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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adventive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adventive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Adventive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adventive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seasonal_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seasonal_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Seasonal migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seasonal_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Difference_with_bird_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_with_bird_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Difference with bird migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_with_bird_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multigeneration_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Multigeneration migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multigeneration_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Areas_where_migratory_butterflies_and_moths_can_be_found" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Areas_where_migratory_butterflies_and_moths_can_be_found"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Areas where migratory butterflies and moths can be found</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Areas_where_migratory_butterflies_and_moths_can_be_found-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Areas where migratory butterflies and moths can be 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class="mw-page-title-main">Lepidoptera migration</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Tagged_Monarch_Butterfly_-_Flickr_-_treegrow.jpg/375px-Tagged_Monarch_Butterfly_-_Flickr_-_treegrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Tagged_Monarch_Butterfly_-_Flickr_-_treegrow.jpg/500px-Tagged_Monarch_Butterfly_-_Flickr_-_treegrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">Monarch butterfly</a> tagged to track its migration</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Danaus_plexippus_migration_map_in_North_America-fr.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Danaus_plexippus_migration_map_in_North_America-fr.gif/220px-Danaus_plexippus_migration_map_in_North_America-fr.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Danaus_plexippus_migration_map_in_North_America-fr.gif/330px-Danaus_plexippus_migration_map_in_North_America-fr.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Danaus_plexippus_migration_map_in_North_America-fr.gif/440px-Danaus_plexippus_migration_map_in_North_America-fr.gif 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption><i>Danaus plexippus</i> migration map in North America</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DarkBlueTigersCongregation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/DarkBlueTigersCongregation.jpg/250px-DarkBlueTigersCongregation.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/DarkBlueTigersCongregation.jpg/375px-DarkBlueTigersCongregation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/DarkBlueTigersCongregation.jpg/500px-DarkBlueTigersCongregation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumala_septentrionis" title="Tirumala septentrionis">Tirumala septentrionis</a></i> migrate in millions between <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a> in India.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmigrantsMudpuddling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/EmigrantsMudpuddling.jpg/250px-EmigrantsMudpuddling.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/EmigrantsMudpuddling.jpg/375px-EmigrantsMudpuddling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/EmigrantsMudpuddling.jpg/500px-EmigrantsMudpuddling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Catopsilia_pomona" title="Catopsilia pomona">Catopsilia pomona</a></i> migrate regularly in South India and Himalayas.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many populations of <b><a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">Lepidoptera</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Butterfly" title="Butterfly">butterflies</a> or <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>) <b> migrate</b>, sometimes long distances, to and from areas which are only suitable for part of the year. Lepidopterans migrate on all continents except Antarctica, including from or within <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical climate">subtropical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical</a> areas. By migrating, these species can avoid unfavorable circumstances, including weather, food shortage, or over-population. In some lepidopteran species, all individuals migrate; in others, only some migrate. </p><p>The best-known lepidopteran migration is that of the eastern population of the <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">monarch butterfly</a> which migrates from southern Canada to wintering sites in central Mexico. In late winter/early spring, the adult monarchs leave the Transvolcanic mountain range in Mexico for a more northern climate. Mating occurs and the females begin seeking out <a href="/wiki/Milkweed" class="mw-redirect" title="Milkweed">milkweed</a> to lay their eggs, usually first in northern Mexico and southern Texas. The caterpillars hatch and develop into adults that move north, where more offspring can go as far as central Canada until next migratory cycle. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Danaus_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danaus (genus)">Danaids</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a> are prominent migrants, between the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ghats" title="Eastern Ghats">Eastern Ghats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three species will be involved in this, namely <i><a href="/wiki/Tirumala_septentrionis" title="Tirumala septentrionis">Tirumala septentrionis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Euploea_core" title="Euploea core">Euploea core</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Euploea_sylvester" title="Euploea sylvester">Euploea sylvester</a></i>. Sometimes they are joined by lemon pansy (<i><a href="/wiki/Junonia_lemonias" title="Junonia lemonias">Junonia lemonias</a></i>), common emigrant (<i><a href="/wiki/Catopsilia_pomona" title="Catopsilia pomona">Catopsilia pomona</a></i>), tawny coster (<i><a href="/wiki/Acraea_terpsicore" title="Acraea terpsicore">Acraea terpsicore</a></i>) and blue tiger (<i><a href="/wiki/Tirumala_limniace" title="Tirumala limniace">Tirumala limniace</a></i>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Migration in Lepidoptera means a regular, predictable movement of a population from one place to another, determined by the seasons.