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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Component_vs._demographic_Allee_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Component_vs._demographic_Allee_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Component vs. demographic Allee effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Component_vs._demographic_Allee_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strong_vs._weak_Allee_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strong_vs._weak_Allee_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Strong vs. weak Allee effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strong_vs._weak_Allee_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mechanisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecological_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ecological mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_induced" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_induced"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Human induced</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_induced-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Genetic mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographic_stochasticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographic_stochasticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Demographic stochasticity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographic_stochasticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_range-expanding_populations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_range-expanding_populations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects on range-expanding populations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_range-expanding_populations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematical_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mathematical models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematical_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allee_principles_of_aggregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allee_principles_of_aggregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Allee principles of aggregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allee_principles_of_aggregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%8A" title="تأثير ألي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تأثير ألي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Эфект Олі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эфект Олі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allee-Effekt" title="Allee-Effekt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Allee-Effekt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allee_efekt" title="Allee efekt – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Allee efekt" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecto_Allee" title="Efecto Allee – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Efecto Allee" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%A2%D9%84%DB%8C" title="اثر آلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثر آلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effet_Allee" title="Effet Allee – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Effet Allee" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%A8%EB%A6%AC_%ED%9A%A8%EA%B3%BC" title="앨리 효과 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="앨리 효과" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effetto_Allee" title="Effetto Allee – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Effetto Allee" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E5%8A%B9%E6%9E%9C" title="アリー効果 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アリー効果" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zasada_Alleego" title="Zasada Alleego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zasada Alleego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Эффект Олли – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эффект Олли" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alleejev_u%C4%8Dinek" title="Alleejev učinek – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Alleejev učinek" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Алејев ефекат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алејев ефекат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allee-effekten" title="Allee-effekten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Allee-effekten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Ефект Оллі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ефект Оллі" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Population phenomenon in biology</div> <p>The <b>Allee effect</b> is a phenomenon in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> characterized by a correlation between <a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">population size</a> or density and the mean individual <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> (often measured as <i><a href="/wiki/Per_capita" title="Per capita">per capita</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Population_growth_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Population growth rate">population growth rate</a>) of a population or species.<sup id="cite_ref-book1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_background">History and background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warder_Clyde_Allee" title="Warder Clyde Allee">Warder Clyde Allee</a></div> <p>Although the concept of Allee effect had no title at the time, it was first described in the 1930s by its namesake, <a href="/wiki/Warder_Clyde_Allee" title="Warder Clyde Allee">Warder Clyde Allee</a>. Through experimental studies, Allee was able to demonstrate that <a href="/wiki/Goldfish" title="Goldfish">goldfish</a> have a greater survival rate when there are more individuals within the tank.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led him to conclude that aggregation can improve the survival rate of individuals, and that cooperation may be crucial in the overall evolution of social structure. The term "Allee principle" was introduced in the 1950s, a time when the field of ecology was heavily focused on the role of competition among and within species.<sup id="cite_ref-book1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The classical view of population dynamics stated that due to competition for resources, a population will experience a reduced overall growth rate at higher density and increased growth rate at lower density. In other words, individuals in a population would be better off when there are fewer individuals around due to a limited amount of resources (see <a href="/wiki/Logistic_function#In_ecology:_modeling_population_growth" title="Logistic function">logistic growth</a>). However, the concept of the Allee effect introduced the idea that the reverse holds true when the <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</a> is low. Individuals within a species often require the assistance of another individual for more than simple reproductive reasons in order to persist. The most obvious example of this is observed in animals that hunt for prey or defend against predators as a group. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The generally accepted definition of Allee effect is positive density dependence, or the positive correlation between population density and individual fitness. It is sometimes referred to as "undercrowding" and it is analogous (or even considered synonymous by some) to "<a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">depensation</a>" in the field of <a href="/wiki/Fishery_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishery science">fishery sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-book1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Listed below are a few significant subcategories of the Allee effect used in the ecology literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Component_vs._demographic_Allee_effects">Component vs. demographic Allee effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Component vs. demographic Allee effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>component Allee effect</i> is the positive relationship between any measurable component of individual fitness and population density. The <i>demographic Allee effect</i> is the positive relationship between the overall individual fitness and population density. </p><p>The distinction between the two terms lies on the scale of the Allee effect: the presence of a demographic Allee effect suggests the presence of at least one component Allee effect, while the presence of a component Allee effect does not necessarily result in a demographic Allee effect. For example, cooperative hunting and the ability to more easily find mates, both influenced by population density, are component Allee effects, as they influence individual fitness of the population. At low population density, these component Allee effects would add up to produce an overall demographic Allee effect (increased fitness with higher population density). When population density reaches a high number, negative density dependence often offsets the component Allee effects through resource competition, thus erasing the demographic Allee effect.<sup id="cite_ref-kramer_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kramer-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allee effects might occur even at high population density for some species.<sup id="cite_ref-book1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strong_vs._weak_Allee_effects">Strong vs. weak Allee effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Strong vs. weak Allee effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_graph_showing_the_difference_between_strong_and_weak_Allee_effects.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/A_graph_showing_the_difference_between_strong_and_weak_Allee_effects.svg/220px-A_graph_showing_the_difference_between_strong_and_weak_Allee_effects.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="440" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/A_graph_showing_the_difference_between_strong_and_weak_Allee_effects.svg/330px-A_graph_showing_the_difference_between_strong_and_weak_Allee_effects.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/A_graph_showing_the_difference_between_strong_and_weak_Allee_effects.svg/440px-A_graph_showing_the_difference_between_strong_and_weak_Allee_effects.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Allee effects are classified by the nature of density dependence at low densities. If the population shrinks for low densities, there is a strong Allee effect. If the proliferation rate is positive and increasing then there is a weak Allee effect. The null hypothesis is that proliferation rates are positive but decreasing at low densities.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>strong Allee effect</i> is a demographic Allee effect with a critical population size or density. The <i>weak Allee effect</i> is a demographic Allee effect without a critical population size or density. </p><p>The distinction between the two terms is based on whether or not the population in question exhibits a <a href="/wiki/Extinction_threshold" title="Extinction threshold">critical population size or density</a>. A population exhibiting a weak Allee effect will possess a reduced per capita growth rate (directly related to individual fitness of the population) at lower population density or size. However, even at this low population size or density, the population will always exhibit a positive per capita growth rate. Meanwhile, a population exhibiting a strong Allee effect will have a critical population size or density under which the population growth rate becomes negative. Therefore, when the population density or size hits a number below this threshold, the population will be destined for extinction without any further aid. A strong Allee effect is often easier to demonstrate empirically using time series data, as one can pinpoint the population size or density at which per capita growth rate becomes negative.<sup id="cite_ref-book1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to its definition as the positive correlation between population density and average fitness, the mechanisms for which an Allee effect arises are therefore inherently tied to survival and reproduction. In general, these Allee effect mechanisms arise from cooperation or facilitation among individuals in the species. Examples of such cooperative behaviors include better mate finding, environmental conditioning, and group defense against predators. As these mechanisms are more-easily observable in the field, they tend to be more commonly associated with the Allee effect concept. Nevertheless, mechanisms of Allee effect that are less conspicuous such as <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sex_ratio" title="Sex ratio">sex ratio</a> bias should be considered as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_mechanism">Ecological mechanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ecological mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although numerous ecological mechanisms for Allee effects exist, the list of most commonly cited facilitative behaviors that contribute to Allee effects in the literature include: mate limitation, cooperative defense, cooperative feeding, and environmental conditioning.