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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Side-scan_sonar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Side-scan_sonar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Side-scan sonar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Side-scan_sonar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multibeam_bathymetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multibeam_bathymetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Multibeam bathymetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multibeam_bathymetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-bottom_profiler" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-bottom_profiler"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Sub-bottom profiler </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-bottom_profiler-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_magnetometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_magnetometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Marine magnetometry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_magnetometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plate_tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plate_tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Plate tectonics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plate_tectonics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Plate tectonics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Plate_tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mid-ocean_ridge_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-ocean_ridge_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Mid-ocean ridge system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-ocean_ridge_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subduction_zones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subduction_zones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Subduction zones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subduction_zones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mariana_Trench" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mariana_Trench"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Mariana Trench </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mariana_Trench-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ring_of_Fire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ring_of_Fire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Ring of Fire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ring_of_Fire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Economic benefits </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economic_benefits-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economic benefits subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economic_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Resource_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resource_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Resource exploration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resource_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Offshore_energy_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Offshore_energy_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Offshore energy development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Offshore_energy_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_impacts_and_mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_impacts_and_mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Environmental impacts and mitigation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_impacts_and_mitigation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Environmental impacts and mitigation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_impacts_and_mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Habitat_mapping_and_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitat_mapping_and_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Habitat mapping and conservation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitat_mapping_and_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sediment_transportation_and_coastal_erosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sediment_transportation_and_coastal_erosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Sediment transportation and coastal erosion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sediment_transportation_and_coastal_erosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_hazard_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_hazard_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Natural hazard assessment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_hazard_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Future research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Future_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Future research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Future_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seafloor_mapping_and_bathymetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seafloor_mapping_and_bathymetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Seafloor mapping and bathymetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seafloor_mapping_and_bathymetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Marine geology</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" > 38 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="علم المحيطات الجيولوجية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المحيطات الجيولوجية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%99niz_geologiyas%C4%B1" title="Dəniz geologiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dəniz geologiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Морска геология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Морска геология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morska_geologija" title="Morska geologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Morska geologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologia_marina" title="Geologia marina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geologia marina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%C5%99sk%C3%A1_geologie" title="Mořská geologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mořská geologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maringeologi" title="Maringeologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Maringeologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeresgeologie" title="Meeresgeologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Meeresgeologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meregeoloogia" title="Meregeoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Meregeoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%89%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γεωλογική ωκεανογραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γεωλογική ωκεανογραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADa_marina" title="Geología marina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geología marina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زمین‌شناسی دریایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زمین‌شناسی دریایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ologie_marine" title="Géologie marine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géologie marine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%96%91%EC%A7%80%EC%A7%88%ED%95%99" title="해양지질학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해양지질학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morska_geologija" title="Morska geologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Morska geologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologi_kelautan" title="Geologi kelautan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geologi kelautan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologia_marina" title="Geologia marina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geologia marina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="גאולוגיה ימית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאולוגיה ימית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B0_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಸಾಗರ ಭೂವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಾಗರ ಭೂವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%A6%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ზღვის გეოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზღვის გეოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="सागरी भूगोल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सागरी भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C4%81i-i%C3%B2ng_D%C3%AA-c%C3%A9k-h%C5%8Fk" title="Hāi-iòng Dê-cék-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hāi-iòng Dê-cék-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E5%9C%B0%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%A6" title="海洋地質学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海洋地質学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maringeologi" title="Maringeologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Maringeologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maringeologi" title="Maringeologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Maringeologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengiz_geologiyasi" title="Dengiz geologiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dengiz geologiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologia_morza" title="Geologia morza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geologia morza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologia_marinha" title="Geologia marinha – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geologia marinha" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Морская геология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Морская геология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morsk%C3%A1_geol%C3%B3gia" title="Morská geológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Morská geológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merigeologia" title="Merigeologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Merigeologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maringeologi" title="Maringeologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Maringeologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5" title="ธรณีวิทยาทางทะเล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ธรณีวิทยาทางทะเล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%91%D3%A3" title="Заминшиносии дарёӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Заминшиносии дарёӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniz_jeolojisi" title="Deniz jeolojisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deniz jeolojisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Marine Geology" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Marine_Geology_(journal)" title="Marine Geology (journal)">Marine Geology (journal)</a>.</div> Marine geology or geological oceanography is the study of the history and structure of the ocean floor. It involves <a href="/wiki/Geophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geophysical">geophysical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">sedimentological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontological">paleontological</a> investigations of the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coastal_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal zone">coastal zone</a>. Marine geology has strong ties to <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysics</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">physical oceanography</a>. Marine geological studies were of extreme importance in providing the critical evidence for <a href="/wiki/Sea_floor_spreading" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea floor spreading">sea floor spreading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> in the years following World War II. The deep ocean floor is the last essentially unexplored frontier and detailed mapping in support of economic (<a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>), natural disaster mitigation, and academic objectives. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The study of marine geology dates back to the late 1800s during the 4-year HMS <a href="/wiki/Challenger_expedition" title="Challenger expedition">Challenger expedition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-2">[2]</a> HMS Challenger hosted nearly 250 people, including sailors, engineers, carpenters, marines, officers, and a 6-person team of scientists, led by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wyville_Thomson" title="Charles Wyville Thomson">Charles Wyville Thomson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-3">[3]</a> The scientists' goal was to prove that there was life in the deepest parts of the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-:22-3">[3]</a> Using a sounding rope, dropped over the edge of the ship, the team was able to capture ample amounts of data. Part of their discovery was that the deepest part of the ocean was not in the middle.<a href="#cite_note-:12-2">[2]</a> These were some of the first records of the mid-ocean ridge system.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Prior to World War II, marine geology grew as a scientific discipline. During the early 20th century, organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) were created to support efforts in the field.<a href="#cite_note-:32-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-5">[5]</a> With Scripps being located on the west coast of North America and WHOI on the east coast, the study of marine geology became much more accessible.