<sup id="cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scoble_migration-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no unambiguous definition of <i>migratory butterfly</i> or <i>migratory moth</i>, and this also applies to proposals to divide them into classes.<sup id="cite_ref-Meerman_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meerman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Migration means different things to behavioral scientists and ecologists. The former emphasize the act of moving whereas the latter discriminate between whether the movement has been ecologically significant or not. Migration may be viewed as "a behavioural process with ecological consequences".<sup id="cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scoble_migration-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Migration in Lepidoptera takes place in two of the three modes of migration identified by Johnson (Johnson, 1969). In the first mode (also Johnson's first), the Lepidoptera move in one direction in their short life-span and do not return. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Pierid" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierid">pierid</a> butterfly, <i><a href="/wiki/Ascia_monuste" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascia monuste">Ascia monuste</a></i>, which breeds in Florida but sometimes migrates along the coast up to 160 kilometers to breed in more suitable areas.<sup id="cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scoble_migration-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second mode (Johnson's third), migration takes place to a place of <a href="/wiki/Hibernation" title="Hibernation">hibernation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aestivation" title="Aestivation">aestivation</a> where they undergo <a href="/wiki/Diapause" title="Diapause">diapause</a> and the same generation survives to return. The classic example is that of the nymphalid <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly" title="Monarch butterfly">monarch</a> butterfly (<i>Danuas plexippus</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scoble_migration-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adventive">Adventive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Adventive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Species that are recorded in unexpected areas (<a href="/wiki/Adventive_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventive species">adventive species</a>) are not considered to be migratory species, because these did not leave their habitat on their own strength. Examples are species that are imported as egg or caterpillar alongside of their host plants or individuals that were reared by a collector but have escaped. An example of an introduced species is <i><a href="/wiki/Galleria_mellonella" title="Galleria mellonella">Galleria mellonella</a></i>, which is found all over the world, because it is reared as food for captive birds and reptiles. At times it is difficult to decide if a species is adventive or migratory. Migratory species like <i><a href="/wiki/Chrysodeixis_chalcites" title="Chrysodeixis chalcites">Chrysodeixis chalcites</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Helicoverpa_armigera" title="Helicoverpa armigera">Helicoverpa armigera</a></i> would be able to reach western Europe on their own, but are also common in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouses</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seasonal_migration">Seasonal migration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Seasonal migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bogong-moths.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Bogong-moths.jpg/220px-Bogong-moths.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Bogong-moths.jpg/330px-Bogong-moths.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Bogong-moths.jpg/440px-Bogong-moths.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Australian species <i><a href="/wiki/Agrotis_infusa" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrotis infusa">Agrotis infusa</a></i> spends the summer as an <a href="/wiki/Imago" title="Imago">imago</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Alps" title="Australian Alps">Australian Alps</a>, and is sometimes found in buildings in large numbers.</figcaption></figure> <p>Lepidoptera migration is often <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasonal</a>. With species of which all individuals migrate, the <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> moves between areas in the summer and winter season or the dry and wet season. </p><p>For species of which only part of the population migrates, seasonal migration is hard to determine. They can maintain themselves in part of their <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> but also reach areas where they cannot establish a permanent population. They only live there in the season that is most favorable for the species. Some of the species have the habit of returning to their permanent residence at the end of the season. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Difference_with_bird_migration">Difference with bird migration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Difference with bird migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important difference with <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">bird migration</a> is that an individual butterfly or moth usually migrates in one direction, while birds migrate back and forth multiple times within their lifespan. This is due to the short lifespan as an <a href="/wiki/Imago" title="Imago">imago</a>. Amazingly the monarch receives no navigation instruction for the migration from their parents, unlike birds.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Species that migrate back and forth, usually do so in different generations. There are however, some exceptions: </p> <ul><li>The famous <a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_migration" title="Monarch butterfly migration">migration of the monarch butterfly</a> in North America. This species migrates back and forth in one generation, though it completes only part of the journey in both directions in that generation. No individual completes the entire journey which is spread over a number of generations. The <a href="/wiki/Imago" title="Imago">imago</a> of the last summer generation is born in North America, migrates to Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, or <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> and stays there for the winter. After the winter it migrates back to the north to reproduce. In a couple of generations, the monarch migrates north to Canada.</li> <li>The migration of the <a href="/wiki/Bogong_moth" title="Bogong moth">bogong moth</a> in Australia. This species migrates from south-eastern Australia to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Alps" title="Australian Alps">Australian Alps</a> in the summer to avoid the heat. After the summer it returns to reproduce.