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<span>Photoluminescence spectroelectrochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photoluminescence_spectroelectrochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infrared_spectroelectrochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrared_spectroelectrochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Infrared spectroelectrochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infrared_spectroelectrochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Raman_spectroelectrochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Raman_spectroelectrochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Raman spectroelectrochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Raman_spectroelectrochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-X-ray_spectroelectrochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#X-ray_spectroelectrochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>X-ray spectroelectrochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-X-ray_spectroelectrochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroelectrochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electron_paramagnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electron_paramagnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroelectrochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electron_paramagnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages_and_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_and_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Advantages and applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_and_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tipos_SEC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Tipos_SEC.png/450px-Tipos_SEC.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Tipos_SEC.png/675px-Tipos_SEC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Tipos_SEC.png/900px-Tipos_SEC.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques that form the spectroelectrochemistry</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Spectroelectrochemistry</b> (<b>SEC</b>) is a set of multi-response analytical techniques in which complementary chemical information (<a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscopic">spectroscopic</a>) is obtained in a single experiment. Spectroelectrochemistry provides a whole vision of the phenomena that take place in the electrode process.<sup id="cite_ref-Uno_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dos_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tres_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tres-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cuatro_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cuatro-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cinco_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cinco-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first spectroelectrochemical experiment was carried out by <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Kuwana" title="Theodore Kuwana">Theodore Kuwana</a>, PhD, in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-Seis_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main objective of spectroelectrochemical experiments is to obtain simultaneous, time-resolved and in-situ <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscopic">spectroscopic</a> information on reactions taking place on the electrode surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Uno_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The base of the technique consist in studying the interaction of a beam of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> with the compounds involved in these reactions. The changes of the optical and electrical signal allow us to understand the evolution of the electrode process. </p><p>The techniques on which the spectroelectrochemistry is based are: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a></b>, which studies the interaction between electrical energy and chemical changes. This technique allows us to analyse reactions that involve electron transfer processes (<a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reactions).<sup id="cite_ref-Siete_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siete-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></b>, which studies the interaction between <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> and matter (absorption, dispersion or emission).<sup id="cite_ref-Ocho_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocho-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nueve_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nueve-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Spectroelectrochemistry provides molecular, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic">thermodynamic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic</a> information of reagents, products and/or intermediates involved in the electron transfer process.<sup id="cite_ref-Uno_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dos_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tres_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tres-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cuatro_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cuatro-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cinco_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cinco-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_spectroelectrochemical_techniques">Classification of spectroelectrochemical techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification of spectroelectrochemical techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are different <b>spectroelectrochemical techniques</b> based on the combination of spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques. Regarding electrochemistry, the most common techniques used are: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chronoamperometry" title="Chronoamperometry">Chronoamperometry</a></b>, which measures current intensity as a function of time by applying a constant difference of potential to the working electrode.</li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chronopotentiometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronopotentiometry">Chronopotentiometry</a></b>, which measures the difference of potential as a function of time by applying a constant current.</li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Voltammetry" title="Voltammetry">Voltammetry</a></b>, which measures the change of current as a function of the linear change of the working electrode potential.</li></ul> <ul><li><b>Pulse techniques</b>, which measure the change of current as a function of difference of potential, applying pulse potential functions to the working electrode.</li></ul> <p>The general classification of the spectroelectrochemical techniques is based on the spectroscopic technique chosen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultraviolet-visible_absorption_spectroelectrochemistry">Ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroelectrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/UV-Vis_absorption_spectroelectrochemistry" title="UV-Vis absorption spectroelectrochemistry"><b>Ultraviolet-visible</b>(<b>UV-Vis</b>) <b>absorption</b> spectroelectrochemistry</a> is a technique that studies the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> in the UV-Vis regions of the spectrum, providing molecular information related to the electronic levels of molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-Diez_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diez-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It provides qualitative as well as quantitative information. UV-Vis spectroelectrochemistry helps to characterize compounds and materials, determines concentrations and different parameters such as absorptivity coefficients, diffusion coefficients, formal potentials or electron transfer rates.