<a href="#cite_note-:32-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-5">[5]</a> In the 1950s, marine geology had one of the most significant discoveries, the <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a> system. After ships were equipped with sonar sensors, they travelled back and forth across the Atlantic Ocean collecting observations of the sea floor.<a href="#cite_note-:52-6">[6]</a> In 1953, the cartographer <a href="/wiki/Marie_Tharp" title="Marie Tharp">Marie Tharp</a> generated the first three-dimensional relief map of the ocean floor which proved there was an underwater mountain range in the middle of the Atlantic, along with the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The survey data was large step towards many more discoveries about the geology of the sea.<a href="#cite_note-:52-6">[6]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/220px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/330px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg/440px-Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>A theoretical model of the formation of magnetic striping. New oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor spreading.</figcaption></figure> In 1960, the American geophysicist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hammond_Hess" title="Harry Hammond Hess">Harry H. Hess</a> hypothesized that the seafloor was spreading from the mid-ocean ridge system.<a href="#cite_note-:52-6">[6]</a> With support from the maps of the sea floor, and the recently developed theory of plate tectonics and <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, Hess was able to prove that the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a> continuously released molten rock from the mid-ocean ridge and that the molten rock then solidified, causing the boundary between the two <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plates</a> to <a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">diverge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:11-8">[8]</a> A geomagnetic survey was conducted that supported this theory. The survey was composed of scientists using <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometers</a> to measure the magnetism of the <a href="/wiki/Basalt_Rocks" title="Basalt Rocks">basalt rock</a> protruding from the mid-ocean ridge.<a href="#cite_note-:52-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-9">[9]</a> They discovered that on either side of the ridge, symmetrical "strips" were found as the polarity of the planet would change over time.<a href="#cite_note-:52-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-9">[9]</a> This proved that <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> existed. In later years, newer technology was able to date the rocks and identified that rocks closest to the ridge were younger than the rocks near the coasts of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hemisphere" title="Eastern Hemisphere">Eastern Hemispheres</a> land. At present, marine geology focuses on geological hazards, environmental conditions, habitats, natural resources, and energy and mining projects.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> There are multiple methods for collecting data from the sea floor without physically dispatching humans or machines to the bottom of the ocean. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Side-scan_sonar">Side-scan sonar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Side-scan sonar">edit</a>]</div> A common method of collecting imagery of the sea floor is <a href="/wiki/Side-scan_sonar" title="Side-scan sonar">side-scan sonar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:72-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-:82-12">[12]</a> Developed in the late 1960s, the purpose of the survey method is to use active sonar systems on the sea floor to detect and develop images of objects.<a href="#cite_note-:72-11">[11]</a> The physical sensors of the sonar device are known as a transducer array and they are mounted onto the hull of a vessel which sends acoustic pulses that reflect off the seafloor and received by the sensors. The imaging can help determine the seafloors composition as harder objects generate a stronger reflectance and appear dark on the returned image. Softer materials such as sand and mud cannot reflect the arrays pulses as well so they appear lighter on the image. This information can be analyzed by specialist to determine <a href="/wiki/Outcrop" title="Outcrop">outcrops</a> of rock beneath the surface of the water.<a href="#cite_note-:82-12">[12]</a> This method is less expensive than releasing a vehicle to take photographs of the sea floor, and requires less time.<a href="#cite_note-:82-12">[12]</a> The side-scan sonar is useful for scientists as it is a quick and efficient way of collecting imagery of the sea floor, but it cannot measure other factors, such as depth.<a href="#cite_note-:72-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-:82-12">[12]</a> Therefore, other depth measuring sonar devices are typically accompanied with the side-scan sonar to generate a more detailed survey.<a href="#cite_note-:72-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multibeam_bathymetry">Multibeam bathymetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Multibeam bathymetry">edit</a>]</div> Similarly to side-scan sonar, multibeam bathymetry uses a transducer array to send and receive sound waves in order to detect objects located on the sea floor.<a href="#cite_note-:92-13">[13]</a> Unlike side-scan sonar, scientists are able to determine multiple types of measurements from the recordings and make hypothesis' on the data collected. By understanding the speed at which sound will travel in the water, scientists can calculate the two way travel time from the ship's sensor to the seafloor and back to the ship. These calculations will determine to depth of the sea floor in that area.<a href="#cite_note-:92-13">[13]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uracas_3d_hires.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Uracas_3d_hires.jpg/220px-Uracas_3d_hires.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Uracas_3d_hires.jpg/330px-Uracas_3d_hires.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Uracas_3d_hires.jpg/440px-Uracas_3d_hires.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3013" data-file-height="2054" /></a><figcaption>EM300 bathymetry of the three submarine volcanoes in the vicinity of Farallon de Pajaros Island. The data were collected using the EM300 multibeam system mounted on the hull of the R/V Thompson. The grid-cell size is 35 meters. The image is 2 times vertically exaggerated.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Backscatter" title="Backscatter">Backscatter</a> is another measurement used to determine the intensity of the sound that is returned to the sensor.