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flight_behaviour">Flight behaviour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Flight behaviour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutella.xylostella.7383.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Plutella.xylostella.7383.jpg/220px-Plutella.xylostella.7383.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Plutella.xylostella.7383.jpg/330px-Plutella.xylostella.7383.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Plutella.xylostella.7383.jpg/440px-Plutella.xylostella.7383.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The small <a href="/wiki/Diamondback_moth" title="Diamondback moth">diamondback moth</a> is a migratory species which can be found at altitudes of a 100 meters. It is capable of covering over 3,000 kilometers.</figcaption></figure> <p>Migratory Lepidoptera are, in most cases, excellent flyers. Species like <i><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_atalanta" title="Vanessa atalanta">Vanessa atalanta</a></i> are capable of managing a fierce headwind. In case of headwind, they usually fly low and are more goal-oriented.<sup id="cite_ref-actie_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-actie-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During migration, some species can be found at high altitudes, ranging to up to two kilometers.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is especially noteworthy for day-flying species like <i><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_atalanta" title="Vanessa atalanta">Vanessa atalanta</a></i>, since the temperatures on these altitudes are low and day-flying species depend on the outside temperature to stay warm. It is thought that <i>Vanessa atalanta</i> produces enough body warmth during flight since it has also been recorded migrating at night. </p><p>In the case of transcontinental migration where distances are large, the flying speed of the butterfly (of the order of 3 metres per second or less) is inadequate for timely completion of journey. The migration is carried out by relying on heavy winds; a persistent wind speed of 10 metres per second being able to provide a displacement of 300 to 400 kilometers in a single day.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the painted lady (<i><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_cardui" title="Vanessa cardui">Vanessa cardui</a></i>) migrates from Africa to Spain aided by tail winds.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That the migratory species are good flyers, is not the same as saying they are robust flyers. The small <a href="/wiki/Diamondback_moth" title="Diamondback moth">diamondback moth</a> is also a migratory species that migrates 3,000 kilometers and can be found up to altitudes of 100 meters or more.<sup id="cite_ref-CRS_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRS-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yau_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yau-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanessa_cardui_migration_in_Europe-blank_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Vanessa_cardui_migration_in_Europe-blank_map.svg/350px-Vanessa_cardui_migration_in_Europe-blank_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Vanessa_cardui_migration_in_Europe-blank_map.svg/525px-Vanessa_cardui_migration_in_Europe-blank_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Vanessa_cardui_migration_in_Europe-blank_map.svg/700px-Vanessa_cardui_migration_in_Europe-blank_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1353" data-file-height="1015" /></a><figcaption><i>Vanessa cardui</i> migration between North Africa and Europe</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navigation">Navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></div> <p>To be able to migrate over long distances, species must be able to navigate. There are several ways they do this. </p><p><b>Landscape</b>: Lepidoptera use coastal lines, mountains, but also roads to orient themselves. Above sea it has been observed that the flight direction is much more accurate if the landscape on the coast is still visible.<sup id="cite_ref-actie_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-actie-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Celestial navigation</b>: Butterflies are known to be capable of navigation with the help of the Sun. They can also navigate by using <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarized light</a>. The polarization of the Sun's light changes with the angle of the rays, hence they can also navigate with cloudy weather. There are indications that they can even make corrections depending on the time on a day. Diamondback moths are known to fly in a straight trajectory which is not dependent on the angle of the Sun's rays.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tests have been performed to interfere with the biological clock of certain species by keeping them in the dark and then observing if they would choose for other flight paths. The conclusion was that some species did, and others did not.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research on monarchs demonstrates that with removal of antennae, the location of the circadian clock, individuals do not localize in any one direction during flight as they do with antennae intact.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Night flyers cannot use sun light for navigation. Most of these species rely on the Moon and stars instead. </p><p><b>Earth's magnetic field</b>: A number of moths use the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> to navigate, as a study of the stray <a href="/wiki/Heart_and_dart" title="Heart and dart">heart and dart</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggests. Another study, this time of the migratory behaviour of the <a href="/wiki/Silver_Y" title="Silver Y">silver Y</a>, showed that this species, even at high altitudes, can correct its course with changing winds, and prefers flying with favourable winds, which suggests a great sense of direction.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study in <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Aphrissa_statira" title="Aphrissa statira">Aphrissa statira</a>,</i> which migrate in large groups annually, found that this species loses its navigational capacity when exposed to a magnetic field, suggesting they use the Earth's magnetic field to determine their direction of flight in migration.