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Quimica organica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%88%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="জৈৱিক ৰসায়ন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জৈৱিক ৰসায়ন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_org%C3%A1nica" title="Química orgánica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Química orgánica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Czvi_kimya" title="Üzvi kimya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Üzvi kimya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="اورقانیک شیمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اورقانیک شیمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="জৈব রসায়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জৈব রসায়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%BA-ki_h%C3%B2a-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Iú-ki hòa-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iú-ki hòa-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Органик химия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Органик химия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Арганічная хімія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арганічная хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Арганічная хімія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Арганічная хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organikong_kimika" title="Organikong kimika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Organikong kimika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Органична химия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Органична химия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organische_Chemie" title="Organische Chemie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Organische Chemie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organska_hemija" title="Organska hemija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Organska hemija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_org%C3%A0nica" title="Química orgànica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Química orgànica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Органикăлла хими – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Органикăлла хими" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organick%C3%A1_chemie" title="Organická chemie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Organická chemie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemeg_organig" title="Cemeg organig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cemeg organig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisk_kemi" title="Organisk kemi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Organisk kemi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Org%C3%A1nala%C5%A1_kemiija" title="Orgánalaš kemiija – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Orgánalaš kemiija" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organische_Chemie" title="Organische Chemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Organische Chemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organiska_chemija" title="Organiska chemija – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Organiska chemija" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgaaniline_keemia" title="Orgaaniline keemia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Orgaaniline keemia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Οργανική χημεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οργανική χημεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_org%C3%A1nica" title="Química orgánica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Química orgánica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organika_kemio" title="Organika kemio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Organika kemio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika_organiko" title="Kimika organiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kimika organiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%84%DB%8C" title="شیمی آلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شیمی آلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Organic chemistry" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADvrunnin_evnafr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Lívrunnin evnafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Lívrunnin evnafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie_organique" title="Chimie organique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chimie organique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimiche_organiche" title="Chimiche organiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Chimiche organiche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceimic_org%C3%A1nach" title="Ceimic orgánach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceimic orgánach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceimigeachd_fh%C3%A0s-bheairteach" title="Ceimigeachd fhàs-bheairteach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ceimigeachd fhàs-bheairteach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_org%C3%A1nica" title="Química orgánica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Química orgánica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EA%B8%B0%ED%99%94%ED%95%99" title="유기화학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유기화학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Organic chemistry" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Օրգանական քիմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օրգանական քիմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="कार्बनिक रसायन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्बनिक रसायन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organska_kemija" title="Organska kemija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Organska kemija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organika_kemio" title="Organika kemio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Organika kemio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_organik" title="Kimia organik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kimia organik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimia_organic" title="Chimia organic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Chimia organic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADfr%C3%A6n_efnafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Lífræn efnafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lífræn efnafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica_organica" title="Chimica organica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chimica organica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="כימיה אורגנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כימיה אורגנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_organik" title="Kimia organik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kimia organik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kp%C9%9Bl%C9%A9kp%C9%9Bl%C9%A9_%C9%9By%C9%94l%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Kpɛlɩkpɛlɩ ɛyɔlɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kpɛlɩkpɛlɩ ɛyɔlɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಇಂಗಾಲೀಯ ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇಂಗಾಲೀಯ ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ორგანული ქიმია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ორგანული ქიმია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Органикалық химия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Органикалық химия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemia_kaboni" title="Kemia kaboni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kemia kaboni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimi_%C3%B2ganik" title="Chimi òganik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Chimi òganik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimi_organik" title="Chimi organik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Chimi organik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Органикалык химия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Органикалык химия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia_organica" title="Chemia organica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chemia organica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisk%C4%81_%C4%B7%C4%ABmija" title="Organiskā ķīmija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Organiskā ķīmija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organesch_Chimie" title="Organesch Chimie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Organesch Chimie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organin%C4%97_chemija" title="Organinė chemija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Organinė chemija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica_urganiga" title="Chimica urganiga – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Chimica urganiga" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szerves_k%C3%A9mia" title="Szerves kémia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szerves kémia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Органска хемија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Органска хемија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="കാർബണിക രസതന്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാർബണിക രസതന്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika_organika" title="Kimika