<a href="#cite_note-:92-13">[13]</a> This information can provide insight on the geological makeup and objects of the sea floor as well as objects located within the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a>. Objects in the water column can include structures from shipwrecks, dense biology, and bubble plumes. The importance of objects in the water column to marine geology is identifying specific features as bubble plumes can indicate the presence of <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:92-13">[13]</a> There are limitations to this technique. The distance between the sea floor and the sensor is related to the resolution of the map being created.<a href="#cite_note-:92-13">[13]</a> The closer the sensor is the sea floor, the higher the resolution will be and the farther away the sensor is to the sea floor, the lower the resolution will be. Therefore, it is common for <a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely operated vehicles</a> (ROVs) and <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_underwater_vehicle" title="Autonomous underwater vehicle">autonomous underwater vehicles</a> (AUVs) to be equipped with the multibeam sensor or for the sensor to be towed by the ship its self. This ensures that the resolution of the collected data will be high enough for proper analysis.<a href="#cite_note-:92-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-bottom_profiler">Sub-bottom profiler</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sub-bottom profiler">edit</a>]</div> A sub-bottom profiler is another sonar system used in <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">geophysical surveys</a> of the sea floor to not only map depth, but also to map beneath the sea floor.<a href="#cite_note-:102-14">[14]</a> Mounted to the hull of a ship, the system releases low-frequency pulses which penetrate the surface of the sea floor and are reflected by sediments in the sub-surface. Some sensors can reach over 1000 meters below the surface of the sea floor, giving hydrographers a detailed view of the marine geological environment.<a href="#cite_note-:12-2">[2]</a> Many sub-bottom profilers can emit multiple frequencies of sound to record data on a multitude of <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> and objects on and below the sea floor. The returned data is collected by computers and with aid from hydrographers, can create <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(geology)" title="Cross section (geology)">cross-sections</a> of the terrain below the sea floor.<a href="#cite_note-:102-14">[14]</a> The resolution of the data also allows scientists to identify geological features such as <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_Ridge" title="Volcanic Ridge">volcanic ridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submarine_landslide" title="Submarine landslide">underwater landslides</a>, ancient river beds, and other features.<a href="#cite_note-:102-14">[14]</a> The benefit of the sub-bottom profiler is its capability to record information on the surface and below the seafloor. When accompanied with geophysical data from <a href="/wiki/Multibeam_echosounder" title="Multibeam echosounder">multibeam sonar</a> and physical data from rock and <a href="/wiki/Core_sample" title="Core sample">core samples</a>, the sub-bottom profiles delivers insights on the location and morphology of submarine landslide, identifies how oceanic gasses travel through the subsurface, discover artifacts from cultural heritages, understand sediment deposition, and more.<a href="#cite_note-:102-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_magnetometry">Marine magnetometry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Marine magnetometry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg/220px-Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg/330px-Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg/440px-Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="2464" /></a><figcaption>A magnetometer used by the United States Navy in 2004.</figcaption></figure> Magnetometry is the process of measuring changes in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:13-15">[15]</a> The outer layer of the Earth's core is liquid and mostly made up of magnetic <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> When the Earth turns on its axis, the metals release electrical currents which generate magnetic fields.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> These fields can then be measured to reveal geological subseafloor structures.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> This method is especially useful in marine exploration and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> as it can not only characterize geological features on the seafloor but can survey aircraft and ship wrecks deep under the sea.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometer</a> is the main piece of equipment deployed, which is typically towed behind a vessel or mounted to a <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_underwater_vehicle" title="Autonomous underwater vehicle">AUV</a>. It is able to measure the changes in fields of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> and corresponding geolocation to create maps.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometer</a> evaluates the magnetic presence generally every second, or one <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a>, but can be calibrated to measure at different speeds depending on the study. The readings will be consistent until the device detects <a href="/wiki/Ferrous" title="Ferrous">ferrous</a> material.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> This could range from a <a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">ship's hull</a> to ferrous <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> at the seafloor. The sudden change in magnetism can be analyzed on the magnetometer's display.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The benefit to a magnetometer compared to sonar devices is its ability to detect artifacts and geological features on top and underneath the seafloor.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Because the magnetometer is a passive sensor, and does not emit waves, its exploration depth is unlimited.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Although, in most studies, the resolution and certainty of the data collected is dependent on the distance from the device. The closer the device is to a ferrous object, the better the data collected. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plate_tectonics">Plate tectonics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Plate tectonics">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plates_(2022).