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multigeneration_migration">Multigeneration migration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Multigeneration migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Painted ladies (<i><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_cardui" title="Vanessa cardui">Vanessa cardui</a></i>) are able to migrate over multiple generations. Genetic analysis of <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grains transported by hundreds of butterflies collected across ten countries allowed researchers to track down the origin of a migration event that took place over 9 months from 2018 to 2019. Most likely, the butterfly outbreak originated in northern <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> was unusually abundant in late 2018 to early 2019. Their migration to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">eastern Europe</a>, apparently spanned two or three generations and finally reached <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western Europe</a> during the summer of 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas_where_migratory_butterflies_and_moths_can_be_found">Areas where migratory butterflies and moths can be found</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Areas where migratory butterflies and moths can be found"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Butterfly_migration_by_N_A_Nazeer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Butterfly_migration_by_N_A_Nazeer.jpg/220px-Butterfly_migration_by_N_A_Nazeer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Butterfly_migration_by_N_A_Nazeer.jpg/330px-Butterfly_migration_by_N_A_Nazeer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Butterfly_migration_by_N_A_Nazeer.jpg/440px-Butterfly_migration_by_N_A_Nazeer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3205" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tirumala_limniace" title="Tirumala limniace">Blue tiger</a> (<i>Tirumala limniace</i>) butterflies resting while migrating, <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghats</a>, South India.</figcaption></figure> <p>Migratory Lepidoptera can be found on all <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>, migrating within or from the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">Tropics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">Subtropics</a>. North, they can be found up to <a href="/wiki/Spitsbergen" title="Spitsbergen">Spitsbergen</a>, above the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yau_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yau-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some migratory Lepidoptera have spread over most of the world. Some of these are pest insects, such as the <a href="/wiki/Diamondback_moth" title="Diamondback moth">diamondback moth</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Helicoverpa_armigera" title="Helicoverpa armigera">Helicoverpa armigera</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Trichoplusia_ni" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichoplusia ni">Trichoplusia ni</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_migratory_Lepidoptera">Examples of migratory Lepidoptera</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Examples of migratory Lepidoptera"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acherontia_atropos_distribution_map_cutted.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Acherontia_atropos_distribution_map_cutted.png/220px-Acherontia_atropos_distribution_map_cutted.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Acherontia_atropos_distribution_map_cutted.png/330px-Acherontia_atropos_distribution_map_cutted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Acherontia_atropos_distribution_map_cutted.png/440px-Acherontia_atropos_distribution_map_cutted.png 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption>Distribution map of <i><a href="/wiki/Acherontia_atropos" title="Acherontia atropos">Acherontia atropos</a></i>. Red, all year. orange, summer</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>In the Indian subcontinent, migrating Lepidoptera are common just before the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> season. Over 250 species are known to migrate during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>On <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chrysiridia_rhipheus" title="Chrysiridia rhipheus">Chrysiridia rhipheus</a></i> migrates between populations of four plant species of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Omphalea" title="Omphalea">Omphalea</a></i>, the host plant of this species. The three western <i>Omphalea</i> species live in dry <a href="/wiki/Coniferous_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniferous forest">coniferous forests</a>, the eastern species is found in the <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> and is the only species that is green year round.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhodometra_sacraria" title="Rhodometra sacraria">Rhodometra sacraria</a></i> is normally found in Africa, large parts of Asia and southern Europe. At times, it migrates north and can reach central and northern Europe.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_cardui" title="Vanessa cardui">Vanessa cardui</a></i> is found all over the world, except South America, at altitudes of up to 3,000 meters above sea level. Its home, however, are subtropical <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a> areas.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_atalanta" title="Vanessa atalanta">Vanessa atalanta</a></i> is known to migrate between the Mediterranean region and northern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Australian_painted_lady" title="Australian painted lady">Australian painted lady</a> (<i>Vanessa kershawi</i>) periodically migrates down the coast of Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-Dingle_1999_323–329_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dingle_1999_323–329-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occasionally, in periods of strong migration in Australia, these butterflies have been known to migrate to New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-Dingle_1999_323–329_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dingle_1999_323–329-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bogong moth also migrates biannually towards and from the Australian Alps.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Several South and Central American species of <a href="/wiki/Uraniidae" title="Uraniidae">Uraniidae</a> display a great peak in migratory behavior in certain years. In the years with a great number of migrating individuals, there are "population explosions". Individuals migrate to the south and east. There is no real re-migration to speak off. These moths feed on <i><a href="/wiki/Omphalea" title="Omphalea">Omphalea</a></i> species. These can be found in scattered populations all across South and Central America, but only part of the areas where they are found are a permanent habitat for these moths. Research suggests that the cause of the migration peak is an increase in <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> when much of a single plant is eaten and decreasing toxicity when only small amounts of a certain plant are eaten.