organika – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Kimika organika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="कार्बनी रसायनशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कार्बनी रसायनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ორგანული ქიმია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ორგანული ქიმია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%B9%D8%B6%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="كيميا عضويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كيميا عضويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="اورگنیک کیمیا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="اورگنیک کیمیا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_organik" title="Kimia organik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kimia organik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Органик хими – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Органик хими" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A9%E1%80%82%E1%80%B2%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဩဂဲနစ် ဓာတုဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဩဂဲနစ် ဓာတုဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organische_chemie" title="Organische chemie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Organische chemie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%A9%9F%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="有機化学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="有機化学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Органикан хими – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Органикан хими" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgaanisk_chemii" title="Orgaanisk chemii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Orgaanisk chemii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisk_kjemi" title="Organisk kjemi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Organisk kjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisk_kjemi" title="Organisk kjemi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Organisk kjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organi_kemie" title="Organi kemie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Organi kemie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimia_organica" title="Quimia organica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Quimia organica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organik_kimyo" title="Organik kimyo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Organik kimyo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A3_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਕਾਰਬਨੀ ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਾਰਬਨੀ ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%A9_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="آرگینک کیمسٹری – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="آرگینک کیمسٹری" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aagianik_kimischri" title="Aagianik kimischri – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Aagianik kimischri" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgaansch_Chemie" title="Orgaansch Chemie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Orgaansch Chemie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia_organiczna" title="Chemia organiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chemia organiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_org%C3%A2nica" title="Química orgânica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Química orgânica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie_organic%C4%83" title="Chimie organică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Chimie organică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D2%91%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Орґанічна хемія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Орґанічна хемія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Органическая химия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Органическая химия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Органикалаах химия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Органикалаах химия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Organic chemistry" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_organike" title="Kimia organike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kimia organike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACmica_urg%C3%A0nica" title="Chìmica urgànica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Chìmica urgànica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="කාබනික රසායනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කාබනික රසායනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Organic chemistry" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A_%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="نامياتي ڪيميا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نامياتي ڪيميا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organick%C3%A1_ch%C3%A9mia" title="Organická chémia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Organická chémia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organska_kemija" title="Organska kemija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Organska kemija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="کیمیای ئەندامی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کیمیای ئەندامی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Органска хемија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Органска хемија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organska_hemija" title="Organska hemija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Organska hemija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_organik" title="Kimia organik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kimia organik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgaaninen_kemia" title="Orgaaninen kemia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Orgaaninen kemia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisk_kemi" title="Organisk kemi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Organisk kemi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimikang_organiko" title="Kimikang organiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kimikang organiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கரிம வேதியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கரிம வேதியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takrura_tagmant" title="Takrura tagmant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Takrura tagmant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Органик химия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Органик химия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C" title="เคมีอินทรีย์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เคมีอินทรีย์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organik_kimya" title="Organik kimya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Organik kimya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Органічна хімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Органічна хімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="نامیاتی کیمیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نامیاتی کیمیا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89%D9%83_%D8%AE%D9%89%D9%85%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="ئورگانىك خىمىيە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئورگانىك خىمىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organine_himii" title="Organine himii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Organine himii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3a_h%E1%BB%AFu_c%C6%A1" title="Hóa hữu cơ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hóa hữu cơ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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style="height:117px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:5-alpha-dihydroprogesterone.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/5-alpha-dihydroprogesterone.png/150px-5-alpha-dihydroprogesterone.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/5-alpha-dihydroprogesterone.png/225px-5-alpha-dihydroprogesterone.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/5-alpha-dihydroprogesterone.png/300px-5-alpha-dihydroprogesterone.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="697" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Line-angle representation</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:174px;max-width:174px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:117px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_ball.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_ball.png/172px-5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_ball.png" decoding="async" width="172" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_ball.png/258px-5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_ball.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_ball.png/344px-5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_ball.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1362" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Ball-and-stick representation</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:161px;max-width:161px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:117px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_spacefill.