<sup id="cite_ref-Once_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Once-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Doce_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doce-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photoluminescence_spectroelectrochemistry">Photoluminescence spectroelectrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Photoluminescence spectroelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Photoluminescence" title="Photoluminescence">Photoluminescence</a></b> (PL) is a phenomenon related to the ability of some compounds that, after absorbing specific <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>, relax to a lower energy state through emission of <a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a>. This spectroelectrochemical technique is limited to those compounds with <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent">fluorescent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Luminescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Luminescent">luminescent</a> properties. The experiments are strongly interfered by <a href="/wiki/Available_light" title="Available light">ambient light</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Uno_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique provides structural information and quantitative information with great <a href="/wiki/Detection_limit" title="Detection limit">detection limits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocho_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocho-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infrared_spectroelectrochemistry">Infrared spectroelectrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Infrared spectroelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">Infrared spectroscopy</a></b> is based on the fact that molecules absorb <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> at characteristic frequencies related to their vibrational structure. <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a> (IR) spectroelectrochemistry is a technique that allows the characterization of molecules based on the resistance, stiffness and number of bonds present. It also detects the presence of compounds, determines the concentration of species during a reaction, the structure of compounds, the properties of the chemical bonds, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Diez_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diez-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Raman_spectroelectrochemistry">Raman spectroelectrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Raman spectroelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Raman spectroelectrochemistry</b> is based on the <a href="/wiki/Inelastic_scattering" title="Inelastic scattering">inelastic scattering</a> or <a href="/wiki/Raman_scattering" title="Raman scattering">Raman scattering</a> of <a href="/wiki/Monochromatic_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic light">monochromatic light</a> when it strikes upon a specific molecule, providing information about vibrational energy of that molecule. Raman spectrum provides highly specific information about the structure and composition of the molecules, such as a true fingerprint of them.<sup id="cite_ref-Uno_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been extensively used to study single wall carbon nanotubes<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and graphene.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="X-ray_spectroelectrochemistry">X-ray spectroelectrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: X-ray spectroelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>X-ray spectroelectrochemistry</b> is a technique that studies the interaction of high-energy radiation with matter during an electrode process. <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a> can originate absorption, emission or scattering phenomena, allowing to perform both quantitative and qualitative analysis depending on the phenomenon taking place.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocho_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocho-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nueve_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nueve-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diez_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diez-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All these processes involve <a href="/wiki/Electronic_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic transition">electronic transitions</a> in the inner layers of the atoms involved. Particularly, it is interesting to study the processes of <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(chemistry)" title="Absorption (chemistry)">absorption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectrum" title="Emission spectrum">emission</a> that take place during an electron transfer reaction. In these processes, the promotion or relaxation of an electron can occur between an outer shell and an inner shell of the atom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry">Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroelectrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">Nuclear magnetic resonance</a></b> (NMR) is a technique used to obtain physical, chemical, electronic and structural information about molecules due to the chemical shift of the resonance frequencies of nuclear <a href="/wiki/Spins" title="Spins">spins</a> in the sample. Its combination with electrochemical techniques can provide detailed and quantitative information about the functional groups, topology, dynamics and the three-dimensional structure of molecules in solution during a charge transfer process. The area under an <a href="/wiki/NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR">NMR</a> peak is related to the ratio of the number of turns involved and the peak integrals to determine the composition quantitatively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electron_paramagnetic_resonance_spectroelectrochemistry">Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroelectrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroelectrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">Electron paramagnetic resonance</a></b> (EPR) is a technique that allows the detection of <a href="/wiki/Free_radicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radicals">free radicals</a> formed in chemical or biological systems. In addition, it studies the symmetry and <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electronic distribution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramagnetic">paramagnetic</a> ions. This is a highly specific technique because the magnetic parameters are characteristic of each ion or <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radical</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trece_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trece-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physical principles of this technique are analogous to those of <a href="/wiki/NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR">NMR</a>, but in the case of <a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">EPR</a>, electronic spins are excited instead of nuclear, that is interesting in certain electrode reactions. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrea_Santiuste_Lydia_Garc%C3%ADa_Cristina_Moreno.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Andrea_Santiuste_Lydia_Garc%C3%ADa_Cristina_Moreno.png/400px-Andrea_Santiuste_Lydia_Garc%C3%ADa_Cristina_Moreno.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Andrea_Santiuste_Lydia_Garc%C3%ADa_Cristina_Moreno.png/600px-Andrea_Santiuste_Lydia_Garc%C3%ADa_Cristina_Moreno.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Andrea_Santiuste_Lydia_Garc%C3%ADa_Cristina_Moreno.png/800px-Andrea_Santiuste_Lydia_Garc%C3%ADa_Cristina_Moreno.png 2x" data-file-width="1633" data-file-height="1135" /></a><figcaption>Screen-printed electrode with some of the different types of SEC measurements (absorption, emission, Raman scattering). The figure shows a system of three electrodes: the central disc, corresponding to the working electrode; the semicircle with the largest arc, corresponding to the auxiliary or counter electrode; and the semicircle with the smallest arc, the reference electrode. </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_and_applications">Advantages and applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Advantages and applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The versatility of spectroelectrochemistry is increasing due to the possibility of using several <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> techniques in different spectral regions depending on the purpose of the study and the information of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-Doce_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doce-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main advantages of spectroelectrochemical techniques are: </p> <ul><li>The simultaneous information is obtained by different techniques in a single experiment, increasing the selectivity and the sensitivity.</li></ul> <ul><li>Both qualitative and quantitative information can be obtained.</li></ul> <ul><li>The possibility of working with a small amount of sample, saving it for future analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Uno_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Due to the high versatility of the technique, the field of applications is considerably wide.<sup id="cite_ref-Uno_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dos_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tres_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tres-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cuatro_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cuatro-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cinco_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cinco-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Catorce_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catorce-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Study of <a href="/wiki/Reaction_mechanism" title="Reaction mechanism">reaction mechanisms</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_and_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation and reduction">oxidation and reduction</a> of the species involved in the reaction can be observed, as well as the generation of <a href="/wiki/Reaction_intermediates" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction intermediates">reaction intermediates</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Characterization of organic and inorganic materials, that allow to understand the structure and properties of the material when is perturbed by a signal (electric, light, etc.).</li></ul> <ul><li>Development of spectroelectrochemical sensors, which are based on optical and electrical responses, capable of providing two independent signals about the same sample and offering a self-validated determination.</li></ul> <ul><li>Study of <a href="/wiki/Catalysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalysts">catalysts</a>, obtaining relationships between the <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical">electrochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscopic">spectroscopic</a> properties and their photochemical and photophysical behaviour.</li></ul> <ul><li>Study different processes and molecules in biotechnology, biochemistry or medicine.</li></ul> <ul><li>Determine specific properties and characteristics of new materials in fields such as energy or <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroelectrochemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Uno-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Uno_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Uno_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Uno_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGaroz-RuizPerales-RondonHerasColina2019" class="citation journal cs1">Garoz-Ruiz, Jesus; Perales-Rondon, Juan Victor; Heras, Aranzazu; Colina, Alvaro (5 April 2019). 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"The Influence of Strong Electron and Hole Doping on the Raman Intensity of Chemical Vapor-Deposition Graphene". <i>ACS Nano</i>. <b>4</b> (10): 6055–6063. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnn1010914">10.1021/nn1010914</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20931995">20931995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Nano&rft.atitle=The+Influence+of+Strong+Electron+and+Hole+Doping+on+the+Raman+Intensity+of+Chemical+Vapor-Deposition+Graphene&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=6055-6063&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fnn1010914&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20931995&rft.aulast=Kalbac&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Reina-Cecco%2C+Alfonso&rft.au=Farhat%2C+Hootan&rft.au=Kong%2C+Jing&rft.au=Kavan%2C+Ladislav&rft.au=Dresselhaus%2C+Mildred+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpectroelectrochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trece-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trece_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrudtvig1995" class="citation book cs1">Brudtvig, Gary W. (1995). "Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy". <i>Biochemical Spectroscopy</i>. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 246. pp. 536–554. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0076-6879%2895%2946024-1">10.1016/0076-6879(95)46024-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-182147-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-182147-0"><bdi>978-0-12-182147-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7752937">7752937</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electron+paramagnetic+resonance+spectroscopy&rft.btitle=Biochemical+Spectroscopy&rft.series=Methods+in+Enzymology&rft.pages=536-554&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7752937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0076-6879%2895%2946024-1&rft.isbn=978-0-12-182147-0&rft.aulast=Brudtvig&rft.aufirst=Gary+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpectroelectrochemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Catorce-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Catorce_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMortimer2016" class="citation book cs1">Mortimer, R.J. 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title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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