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The migration of <i><a href="/wiki/Euploea_core" title="Euploea core">Euploea core</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Euploea_sylvester" title="Euploea sylvester">Euploea sylvester</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tirumala_septentrionis" title="Tirumala septentrionis">Tirumala septentrionis</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Tirumala_limniace" title="Tirumala limniace">Tirumala limniace</a></i> between the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats in India cover up to 350 to 400 km. This migration happens twice a year. The most probable reasons seem to be the heavy monsoons, reproductive diapause, and a lack of host plants, nectar and alkaloidal resource availability.</li> <li>The gatekeeper butterfly (<i><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper_(butterfly)" title="Gatekeeper (butterfly)">Pyronia tithonus</a></i>) from southern and eastern Britain has been expanding to northern Britain over the past three decades, despite their preference for warmer conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The clouded yellow (<i><a href="/wiki/Colias_croceus" title="Colias croceus">Colias croceus</a></i>) migrates between Europe and Siberia to Northern Africa and Southern Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-Funet_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Funet-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In North America, the true armyworm moth (<i><a href="/wiki/Mythimna_unipuncta" title="Mythimna unipuncta">Mythimna unipuncta</a></i>) and the black cutworm moth (<i><a href="/wiki/Agrotis_ipsilon" title="Agrotis ipsilon">Agrotis ipsilon</a></i>) migrate north in the spring to escape dangerously warm temperatures and migrate south in the fall to avoid extremely cold weather. The reproductive systems in both females and males are less developed during the south-bound migration and calling behavior increases in the north-bound migration, indicating that mating is more favored in the summer.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeil2011_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeil2011-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Showers1997_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Showers1997-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anagrapha_falcifera" title="Anagrapha falcifera">Anagrapha falcifera</a></i> (a celery looper) is another migratory moth in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DarkBlueTigers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tirumala septentrionis"><img alt="Tirumala septentrionis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/DarkBlueTigers.jpg/120px-DarkBlueTigers.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/DarkBlueTigers.jpg/180px-DarkBlueTigers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/DarkBlueTigers.jpg/240px-DarkBlueTigers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumala_septentrionis" title="Tirumala septentrionis">Tirumala septentrionis</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanessa_cardui_india.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vanessa cardui"><img alt="Vanessa cardui" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vanessa_cardui_india.jpg/120px-Vanessa_cardui_india.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vanessa_cardui_india.jpg/180px-Vanessa_cardui_india.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vanessa_cardui_india.jpg/240px-Vanessa_cardui_india.jpg 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="544" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Vanessa_cardui" title="Vanessa cardui">Vanessa cardui</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CommonAlbatross.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Appias albina"><img alt="Appias albina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/CommonAlbatross.jpg/120px-CommonAlbatross.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/CommonAlbatross.jpg/180px-CommonAlbatross.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/CommonAlbatross.jpg/240px-CommonAlbatross.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="1275" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Appias_albina" title="Appias albina">Appias albina</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CommonEmigrant2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Catopsilia pomona"><img alt="Catopsilia pomona" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/CommonEmigrant2.jpg/120px-CommonEmigrant2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/CommonEmigrant2.jpg/180px-CommonEmigrant2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/CommonEmigrant2.jpg/240px-CommonEmigrant2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1555" data-file-height="1459" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Catopsilia_pomona" title="Catopsilia pomona">Catopsilia pomona</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CommonIndianCrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Euploea core"><img alt="Euploea core" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/CommonIndianCrow.jpg/109px-CommonIndianCrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/CommonIndianCrow.jpg/163px-CommonIndianCrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/CommonIndianCrow.jpg/217px-CommonIndianCrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="756" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Euploea_core" title="Euploea core">Euploea core</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DoubleBrandedCrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Euploea sylvester"><img alt="Euploea sylvester" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DoubleBrandedCrow.jpg/110px-DoubleBrandedCrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DoubleBrandedCrow.jpg/165px-DoubleBrandedCrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DoubleBrandedCrow.jpg/220px-DoubleBrandedCrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1388" data-file-height="1517" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Euploea_sylvester" title="Euploea sylvester">Euploea sylvester</a></i></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example_species:_Macroglossum_stellatarum">Example species: <i>Macroglossum stellatarum</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Example species: Macroglossum stellatarum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distribution_map_Macroglossum_stellatarum.