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_spacefill.png/159px-5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_spacefill.png" decoding="async" width="159" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_spacefill.png/239px-5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_spacefill.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_spacefill.png/318px-5alpha-Dihydroprogesterone_3D_spacefill.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1477" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Space-filling representation</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Three representations of an organic compound, <a href="/wiki/5%CE%B1-Dihydroprogesterone" title="5α-Dihydroprogesterone">5α-Dihydroprogesterone</a> (5α-DHP), a <a href="/wiki/Steroid_hormone" title="Steroid hormone">steroid hormone</a>. For molecules showing color, the carbon atoms are in black, hydrogens in gray, and oxygens in red. 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #A2B8BF"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:175%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gnome-applications-science.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/100px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/150px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/200px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="padding:0 0 0.8em;"><b>The science of matter</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em; display:block; background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles" title="Index of chemistry articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" title="Outline of chemistry">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)"> Phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond"> Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">Acid–base reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">Redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">Chemical equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_law" title="Chemical law">Chemical law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">Chemist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_chemists" title="List of chemists">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards" title="List of chemistry awards">List of chemistry awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals" title="List of chemistry journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry" title="List of unsolved problems in chemistry">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/16px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/24px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/32px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Chemistry portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Chemistry" title="Category:Chemistry">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Organic chemistry</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Subdiscipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Subdiscipline">subdiscipline</a> within <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> involving the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> study of the structure, properties, and reactions of <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic materials</a>, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> in its various forms that contain <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Study of structure determines their <a href="/wiki/Structural_formula" title="Structural formula">structural formula</a>. Study of properties includes <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical properties</a>, and evaluation of <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">chemical reactivity</a> to understand their behavior. The study of <a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">organic reactions</a> includes the <a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">chemical synthesis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Natural_product" title="Natural product">natural products</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>, and study of individual organic <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> in the laboratory and via theoretical (<a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a>) study. </p><p>The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry includes <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> (compounds containing only <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>) as well as compounds based on carbon, but also containing other elements,<sup id="cite_ref-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> (included in many <a href="/wiki/Biochemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemicals">biochemicals</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>. <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> is the study of compounds containing carbon–<a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> bonds. </p><p>In addition, contemporary research focuses on organic chemistry involving other <a href="/wiki/Organometallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Organometallic">organometallics</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanides</a>, but especially the <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metals</a> zinc, copper, <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a>, nickel, cobalt, titanium and chromium. </p><p>Organic compounds form the basis of all <a href="/wiki/Carbon-based_life" title="Carbon-based life">earthly life</a> and constitute the majority of known chemicals. The bonding patterns of carbon, with its <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">valence</a> of four—formal single, double, and triple bonds, plus structures with <a href="/wiki/Delocalized_electron" title="Delocalized electron">delocalized electrons</a>—make the array of organic compounds structurally diverse, and their range of applications enormous. They form the basis of, or are constituents of, many commercial products including <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">pharmaceuticals</a>; <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemicals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agrichemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrichemical">agrichemicals</a>, and products made from them including <a href="/wiki/Lubricants" class="mw-redirect" title="Lubricants">lubricants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solvents" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvents">solvents</a>; <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuels">fuels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Explosive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive material">explosives</a>. The study of organic chemistry overlaps <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, but also with <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">medicinal chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">polymer chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Educational_aspects">Educational aspects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Educational aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Organic chemistry is typically taught at the college or university level.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is considered a very challenging course, but has also been made accessible to students.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_woehler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Friedrich_woehler.jpg/170px-Friedrich_woehler.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Friedrich_woehler.jpg/255px-Friedrich_woehler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Friedrich_woehler.jpg/340px-Friedrich_woehler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemists</a> generally believed that <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> obtained from living organisms were endowed with a vital force that distinguished them from <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic compounds</a>. According to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a> (vital force theory), organic matter was endowed with a "vital force".<sup id="cite_ref-G%E_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-G%E-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 <a href="/wiki/Michel_Eug%C3%A8ne_Chevreul" title="Michel Eugène Chevreul">Michel Chevreul</a> started a study of <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soaps</a> made from various <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkalis</a>. He separated the acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without "vital force". In 1828 <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> produced the <i>organic</i> chemical <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> (carbamide), a constituent of <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>, from <i>inorganic</i> starting materials (the salts <a href="/wiki/Potassium_cyanate" title="Potassium cyanate">potassium cyanate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_sulfate" title="Ammonium sulfate">ammonium sulfate</a>), in what is now called the <a href="/wiki/W%C3%B6hler_synthesis" title="Wöhler synthesis">Wöhler synthesis</a>. Although Wöhler himself was cautious about claiming he had disproved vitalism, this was the first time a substance thought to be organic was synthesized in the laboratory without biological (organic) starting materials. The event is now generally accepted as indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Wöhler, <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> worked on the organization of organic chemistry, being considered one of its principal founders.