<sup id="cite_ref-kramer_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kramer-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these behaviors are classified in separate categories, they can overlap and tend to be context dependent (will operate only under certain conditions – for example, cooperative defense will only be useful when there are predators or competitors present). </p> <dl><dt>Mate limitation</dt> <dd>Mate limitation refers to the difficulty of finding a compatible and receptive mate for sexual reproduction at lower population size or density. This is generally a problem encountered by species that utilize passive reproduction and possess low mobility, such as <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>, plants and sessile invertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-Berec_L_2006_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berec_L_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, wind-pollinated plants would have a lower fitness in sparse populations due to the lower likelihood of pollen successfully landing on a conspecific.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Cooperative defense</dt> <dd>Another possible benefit of aggregation is to protect against predation by group anti-predator behavior. Many species exhibit higher rates of predator vigilance behavior per individual at lower density. This increased vigilance might result in less time and energy spent on foraging, thus reducing the fitness of an individual living in smaller groups.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One striking example of such shared vigilance is exhibited by <a href="/wiki/Meerkat" title="Meerkat">meerkats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, other species move in synchrony to confuse and avoid predators such as schools of <a href="/wiki/Sardines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sardines">sardines</a> and flocks of <a href="/wiki/Starlings" class="mw-redirect" title="Starlings">starlings</a>. The confusion effect that this herding behavior would have on predators will be more effective when more individuals are present.<sup id="cite_ref-book1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Cooperative feeding</dt> <dd>Certain species also require group foraging in order to survive. As an example, species that hunt in packs, such as the <a href="/wiki/African_wild_dog" title="African wild dog">African wild dogs</a>, would not be able to locate and capture prey as efficiently in smaller groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Berec_L_2006_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berec_L_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Environmental conditioning / habitat alteration</dt> <dd>Environmental conditioning generally refers to the mechanism in which individuals work together in order to improve their immediate or future environment for the benefit of the species. This alteration could involve changes in both abiotic (temperature, turbulence, etc.) or biotic (toxins, hormones, etc.) environmental factors. <a href="/wiki/Pacific_salmon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific salmon">Pacific salmon</a> present a potential case of such component Allee effects, where the density of spawning individuals can affect the survivability of the following generations. Spawning salmon carry marine nutrients they acquired from the ocean as they migrate to freshwater streams to reproduce, which in turn fertilize the surrounding habitat when they die, thus creating a more suitable habitat for the juveniles that would hatch in the following months.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While compelling, this case of environmental conditioning by salmon has not been rigorously supported by empirical evidence.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_induced">Human induced</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Human induced"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classic economic theory predicts that human exploitation of a population is unlikely to result in species extinction because the escalating costs to find the last few individuals will exceed the fixed price one achieves by selling the individuals on the market. However, when rare species are more desirable than common species, prices for rare species can exceed high harvest costs. This phenomenon can create an "anthropogenic" Allee effect where rare species go extinct but common species are sustainably harvested.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anthropogenic Allee effect has become a standard approach for conceptualizing the threat of economic markets on endangered species.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the original theory was posited using a one dimensional analysis of a two dimensional model.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It turns out that a two dimensional analysis yields an Allee curve in human exploiter and biological population space and that this curve separating species destined to extinction vs persistence can be complicated. Even very high population sizes can potentially pass through the originally proposed Allee thresholds on predestined paths to extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_mechanisms">Genetic mechanisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Genetic mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Declines in population size can result in a loss of genetic diversity, and owing to <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic variation</a>'s role in the evolutionary potential of a species, this could in turn result in an observable Allee effect. As a species' population becomes smaller, its gene pool will be reduced in size as well. One possible outcome from this <a href="/wiki/Population_bottleneck" title="Population bottleneck">genetic bottleneck</a> is a reduction in fitness of the species through the process of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This overall fitness decrease of a species is caused by an accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Mutation#Harmful_mutations" title="Mutation">deleterious mutations</a> throughout the population. Genetic variation within a species could range from beneficial to detrimental. Nevertheless, in a smaller sized gene pool, there is a higher chance of a stochastic event in which deleterious alleles become fixed (<a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>). While evolutionary theory states that expressed deleterious alleles should be purged through natural selection, purging would be most efficient only at eliminating alleles that are highly detrimental or harmful. Mildly deleterious alleles such as those that act later in life would be less likely to be removed by natural selection, and conversely, newly acquired beneficial mutations are more likely to be lost by random chance in smaller genetic pools than larger ones.