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Distribution_map_Macroglossum_stellatarum.svg/300px-Distribution_map_Macroglossum_stellatarum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Distribution_map_Macroglossum_stellatarum.svg/450px-Distribution_map_Macroglossum_stellatarum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Distribution_map_Macroglossum_stellatarum.svg/600px-Distribution_map_Macroglossum_stellatarum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="2234" /></a><figcaption>The green areas are the areas where <i>Macroglossum stellatarum</i> can survive year round. In the blue areas it can be found in summer. In the yellow area it is found in winter</figcaption></figure> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Macroglossum_stellatarum" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroglossum stellatarum">Macroglossum stellatarum</a></i> is a moth that is recorded in the subtropical part of the <a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic realm</a> year round. In summer, the species disperses north up to Scandinavia and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>. In winter it migrates further south, deeper into Africa and to the Indian subcontinent.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the Netherlands and Belgium, there are 100 to 200 records per year in an average year. In warm summers however, like 2005 and 2006, several thousand are recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mild winters, small numbers can survive this far north, but these numbers are insufficient to call it a real population.<sup id="cite_ref-Meerman_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meerman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Usually, butterflies and moths migrate to escape from potentially harmful circumstances. Examples of this are a shortage of proper food plants, an unfavorable climate, like cold or extreme rain or overpopulation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Migration_and_evolution">Migration and evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Migration and evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A phenomenon like migration is an <a href="/wiki/Evolution_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution (biology)">evolutionary</a> development. By migrating, the species has survived the process of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to migration. An example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoan</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Ophryocystis_elektroscirrha" title="Ophryocystis elektroscirrha">Ophryocystis elektroscirrha</a></i> a parasite of the monarch. Severely infected individuals are weak, unable to expand their wings, or unable to eclose, and have shortened lifespans, but parasite levels vary in populations. This is not the case in laboratory or commercial rearing, where after a few generations, all individuals can be infected.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infection with this parasite creates an effect known as <a href="/wiki/Culling" title="Culling">culling</a> whereby migrating monarchs that are infected are less likely to complete the migration. This results in overwintering populations with lower parasite loads.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartel_Ober_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartel_Ober-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recording">Recording</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Recording"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turnau1719_v3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Turnau1719_v3.jpg/220px-Turnau1719_v3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Turnau1719_v3.jpg/330px-Turnau1719_v3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Turnau1719_v3.jpg/440px-Turnau1719_v3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1572" data-file-height="2608" /></a><figcaption>Record of a massive appearance of (presumably) <i><a href="/wiki/Agrius_convolvuli" title="Agrius convolvuli">Agrius convolvuli</a></i> in 1719 near <a href="/wiki/Turnau,_Styria" title="Turnau, Styria">Turnau</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Butterflies (and to a lesser extent moths) migrating in large numbers are a noteworthy sight, which is easy to observe and track. There are several historic records about migrating butterflies. There are records dating back to 1100 about migrating butterflies (probably a <i><a href="/wiki/Pieris_(butterfly)" title="Pieris (butterfly)">Pieris</a></i> species) from <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxony" title="Duchy of Saxony">Duchy of Saxony</a> and from 1248 about the migration of yellow butterflies in Japan. </p><p>When flying at high altitudes, spotting migrating butterflies or moths can be hard. Low flying species are easily spotted or caught using a <a href="/wiki/Light_trap" class="mw-redirect" title="Light trap">light trap</a>. When individuals fly too high for these methods, air balloons equipped with nets are used at times. Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> is used to monitor migration.<sup id="cite_ref-CRS_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRS-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another registration technique, is marking the wings with tiny <a href="/wiki/Sticker" title="Sticker">stickers</a>, a technique comparable with <a href="/wiki/Bird_ringing" title="Bird ringing">bird ringing</a>. This technique has not proven to be very successful though.<sup id="cite_ref-actie_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-actie-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances in technology might make it possible to equip individuals with micro transmitters in the future. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Migration_and_climate_change">Migration and climate change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Migration and climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a> has caused an increase of migratory butterflies and moths that reach north-western European countries like the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom. Research in the United Kingdom confirms that an increasing number of migrants reach the country. Because one would expect that migratory species can adapt to new circumstances quite well, the researches warn for new species that can have a negative impact on native species and possible damage to both health (species like the <a href="/wiki/Oak_processionary" title="Oak processionary">oak processionary</a>) and agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_migration_change_and_falling_numbers">Effects of migration change and falling numbers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Effects of migration change and falling numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Changes in migration patterns can have serious implications for the surrounding environment. Butterflies are considered a keystone species; their residence in a habitat is a key indicator of the health of the ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Butterflies serve a multitude of purposes within an ecosystem including promoting genetic diversity<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through pollination and serving as a food source for many birds. </p><p>Agriculturally, butterflies are