<sup id="cite_ref-RoyalSocietyObit_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RoyalSocietyObit-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1856, <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Henry_Perkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William Henry Perkin">William Henry Perkin</a>, while trying to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a>, accidentally produced the organic <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dye</a> now known as <a href="/wiki/Perkin%27s_mauve" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkin's mauve">Perkin's mauve</a>. His discovery, made widely known through its financial success, greatly increased interest in organic chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently in 1858 by both <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_Kekul%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich August Kekulé">Friedrich August Kekulé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Scott_Couper" title="Archibald Scott Couper">Archibald Scott Couper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KekuleCHF_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KekuleCHF-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both researchers suggested that <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">tetravalent</a> carbon atoms could link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The era of the <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceutical</a> industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when the German company, <a href="/wiki/Bayer" title="Bayer">Bayer</a>, first manufactured acetylsalicylic acid—more commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1910 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> and his laboratory group began developing arsenic-based <a href="/wiki/Arsphenamine" title="Arsphenamine">arsphenamine</a>, (Salvarsan), as the first effective medicinal treatment of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, and thereby initiated the medical practice of <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>. Ehrlich popularized the concepts of "magic bullet" drugs and of systematically improving drug therapies.<sup id="cite_ref-BoschRosich_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoschRosich-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His laboratory made decisive contributions to developing antiserum for <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a> and standardizing therapeutic serums.<sup id="cite_ref-CHF_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHF-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grubbs-1G-from-xtal-2010-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Grubbs-1G-from-xtal-2010-3D-balls.png/220px-Grubbs-1G-from-xtal-2010-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Grubbs-1G-from-xtal-2010-3D-balls.png/330px-Grubbs-1G-from-xtal-2010-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Grubbs-1G-from-xtal-2010-3D-balls.png/440px-Grubbs-1G-from-xtal-2010-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1812" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>An example of an organometallic molecule, a catalyst called <a href="/wiki/Grubbs%27_catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Grubbs' catalyst">Grubbs' catalyst</a>. Its formula is often given as RuCl<sub>2</sub>(PCy<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>(=CHPh), where the ball-and-stick model is based on <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The single metal atom ruthenium (Ru), (in turquoise), is at the very center of the structure; two chlorines (green), are bonded to the ruthenium atom—carbon atoms are black, hydrogens gray-white, and phosphorus orange. A phosphorus-<a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligand</a> bond, tricyclohexyl <a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">phosphine</a>, PCy, is below center; (another PCy ligand appears at the top of the image where its rings are obscuring one another). The ring group projecting to the right, an <a href="/wiki/Alkylidene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkylidene">alkylidene</a>, contains a metal-carbon double bond to ruthenium.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early examples of organic reactions and applications were often found because of a combination of luck and preparation for unexpected observations. The latter half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic compounds. The development of synthetic indigo is illustrative. The production of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by 1914 thanks to the synthetic methods developed by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Baeyer" title="Adolf von Baeyer">Adolf von Baeyer</a>. In 2002, 17,000 tons of synthetic indigo were produced from <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemicals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ullmann_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ullmann-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early part of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> were shown to be large organic molecules, and petroleum was shown to be of biological origin. </p><p>The multiple-step synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total synthesis. <a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> of complex natural compounds increased in complexity to <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terpineol" title="Terpineol">terpineol</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>-related compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex <a href="/wiki/List_of_human_hormones" title="List of human hormones">human hormones</a> and their modified derivatives. Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as <a href="/wiki/Lysergic_acid" title="Lysergic acid">lysergic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">vitamin B<sub>12</sub></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyanocobalamin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cyanocobalamin.svg/230px-Cyanocobalamin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cyanocobalamin.svg/345px-Cyanocobalamin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Cyanocobalamin.svg/460px-Cyanocobalamin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">total synthesis</a> of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> marked a major achievement in organic chemistry.</figcaption></figure> <p>The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> and the development of the <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical_industry" title="Petrochemical industry">petrochemical industry</a> spurred the development of organic chemistry. Converting individual petroleum compounds into <i>types</i> of compounds by various chemical processes led to <a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">organic reactions</a> enabling a broad range of industrial and commercial products including, among (many) others: <a href="/wiki/Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">plastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">synthetic rubber</a>, organic <a href="/wiki/Adhesives" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhesives">adhesives</a>, and various property-modifying petroleum additives and <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalysts</a>. </p><p>The majority of chemical compounds occurring in biological organisms are carbon compounds, so the association between organic chemistry and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> is so close that biochemistry might be regarded as in essence a branch of organic chemistry. Although the <a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">history of biochemistry</a> might be taken to span some four centuries, fundamental understanding of the field only began to develop in the late 19th century and the actual term <i>biochemistry</i> was coined around the start of 20th century. Research in the field increased throughout the twentieth century, without any indication of slackening in the rate of increase, as may be verified by inspection of abstraction and indexing services such as <a href="/wiki/BIOSIS_Previews" title="BIOSIS Previews">BIOSIS Previews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_Abstracts" title="Biological Abstracts">Biological Abstracts</a>, which began in the 1920s as a single annual volume, but has grown so drastically that by the end of the 20th century it was only available to the everyday user as an online electronic <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characterization">Characterization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Characterization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since organic compounds often exist as <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixtures</a>, a variety of techniques have also been developed to assess purity; <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a> techniques are especially important for this application, and include <a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">gas chromatography</a>. Traditional methods of separation include <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_separation" title="Magnetic separation">magnetic separation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solvent_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvent extraction">solvent extraction</a>. </p><p>Organic compounds were traditionally characterized by a variety of chemical tests, called "wet methods", but such tests have been largely displaced by spectroscopic or other computer-intensive methods of analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Listed in approximate order of utility, the chief analytical methods are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy</a> is the most commonly used technique, often permitting the complete assignment of atom connectivity and even stereochemistry using <a href="/wiki/Correlation_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation spectroscopy">correlation spectroscopy</a>. The principal constituent atoms of organic chemistry – hydrogen and carbon – exist naturally with NMR-responsive isotopes, respectively <sup>1</sup>H and <sup>13</sup>C.