<sup id="cite_ref-book1_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-book1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the long-term population persistence of several species with low genetic variation has recently prompted debate on the generality of inbreeding depression, there are various empirical evidences for genetic Allee effects.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such case was observed in the endangered <a href="/wiki/Florida_panther" title="Florida panther">Florida panther</a> (<i>Puma concolor coryi</i>). The Florida panther experienced a genetic bottleneck in the early 1990s where the population was reduced to ≈25 adult individuals. This reduction in genetic diversity was correlated with defects that include lower sperm quality, abnormal testosterone levels, cowlicks, and kinked tails.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, a genetic rescue plan was put in motion and several female pumas from Texas were introduced into the Florida population. This action quickly led to the reduction in the prevalence of the defects previously associated with inbreeding depression. Although the timescale for this inbreeding depression is larger than of those more immediate Allee effects, it has significant implications on the long-term persistence of a species. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographic_stochasticity">Demographic stochasticity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Demographic stochasticity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Demographic stochasticity refers to variability in population growth arising from sampling random births and deaths in a population of finite size.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In small populations, demographic stochasticity will decrease the population growth rate, causing an effect similar to the Allee effect,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which will increase the risk of population extinction. Whether or not demographic stochasticity can be considered a part of Allee effect is somewhat contentious however. The most current definition of Allee effect considers the correlation between population density and mean individual fitness. Therefore, random variation resulting from birth and death events would not be considered part of Allee effect as the increased risk of extinction is not a consequence of the changing fates of individuals within the population.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, when demographic stochasticity results in fluctuations of sex ratios, it arguably reduces the mean individual fitness as population declines. For example, a fluctuation in small population that causes a scarcity in one sex would in turn limit the access of mates for the opposite sex, decreasing the fitness of the individuals within the population. This type of Allee effect will likely be more prevalent in <a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamous</a> species than <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygynous</a> species.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_range-expanding_populations">Effects on range-expanding populations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects on range-expanding populations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Demographic and mathematical studies demonstrate that the existence of an Allee effect can reduce the speed of range expansion of a population<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can even prevent biological invasions.<sup id="cite_ref-Gar12_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gar12-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent results based on spatio-temporal models show that the Allee effect can also promote genetic diversity in expanding populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Roq12_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roq12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These results counteract commonly held notions that the Allee effect possesses net adverse consequences. Reducing the growth rate of the individuals ahead of the colonization front simultaneously reduces the speed of colonization and enables a diversity of genes coming from the core of the population to remain on the front. The Allee effect also affects the spatial distribution of diversity. Whereas spatio-temporal models which do not include an Allee effect lead to a vertical pattern of genetic diversity (i.e., a strongly structured spatial distribution of genetic fractions), those including an Allee effect lead to a "horizontal pattern" of genetic diversity (i.e., an absence of genetic differentiation in space).<sup id="cite_ref-Roq12_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roq12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematical_models">Mathematical models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mathematical models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A simple mathematical example of an Allee effect is given by the cubic growth model. </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=-rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{A}}\right)\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>N</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>N</mi> <mi>K</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=-rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{A}}\right)\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3e0f7ee4b52994073f4da5fadaebca1d8325a48" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:34.593ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=-rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{A}}\right)\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right),}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where the population has a negative growth rate for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0<N<A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>0</mn> <mo><</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo><</mo> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0<N<A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f976c7c5a04c85d51fa9462f09a0230e4e9738a4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.166ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0<N<A}"></span>, and a positive growth rate for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A<N<K}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo><</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo><</mo> <mi>K</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A<N<K}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5db45ef266340b533d6c5cb7534bed1f8739b2c7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:12.07ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A<N<K}"></span> (assuming <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0<A<K}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>0</mn> <mo><</mo> <mi>A</mi> <mo><</mo> <mi>K</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0<A<K}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/628f6ef67df6797abca4f1c062ea456ee94ad507" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.168ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0<A<K}"></span>). This is a departure from the <a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">logistic growth equation</a> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>N</mi> <mi>K</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8ecdd930969407c6b71b1e6bed468dd7a7554730" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:21.04ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><i>N</i> = population size;</dd> <dd><i>r</i> = <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">intrinsic rate of increase</a>;</dd> <dd><i>K</i> = <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a>;</dd> <dd><i>A</i> = critical point; and</dd> <dd><i>dN</i>/<i>dt</i> = rate of increase of the population.</dd></dl> <p>After dividing both sides of the equation by the population size N, in the logistic growth the left hand side of the equation represents the per capita population growth rate, which is dependent on the population size N, and decreases with increasing <i>N</i> throughout the entire range of population sizes. In contrast, when there is an Allee effect the per-capita growth rate increases with increasing <i>N</i> over some range of population sizes [0, <i>N</i>].<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spatio-temporal models can take Allee effect into account as well. A simple example is given by the reaction-diffusion model </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial N}{\partial t}}=D{\frac {\partial ^{2}N}{\partial x^{2}}}+rN\left({\frac {N}{A}}-1\right)\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>N</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>N</mi> <mi>K</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial N}{\partial t}}=D{\frac {\partial ^{2}N}{\partial x^{2}}}+rN\left({\frac {N}{A}}-1\right)\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bd0baf4375dbdd1996c42abeb66dbacdb001922a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:42.948ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial N}{\partial t}}=D{\frac {\partial ^{2}N}{\partial x^{2}}}+rN\left({\frac {N}{A}}-1\right)\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right),}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><i>D</i> = <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion coefficient">diffusion coefficient</a>;</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}={}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}={}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bc53dc757e065e640bcf76fa9adc92207664aa2f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:7.637ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}={}}"></span>one-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Laplace_operator" title="Laplace operator">Laplace operator</a>.</dd></dl> <p>When a population is made up of small sub-populations additional factors to the Allee effect arise. </p><p>If the sub-populations are subject to different environmental variations (i.e. separated enough that a disaster could occur at one sub-population site without affecting the other sub-populations) but still allow individuals to travel between sub-populations, then the individual sub-populations are more likely to go extinct than the total population. In the case of a catastrophic event decreasing numbers at a sub-population, individuals from another sub-population site may be able to repopulate the area. </p><p>If all sub-populations are subject to the same environmental variations (i.e. if a disaster affected one, it would affect them all) then <a href="/wiki/Population_fragmentation" title="Population fragmentation">fragmentation</a> of the population is detrimental to the population and increases extinction risk for the total population. In this case, the species receives none of the benefits of a small sub-population (loss of the sub-population is not catastrophic to the species as a whole) and all of the disadvantages (<a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a> depression, loss of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> and increased vulnerability to environmental instability) and the population would survive better unfragmented.<sup id="cite_ref-Gar12_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gar12-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allee_principles_of_aggregation">Allee principles of aggregation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Allee principles of aggregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Clumping results due to individuals aggregating in response to: local habitat or landscape differences, daily and seasonal weather changes, reproductive processes, or as the result of social attractions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-book1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-book1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-book1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-book1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-book1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-book1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-book1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-book1_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCourchampBerecGascoigne2008" class="citation book cs1">Courchamp F, Berec J, Gascoigne J (2008). <i>Allee effects in ecology and conservation</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956755-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956755-3"><bdi>978-0-19-956755-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allee+effects+in+ecology+and+conservation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956755-3&rft.aulast=Courchamp&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Berec%2C+J&rft.au=Gascoigne%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllee+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlleeBowen1932" class="citation journal cs1">Allee WC, Bowen E (1932). 