important pollinators and are responsible for pollinating many herbs are root vegetables. An estimated 90% of the food we consume is affected by pollination, and more directly, approximately 75% of flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of butterflies could lead to a decline in agricultural production and quality of crops, as the pollination of crops via butterflies promotes genetic diversity which can help crops adapt to fight off new pests and diseases. Agricultural practices like using pesticides and grazing<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have negative impact on butterfly numbers. </p><p>A loss in butterflies also means a loss in biological wealth. Butterflies are known as the "flying flower'<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as they are beautiful and carry a large aesthetic value. Dwindling numbers and the following decline of ecosystems will lead to greater loss of biological wealth over time, as without pollinators many plants will not grow or bloom. </p><p>Many scientists have analyzed data, revealing that the Monarch butterfly population has declined significantly since the 1980s and the 1990s. The causes of the recent decline are lodging, falling trees, global warming, reduction of milkweed to breeding places, and the drought in areas butterflies roost. However, the biggest limiting factors to the species' is climate change. Warmer temperatures over time are changing weather patterns and disrupting the usual balance of nature. This poses many risks to human beings and all other forms of life on Earth. </p><p>Some examples of threatened or endangered American butterflies include: </p> <ul><li>Karner Blue, they are most commonly found in the midwest and the cause of their decline is the loss of lupine plant.</li> <li>Palos Verdes, they are most commonly found in Los Angeles and their cause of decline is disruption of habitats by humans.</li> <li>Pawnee Montane Skipper, they are most commonly found in Colorado, their cause of decline is due to the destruction of habitat by humans .</li> <li>Oregon Silverspot, they are most commonly found in Oregon, their cause of decline is due to habitat loss.</li></ul> <p>The solutions are simple, the include but are not limited to educational material to educate young children, The Monarch Act of 2021, butterfly sanctuaries, limiting the use of pesticides and herbicides while farming, and planting the native milkweed. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butterflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterflies">Butterflies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_house_(conservatory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterfly house (conservatory)">Butterfly house (conservatory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_conservation_in_California" title="Monarch butterfly conservation in California">Monarch butterfly conservation in California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_migration" title="Monarch butterfly migration">Monarch butterfly migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hummingbird_hawk-moth" title="Hummingbird hawk-moth">Hummingbird hawk-moth</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKunte2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kunte, Krushnamegh (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biodiversitylab.ncbs.res.in/media/Kunte_DanaineMigration_2005_JBNHS.pdf">"Species composition, sex-ratios and movement patterns in Danaine butterfly migrations in Southern India"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society</i>. <b>102</b> (3) (published September–December 2005).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Bombay+Natural+History+Society&rft.atitle=Species+composition%2C+sex-ratios+and+movement+patterns+in+Danaine+butterfly+migrations+in+Southern+India&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kunte&rft.aufirst=Krushnamegh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiodiversitylab.ncbs.res.in%2Fmedia%2FKunte_DanaineMigration_2005_JBNHS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALepidoptera+migration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scoble_migration-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scoble_migration_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Scoble, MJ. (1995) "Migration" in <i>The Lepidoptera: form, function and diversity</i>. 68-71. Previewed in Google Books <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gnpd_5iNTiwC&dq=migration+in+Lepidoptera&pg=PA69">[1]</a> on 09 Oct 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meerman-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meerman_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meerman_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Meerman, J.C. (1987) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biological-diversity.info/Downloads/Meerman_pijlstaarten_1987.pdf">Dutch Sphingidae</a>" <i>Wet. meded. 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Gegear; Christine Merlin (September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2929297">"Navigational Mechanisms of Migrating Monarch Butterflies"</a>. <i>Trends in Neurosciences</i>. <b>33</b> (9): 399–406. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2010.04.004">10.1016/j.tins.2010.04.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2929297">2929297</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20627420">20627420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=Navigational+Mechanisms+of+Migrating+Monarch+Butterflies&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=399-406&rft.date=2010-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2929297%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20627420&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tins.2010.04.004&rft.au=Steven+M.+Reppert&rft.au=Robert+J.+Gegear&rft.au=Christine+Merlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2929297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALepidoptera+migration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Common, I. 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(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521440009" title="Special:BookSources/0521440009">0521440009</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2fMLTS1AVcC">Google Books</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Lempke, B.J.</span> <i>De Nederlandse Trekvlinders</i>, Zutphen (KNNV-Thieme), 1956. Tweede druk in 1972.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Kuchlein, J.H. and de Vos, R.</span> (1999). <i>Geannoteerde Naamlijst van de Nederlandse Vlinders</i>, Leiden (Backhuys).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.public.iastate.edu/~mariposa/species.html">Iastate.edu: Information about the migration of the genus <i>Vanessa</i></a></li> <li>•"Pollinators and Climate Change". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/pollinators-climateimpact.htm">https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/pollinators-climateimpact.htm</a>.