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a>: A destructive method used to determine the elemental composition of a molecule. See also mass spectrometry, below.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> indicates the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a> of a compound and, from the <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrum_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrum analysis">fragmentation patterns</a>, its structure. High-resolution mass spectrometry can usually identify the exact formula of a compound and is used in place of elemental analysis. In former times, mass spectrometry was restricted to neutral molecules exhibiting some volatility, but advanced ionization techniques allow one to obtain the "mass spec" of virtually any organic compound.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a> can be useful for determining <a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">molecular geometry</a> when a single crystal of the material is available. Highly efficient hardware and software allows a structure to be determined within hours of obtaining a suitable crystal.</li></ul> <p>Traditional spectroscopic methods such as <a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">infrared spectroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_rotation" title="Optical rotation">optical rotation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/UV/VIS_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="UV/VIS spectroscopy">UV/VIS spectroscopy</a> provide relatively nonspecific structural information but remain in use for specific applications. Refractive index and density can also be important for substance identification. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The physical properties of organic compounds typically of interest include both quantitative and qualitative features. Quantitative information includes a melting point, boiling point, solubility, and index of refraction. Qualitative properties include odor, consistency, and color. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melting_and_boiling_properties">Melting and boiling properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Melting and boiling properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Organic compounds typically melt and many boil. In contrast, while inorganic materials generally can be melted, many do not boil, and instead tend to degrade. In earlier times, the melting point (m.p.) and boiling point (b.p.) provided crucial information on the purity and identity of organic compounds. The melting and boiling points correlate with the polarity of the molecules and their molecular weight. Some organic compounds, especially symmetrical ones, <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublime</a>. A well-known example of a sublimable organic compound is <a href="/wiki/Para-dichlorobenzene" class="mw-redirect" title="Para-dichlorobenzene">para-dichlorobenzene</a>, the odiferous constituent of modern mothballs. Organic compounds are usually not very stable at temperatures above 300 °C, although some exceptions exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solubility">Solubility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Solubility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neutral organic compounds tend to be <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a>; that is, they are less <a href="/wiki/Soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble">soluble</a> in water than inorganic solvents. Exceptions include organic compounds that contain <a href="/wiki/Ionizable" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionizable">ionizable</a> groups as well as low <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a> <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">amines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acids</a> where <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonding">hydrogen bonding</a> occurs. Otherwise, organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a>. Solubility varies widely with the organic solute and with the organic solvent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid_state_properties">Solid state properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Solid state properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various specialized properties of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_solid" title="Molecular solid">molecular crystals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">organic polymers</a> with <a href="/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">conjugated systems</a> are of interest depending on applications, e.g. thermo-mechanical and electro-mechanical such as <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectricity" title="Piezoelectricity">piezoelectricity</a>, electrical conductivity (see <a href="/wiki/Conductive_polymer" title="Conductive polymer">conductive polymers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductors</a>), and electro-optical (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Non-linear_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear optics">non-linear optics</a>) properties. For historical reasons, such properties are mainly the subjects of the areas of <a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">polymer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nomenclature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_organic_chemistry" title="IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry">IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OrgNom.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/OrgNom.svg/760px-OrgNom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="760" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/OrgNom.svg/1140px-OrgNom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/OrgNom.svg/1520px-OrgNom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="57" /></a><figcaption> Various names and depictions for one organic compound.</figcaption></figure> <p>The names of organic compounds are either systematic, following logically from a set of rules, or nonsystematic, following various traditions. Systematic nomenclature is stipulated by specifications from <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a> (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). Systematic nomenclature starts with the name for a <a href="/wiki/Parent_structure" title="Parent structure">parent structure</a> within the molecule of interest. This parent name is then modified by prefixes, suffixes, and numbers to unambiguously convey the structure. Given that millions of organic compounds are known, rigorous use of systematic names can be cumbersome. Thus, IUPAC recommendations are more closely followed for simple compounds, but not complex molecules. To use the systematic naming, one must know the structures and names of the parent structures. Parent structures include unsubstituted hydrocarbons, heterocycles, and mono functionalized derivatives thereof. </p><p>Nonsystematic nomenclature is simpler and unambiguous, at least to organic chemists. Nonsystematic names do not indicate the structure of the compound. They are common for complex molecules, which include most natural products. Thus, the informally named <a href="/wiki/Lysergic_acid_diethylamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysergic acid diethylamide">lysergic acid diethylamide</a> is systematically named (6a<i>R</i>,9<i>R</i>)-<i>N</i>,<i>N</i>-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo-[4,3-<i>fg</i>] quinoline-9-carboxamide. </p><p>With the increased use of computing, other naming methods have evolved that are intended to be interpreted by machines. Two popular formats are <a href="/wiki/SMILES" class="mw-redirect" title="SMILES">SMILES</a> and <a href="/wiki/InChI" class="mw-redirect" title="InChI">InChI</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_drawings">Structural drawings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Structural drawings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Organic molecules are described more commonly by drawings or <a href="/wiki/Structural_formula" title="Structural formula">structural formulas</a>, combinations of drawings and chemical symbols. The <a href="/wiki/Bond-line_formula" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond-line formula">line-angle formula</a> is simple and unambiguous. In this system, the endpoints and intersections of each line represent one carbon, and hydrogen atoms can either be notated explicitly or assumed to be present as implied by <a href="/wiki/Tetravalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetravalence">tetravalent</a> carbon. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stuctural_drawings_of_butane_854px.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Structural representations of butane" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Stuctural_drawings_of_butane_854px.jpg/770px-Stuctural_drawings_of_butane_854px.jpg" decoding="async" width="770" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Stuctural_drawings_of_butane_854px.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="854" data-file-height="82" /></a><figcaption>This diagram shows 5 distinct structural representations of the organic compound butane. The left-most structure is a bond-line drawing where the hydrogen atoms are removed. The 2nd structure has the hydrogens added depicted-the dark wedged bonds indicate the hydrogen atoms are coming toward the reader, the hashed bonds indicate the atoms are oriented away from the reader, and the solid (plain) bonds indicate the bonds are in the plane of the screen/paper. The middle structure shows the four carbon atoms. The 4th structure is a representation just showing the atoms and bonds without 3-dimensions. The right-most structure is a condensed structure representation of butane.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1880 an explosion in the number of chemical compounds being discovered occurred assisted by new synthetic and analytical techniques. Grignard described the situation as "chaos le plus complet" (complete chaos) due to the lack of convention it was possible to have multiple names for the same compound. This led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Rules" title="Geneva Rules">Geneva rules</a> in 1892.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_organic_compounds">Classification of organic compounds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classification of organic compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_groups">Functional groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Functional groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acetic_acid_atoms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Acetic_acid_atoms.svg/170px-Acetic_acid_atoms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Acetic_acid_atoms.svg/255px-Acetic_acid_atoms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Acetic_acid_atoms.svg/340px-Acetic_acid_atoms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>The family of <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxylic">carboxylic</a> acids contains a carboxyl (-COOH) <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional group</a>. <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">Acetic acid</a>, shown here, is an example.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">Functional group</a></div> <p>The concept of functional groups is central in organic chemistry, both as a means to classify structures and for predicting properties. A functional group is a molecular module, and the reactivity of that functional group is assumed, within limits, to be the same in a variety of molecules. Functional groups can have a decisive influence on the chemical and physical properties of organic compounds. Molecules are classified based on their functional groups. Alcohols, for example, all have the subunit C-O-H. All alcohols tend to be somewhat <a href="/wiki/Hydrophile" title="Hydrophile">hydrophilic</a>, usually form <a href="/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a>, and usually can be converted to the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Halide" title="Halide">halides</a>. Most functional groups feature heteroatoms (atoms other than C and H). Organic compounds are classified according to functional groups, alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functional groups make the molecule more acidic or basic due to their electronic influence on surrounding parts of the molecule. </p><p>As the <a href="/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant" title="Acid dissociation constant">p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i></a> (aka <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">basicity</a>) of the molecular addition/functional group increases, there is a corresponding <a href="/wiki/Dipole" title="Dipole">dipole</a>, when measured, increases in strength. A dipole directed towards the functional group (higher p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i> therefore basic nature of group) points towards it and decreases in strength with increasing distance. Dipole distance (measured in <a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">Angstroms</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Steric_effects" title="Steric effects">steric hindrance</a> towards the functional group have an intermolecular and intramolecular effect on the surrounding environment and <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> level. </p><p>Different functional groups have different p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i> values and bond strengths (single, double, triple) leading to increased electrophilicity with lower p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i> and increased nucleophile strength with higher p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i>. More basic/nucleophilic functional groups desire to attack an electrophilic functional group with a lower p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i> on another molecule (intermolecular) or within the same molecule (intramolecular). Any group with a net acidic p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i> that gets within range, such as an acyl or carbonyl group is fair game. Since the likelihood of being attacked decreases with an increase in p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i>, <a href="/wiki/Acyl_chloride" title="Acyl chloride">acyl chloride</a> components with the lowest measured <a href="/wiki/PKa" class="mw-redirect" title="PKa">p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i></a> values are most likely to be attacked, followed by carboxylic acids (p<i>K<sub>a</sub></i> =4), thiols (13), malonates (13), alcohols (17), aldehydes (20), nitriles (25), esters (25), then amines (35).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amines are very basic, and are great nucleophiles/attackers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aliphatic_compounds">Aliphatic compounds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Aliphatic compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aliphatic_compound" title="Aliphatic compound">Aliphatic compound</a></div> <p>The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups of <a href="/wiki/Homologous_series" title="Homologous series">homologous series</a> according to their state of <a href="/wiki/Saturated_and_unsaturated_compounds" title="Saturated and unsaturated compounds">saturation</a>: </p> <ul><li>alkanes (paraffins): aliphatic hydrocarbons without any <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double</a> or <a href="/wiki/Triple_bond" title="Triple bond">triple bonds</a>, i.e. just C-C, C-H single bonds</li> <li>alkenes (olefins): aliphatic hydrocarbons that contain one or more double bonds, i.e. di-olefins (dienes) or poly-olefins.</li> <li>alkynes (acetylenes): aliphatic hydrocarbons which have one or more triple bonds.</li></ul> <p>The rest of the group is classified according to the functional groups present. Such compounds can be "straight-chain", branched-chain or cyclic. The degree of branching affects characteristics, such as the <a href="/wiki/Octane_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Octane number">octane number</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cetane_number" title="Cetane number">cetane number</a> in petroleum chemistry. </p><p>Both saturated (<a href="/wiki/Alicyclic" class="mw-redirect" title="Alicyclic">alicyclic</a>) compounds and unsaturated compounds exist as cyclic derivatives. The most stable rings contain five or six carbon atoms, but large rings (macrocycles) and smaller rings are common. The smallest cycloalkane family is the three-membered <a href="/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">cyclopropane</a> ((CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>). Saturated cyclic compounds contain single bonds only, whereas aromatic rings have an alternating (or conjugated) double bond. <a href="/wiki/Cycloalkane" title="Cycloalkane">Cycloalkanes</a> do not contain multiple bonds, whereas the <a href="/wiki/Cycloalkene" title="Cycloalkene">cycloalkenes</a> and the cycloalkynes do. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aromatic_compounds">Aromatic compounds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aromatic compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzene-resonance-structures.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Benzene-resonance-structures.svg/220px-Benzene-resonance-structures.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Benzene-resonance-structures.svg/330px-Benzene-resonance-structures.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Benzene-resonance-structures.svg/440px-Benzene-resonance-structures.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a> is one of the best-known aromatic compounds as it is one of the simplest and most stable aromatics.