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Ecology</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraillBrookBradshaw2010" class="citation web cs1">Traill LW, Brook BW, Bradshaw CJ (6 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Minimum_viable_population_size">"Minimum viable population size"</a>. <i>Ecology Theory</i>. The Encyclopedia of Earth<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-08-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Theory&rft.atitle=Minimum+viable+population+size&rft.date=2010-03-06&rft.aulast=Traill&rft.aufirst=LW&rft.au=Brook%2C+BW&rft.au=Bradshaw%2C+CJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eoearth.org%2Farticle%2FMinimum_viable_population_size&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllee+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlleeEmersonParkPark1949" class="citation journal cs1">Allee WC, Emerson AE, Park O, Park T, Schmidt KP (1949). <i>Principles of Animal Ecology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Principles+of+Animal+Ecology&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Allee&rft.aufirst=WC&rft.au=Emerson%2C+AE&rft.au=Park%2C+O&rft.au=Park%2C+T&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+KP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllee+effect" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_untitled_periodical" title="Category:CS1 maint: untitled periodical">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorseCrowder2005" class="citation book cs1">Norse EA, Crowder LB (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J-2JcCC_Yn0C&q=%27%27Marine+conservation+biology%22&pg=PP1">"The Allee Effect in the Sea"</a>. <i>Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity</i>. Island Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55963-662-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55963-662-9"><bdi>978-1-55963-662-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Allee+Effect+in+the+Sea&rft.btitle=Marine+conservation+biology%3A+the+science+of+maintaining+the+sea%27s+biodiversity&rft.pub=Island+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-55963-662-9&rft.aulast=Norse&rft.aufirst=EA&rft.au=Crowder%2C+LB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ-2JcCC_Yn0C%26q%3D%2527%2527Marine%2Bconservation%2Bbiology%2522%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAllee+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allee_effect&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Berryman, AA (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070703002733/http://classes.entom.wsu.edu/529/Allee.htm"><i>Underpopulation (Allee) effects</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">Entomology</a> Department, <a href="/wiki/Washington_State_University" title="Washington State University">Washington State University</a>. Retrieved 19 May 2008.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170331234501/http://warnercnr.colostate.edu/~gwhite/pva/fslide45.htm"><i>Allee effect</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado_State_University#Warner_College_of_Natural_Resources" title="Colorado State University">Warner College of Natural Resources</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado_State_University" title="Colorado State University">Colorado State University</a>. Retrieved 19 May 2008.</li> <li>Stephens, PA, Sutherland, WJ and Freckleton, RP (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060925070030/http://evolve.zoo.ox.ac.uk/publications.html?id=185">"What is the Allee effect?" (summary)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oikos_(journal)" title="Oikos (journal)"><i>Oikos</i></a>, <b>87</b>, 185–90, at Evolutionary Biology Group, Department of <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>. Updated 22 November 2005. Retrieved 19 May 2008</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://conservationbytes.com/2008/12/22/classics-the-allee-effect/"><i>Classics: the Allee effect</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Bird migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bird_migration_flyways" title="Category:Bird migration flyways">flyways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_migration_(birds)" title="Reverse migration (birds)">reverse migration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_migration" title="Cell migration">Cell migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Fish migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">diel vertical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessepsian_migration" title="Lessepsian migration">Lessepsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">salmon run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">sardine run</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homing_(biology)" title="Homing (biology)">Homing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natal_homing" title="Natal homing">natal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philopatry" title="Philopatry">philopatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera_migration" title="Lepidoptera migration">butterflies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_migration" title="Monarch butterfly migration">monarch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle_migration" title="Sea turtle migration">Sea turtle migration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour#Models" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">Agent-based models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_colony_optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization algorithm">Ant colony optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">Boids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_(simulation)" title="Swarm (simulation)">Swarm (simulation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_matter" title="Active matter">Active matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">Self-propelled particles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clustering_of_self-propelled_particles" title="Clustering of self-propelled particles">clustering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicsek_model" title="Vicsek model">Vicsek model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BIO-LGCA" title="BIO-LGCA">BIO-LGCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_robotics" title="Ant robotics">Ant robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbrion" title="Symbrion">Symbrion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralised_system" title="Decentralised system">Decentralised system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_size_measures" title="Group size measures">Group size measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predator_satiation" title="Predator satiation">Predator satiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_organization" title="Spatial organization">Spatial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Military swarming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_allocation_and_partitioning_of_social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Task allocation and partitioning of social insects">Task allocation and partitioning of social insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> 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