</li> <li>Diaz, Jaclyn. “What Happened to the Butterflies? Climate, Deforestation Threaten Monarch Migration.” NPR, NPR, 26 February 2021, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.npr.org/2021/02/26/971650046/climate-change-deforestation-threaten-monarch-butterfly-migration">https://www.npr.org/2021/02/26/971650046/climate-change-deforestation-threaten-monarch-butterfly-migration</a></li> <li>•Priority Butterflies.” <i>Endangered Butterflies | Critically Endangered Butterfly Species</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://butterflywebsite.com/endangered-butterflies.cfm">https://butterflywebsite.com/endangered-butterflies.cfm</a>. 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href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour#Biological_swarming" title="Swarm behaviour">Biological swarming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal behavior">Collective animal behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droving" title="Droving">Droving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flock_(birds)" title="Flock (birds)">Flock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">flocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sort_sol" title="Sort sol">sort sol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">Herd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">herd behavior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">Locust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-species_foraging_flock" title="Mixed-species foraging flock">Mixed-species foraging flock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing_(animal_behavior)" title="Mobbing (animal behavior)">Mobbing behavior</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">feeding frenzy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pack_(canine)" title="Pack (canine)">Pack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pack_hunter" title="Pack hunter">pack hunter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_of_self-organization_in_ants" title="Patterns of self-organization in ants">Patterns of self-organization in ants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_mill" title="Ant mill">ant mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetry_breaking_of_escaping_ants" title="Symmetry breaking of escaping ants">symmetry breaking of escaping ants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">bait ball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarming behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(honey_bee)" title="Swarming (honey bee)">Swarming (honey bee)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_motility" title="Swarming motility">Swarming motility</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/140px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/210px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/280px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3756" data-file-height="2561" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_migration" title="Altitudinal migration">altitudinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration_tracking" title="Animal migration tracking">tracking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wildlife_tracking_technology" title="History of wildlife tracking technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coded_wire_tag" title="Coded wire tag">coded wire tag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Bird migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bird_migration_flyways" title="Category:Bird migration flyways">flyways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_migration_(birds)" title="Reverse migration (birds)">reverse migration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_migration" title="Cell migration">Cell migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Fish migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">diel vertical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessepsian_migration" title="Lessepsian migration">Lessepsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">salmon run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">sardine run</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homing_(biology)" title="Homing (biology)">Homing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natal_homing" title="Natal homing">natal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philopatry" title="Philopatry">philopatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">butterflies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_migration" title="Monarch butterfly migration">monarch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle_migration" title="Sea turtle migration">Sea turtle migration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour#Models" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">Agent-based models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_colony_optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization algorithm">Ant colony optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">Boids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_(simulation)" title="Swarm (simulation)">Swarm (simulation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_matter" title="Active matter">Active matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">Self-propelled particles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clustering_of_self-propelled_particles" title="Clustering of self-propelled particles">clustering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicsek_model" title="Vicsek model">Vicsek model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BIO-LGCA" title="BIO-LGCA">BIO-LGCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_robotics" title="Ant robotics">Ant robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbrion" title="Symbrion">Symbrion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralised_system" title="Decentralised system">Decentralised system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_size_measures" title="Group size measures">Group size measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predator_satiation" title="Predator satiation">Predator satiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_organization" title="Spatial organization">Spatial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Military swarming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_allocation_and_partitioning_of_social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Task allocation and partitioning of social insects">Task allocation and partitioning of social insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&oldid=1236008711">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lepidoptera_migration&oldid=1236008711</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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