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Aromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic">Aromatic</a> hydrocarbons contain <a href="/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">conjugated</a> double bonds. This means that every carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most important example is <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, the structure of which was formulated by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_Kekul%C3%A9_von_Stradonitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz">Kekulé</a> who first proposed the <a href="/wiki/Delocalized_electron" title="Delocalized electron">delocalization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">resonance</a> principle for explaining its structure. For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer. Particular instability (<a href="/wiki/Antiaromaticity" title="Antiaromaticity">antiaromaticity</a>) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heterocyclic_compounds">Heterocyclic compounds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Heterocyclic compounds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heterocyclic_compound" title="Heterocyclic compound">Heterocyclic compound</a></div> <p>The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms are present, which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring (exocyclic) or as a member of the ring itself (endocyclic). In the case of the latter, the ring is termed a <a href="/wiki/Heterocycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterocycle">heterocycle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">Pyridine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Furan" title="Furan">furan</a> are examples of aromatic heterocycles while <a href="/wiki/Piperidine" title="Piperidine">piperidine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran" title="Tetrahydrofuran">tetrahydrofuran</a> are the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Alicyclic" class="mw-redirect" title="Alicyclic">alicyclic</a> heterocycles. The heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter being particularly common in biochemical systems. </p><p>Heterocycles are commonly found in a wide range of products including aniline dyes and medicines. Additionally, they are prevalent in a wide range of biochemical compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Alkaloids" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaloids">alkaloids</a>, vitamins, steroids, and nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, RNA). </p><p>Rings can fuse with other rings on an edge to give <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_compound" title="Polycyclic compound">polycyclic compounds</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">purine</a> nucleoside bases are notable polycyclic aromatic heterocycles. Rings can also fuse on a "corner" such that one atom (almost always carbon) has two bonds going to one ring and two to another. Such compounds are termed <a href="/wiki/Spiro_compound" title="Spiro compound">spiro</a> and are important in several <a href="/wiki/Natural_product" title="Natural product">natural products</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymers">Polymers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Polymers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg/170px-Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg/255px-Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg/340px-Girl_with_swimming_board.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>This swimming board is made of <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a>, it is an example of a polymer.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></div> <p>One important property of carbon is that it readily forms chains, or networks, that are linked by carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process is called <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a>, while the chains, or networks, are called <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>. The source compound is called a <a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">monomer</a>. </p><p>Two main groups of polymers exist <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic polymers">synthetic polymers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymers</a>. Synthetic polymers are artificially manufactured, and are commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">industrial polymers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biopolymers occur within a respectfully natural environment, or without human intervention. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomolecules">Biomolecules</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Biomolecules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg/440px-Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg/660px-Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg/880px-Maitotoxin_2D_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="822" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maitotoxin" title="Maitotoxin">Maitotoxin</a>, a complex organic biological toxin.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">Biomolecular chemistry</a> is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied by <a href="/wiki/Biochemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemists">biochemists</a>. Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living organisms. Some are long-chain <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymers</a>, and these include <a href="/wiki/Peptides" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptides">peptides</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starches</a> in animals and <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">celluloses</a> in plants. The other main classes are <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> (monomer building blocks of peptides and proteins), <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> (which includes the polysaccharides), the <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a> (which include DNA and RNA as polymers), and the <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>. Besides, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in energy production through the <a href="/wiki/Krebs_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Krebs cycle">Krebs cycle</a>, and produces <a href="/wiki/Isoprene" title="Isoprene">isoprene</a>, the most common hydrocarbon in animals. Isoprenes in animals form the important <a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">steroid</a> structural (<a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>) and steroid hormone compounds; and in plants form <a href="/wiki/Terpene" title="Terpene">terpenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terpenoid" title="Terpenoid">terpenoids</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a>, and a class of hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present in the <a href="/wiki/Latex" title="Latex">latex</a> of various species of plants, which is the basis for making <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a>. Biologists usually classify the above-mentioned biomolecules into four main groups, i.e., proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Petroleum and its derivatives are considered organic molecules, which is consistent with the fact that this oil comes from the fossilization of living beings, i.e., biomolecules.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also: <a href="/wiki/Peptide_synthesis" title="Peptide synthesis">peptide synthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligonucleotide_synthesis" title="Oligonucleotide synthesis">oligonucleotide synthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_synthesis" title="Carbohydrate synthesis">carbohydrate synthesis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small_molecules">Small molecules</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Small molecules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CAFENE~1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/CAFENE~1.svg/220px-CAFENE~1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/CAFENE~1.svg/330px-CAFENE~1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/CAFENE~1.svg/440px-CAFENE~1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>Molecular models of <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In pharmacology, an important group of organic compounds is <a href="/wiki/Small_molecule" title="Small molecule">small molecules</a>, also referred to as 'small organic compounds'. In this context, a small molecule is a small organic compound that is biologically active but is not a <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a>. In practice, small molecules have a <a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">molar mass</a> less than approximately 1000 g/mol. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fullerenes">Fullerenes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fullerenes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">Fullerenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a>, carbon compounds with spheroidal and tubular structures, have stimulated much research into the related field of <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>. The first fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Sir Harold W. Kroto of the United Kingdom and by Richard E. Smalley and Robert F. Curl Jr., of the United States. Using a laser to vaporize graphite rods in an atmosphere of helium gas, these chemists and their assistants obtained cagelike molecules composed of 60 carbon atoms (C60) joined by single and double bonds to form a hollow sphere with 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces—a design that resembles a football, or soccer ball. In 1996 the trio was awarded the Nobel Prize for their pioneering efforts. The C60 molecule was named <a href="/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene" title="Buckminsterfullerene">buckminsterfullerene</a> (or, more simply, the buckyball) after the American architect R. Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic dome is constructed on the same structural principles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Organic compounds containing bonds of carbon to nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens are not normally grouped separately. Others are sometimes put into major groups within organic chemistry and discussed under titles such as <a href="/wiki/Organosulfur_chemistry" title="Organosulfur chemistry">organosulfur chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organophosphorus_chemistry" title="Organophosphorus chemistry">organophosphorus chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organosilicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Organosilicon">organosilicon chemistry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organic_reactions">Organic reactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Organic reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">Organic reaction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Organic_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Organic chemistry">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">Organic reactions</a> are <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> involving <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these reactions are associated with functional groups. The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as the <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">electron affinity</a> of key atoms, <a href="/wiki/Bond_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond strength">bond strengths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steric_hindrance" class="mw-redirect" title="Steric hindrance">steric hindrance</a>. These factors can determine the relative stability of short-lived <a href="/wiki/Reactive_intermediate" title="Reactive intermediate">reactive intermediates</a>, which usually directly determine the path of the reaction. </p><p>The basic reaction types are: <a href="/wiki/Addition_reaction" title="Addition reaction">addition reactions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elimination_reaction" title="Elimination reaction">elimination reactions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substitution_reaction" title="Substitution reaction">substitution reactions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pericyclic_reaction" title="Pericyclic reaction">pericyclic reactions</a>, rearrangement reactions and <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox reactions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a common reaction is a <a href="/wiki/Substitution_reaction" title="Substitution reaction">substitution reaction</a> written as: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Nu- + C-X -> C-Nu + X-}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>Nu</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <mtext>X</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <mtext>Nu</mtext> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mtext>X</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Nu- + C-X -> C-Nu + X-}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b85d01e9b81cebc42af027a7d4f92ca4403128fb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:30.328ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Nu- + C-X -> C-Nu + X-}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where X is some <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional group</a> and Nu is a <a href="/wiki/Nucleophile" title="Nucleophile">nucleophile</a>. </p><p>The number of possible organic reactions is infinite. However, certain general patterns are observed that can be used to describe many common or useful reactions. Each reaction has a stepwise reaction mechanism that explains how it happens in sequence—although the detailed description of steps is not always clear from a list of reactants alone. </p><p>The stepwise course of any given reaction mechanism can be represented using <a href="/wiki/Arrow_pushing" title="Arrow pushing">arrow pushing</a> techniques in which curved arrows are used to track the movement of electrons as starting materials transition through intermediates to final products. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organic_synthesis">Organic synthesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Organic synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Organic_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Organic chemistry">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corey_oseltamivir_synthesis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Corey_oseltamivir_synthesis.png/390px-Corey_oseltamivir_synthesis.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Corey_oseltamivir_synthesis.png/585px-Corey_oseltamivir_synthesis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Corey_oseltamivir_synthesis.png/780px-Corey_oseltamivir_synthesis.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption>A synthesis designed by <a href="/wiki/E.J._Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="E.J. Corey">E.J. Corey</a> for <a href="/wiki/Oseltamivir" title="Oseltamivir">oseltamivir</a> (Tamiflu). This synthesis has 11 distinct reactions.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></div> <p>Synthetic organic chemistry is an <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a> as it borders <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, the "design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organic synthesis of a novel compound is a problem-solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the functional groups in the molecule. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonyl">carbonyl</a> compound can be used as a <a href="/wiki/Nucleophile" title="Nucleophile">nucleophile</a> by converting it into an <a href="/wiki/Enolate" title="Enolate">enolate</a>, or as an <a href="/wiki/Electrophile" title="Electrophile">electrophile</a>; the combination of the two is called the <a href="/wiki/Aldol_reaction" title="Aldol reaction">aldol reaction</a>. Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel synthetic routes for complex molecules is called <a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">total synthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strategies to design a synthesis include <a href="/wiki/Retrosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrosynthesis">retrosynthesis</a>, popularized by <a href="/wiki/E.J._Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="E.J. Corey">E.J. Corey</a>, which starts with the target molecule and splices it to pieces according to known reactions. The pieces, or the proposed precursors, receive the same treatment, until available and ideally inexpensive starting materials are reached. Then, the retrosynthesis is written in the opposite direction to give the synthesis. A "synthetic tree" can be constructed because each compound and also each precursor has multiple syntheses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry" title="Outline of organic chemistry">Outline of organic chemistry</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_chemistry#Organic_chemistry" title="List of important publications in chemistry">Important publications in organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions" title="List of organic reactions">List of organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Organic_chemistry&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-J._Clayden,_N._Greeves_2012_pp._1-15_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayden, J.; Greeves, N. and Warren, S. (2012) <i>Organic Chemistry</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–15. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-927029-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-927029-5">0-19-927029-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elschenbroich, C. (2006) <i>Organometallics</i> 3rd Ed., Wiley-VCH</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morrison, Robert T.; Boyd, Robert N. and Boyd, Robert K. (1992) <i>Organic Chemistry</i>, 6th ed., Benjamin Cummings. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0136436690" title="Special:BookSources/978-0136436690">978-0136436690</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackieArnottKaschula2023" class="citation journal cs1">Blackie, Margaret A.L.; Arnott, Gareth; Kaschula, Catherine H. 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title="Functional group">Functional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_organic_chemistry" title="IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry">Nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_chemistry#Organic_chemistry" title="List of important publications in chemistry">Publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="List of organic compounds">List of organic compounds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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