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg/334px-Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="334" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg/501px-Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg/668px-Tectonic_plates_%282022%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="975" /></a><figcaption>Map of Earth's principal <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plates</a>.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></div> Plate tectonics is a scientific theory developed in the 1960s that explains major land form events, such as <a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">mountain building</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, and mid-ocean ridge systems.<a href="#cite_note-:14-26">[26]</a> The idea is that Earth's most outer layer, known as the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, that is made up of the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> is divided into extensive plates of rock.<a href="#cite_note-:11-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-26">[26]</a> These plates sit on top of partially molten layer of rock known as the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a> and move relative to each other due to convection between the asthenosphere and lithosphere.<a href="#cite_note-:14-26">[26]</a> The speed at which the plates move ranges between 2 and 15 centimeters per year. Why this theory is so significant is the interaction between the tectonic plates explains many geological formations.<a href="#cite_note-:11-8">[8]</a> In regards to marine geology, the movement of the plates explains <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> and mid-ocean ridge systems, <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zones</a> and trenches, volcanism and hydrothermal vents, and more. There are three major types of tectonic plate boundaries; <a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">divergent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform boundaries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-27">[27]</a> Divergent plate boundaries are when two tectonic plates move away from each other, convergent plate boundaries are when two plates move towards each other, and transform plate boundaries are when two plates slide sideways past each other. Each boundary type is associated with different geological marine features. Divergent plates are the cause for mid-ocean ridge systems while convergent plates are responsible for subduction zones and the creation of deep ocean trenches. Transform boundaries cause earthquakes, displacement of rock, and crustal deformation.<a href="#cite_note-:11-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-ocean_ridge_system">Mid-ocean ridge system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mid-ocean ridge system">edit</a>]</div> Divergent plates are directly responsible for the largest mountain range on Earth, known as the mid-ocean ridge system.<a href="#cite_note-:16-29">[29]</a> At nearly 60,000 km long, the mid-ocean ridge is an extensive chain of underwater volcanic mountains that spans the globe.<a href="#cite_note-:17-30">[30]</a> Centralized in the oceans, this unique geological formation houses a collection of <a href="/wiki/Ridge" title="Ridge">ridges</a>, rifts, <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">fault zones</a>, and other geological features.<a href="#cite_note-:16-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-30">[30]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> is a consequence of the diverging <a href="/wiki/North_American_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Plate">North American</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/African_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="African Plate">African</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_American_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="South American Plate">South American Plates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:18-31">[31]</a> It began forming over 200 million years ago when the American, African and European continents were still connected, forming the <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:19-32">[32]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, the ridge system became more defined and in the last 75 years, it has been intensely studied. The <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> was also served as the birthplace for the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:20-33">[33]</a> As volcanic activity produces new <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> along the ridge, the two plates diverge from each other pulling up the new ocean floor from below the crust.<a href="#cite_note-:18-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-:19-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:20-33">[33]</a> Along the <a href="/wiki/Continent-ocean_boundary" title="Continent-ocean boundary">ocean-continent</a> border of the tectonic plates, the oceanic plates subduct underneath the continental plates, creating some of the deepest marine trenches in the world <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subduction-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/416px-Subduction-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="416" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/624px-Subduction-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/832px-Subduction-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> process of <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subduction_zones">Subduction zones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subduction zones">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction zones</a> are caused when two tectonic plates <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">converge</a> on each other and one plate is pushed beneath the other.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In a marine setting, this typically occurs when the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> subducts below the <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a>, resulting in volcanic activity and the development of deep ocean trenches.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Marine geology focuses on mapping and understanding how these processes function. Renowned geological features created through subduction zones include the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mariana_Trench">Mariana Trench</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mariana Trench">edit</a>]</div> The Mariana Trench is the deepest known submarine trench, and the deepest location in the Earth's crust itself.<a href="#cite_note-:21-38">[38]</a> It is a <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zone">subduction zone</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Plate">Pacific Plate</a> is being subducted under the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariana Plate">Mariana Plate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:22-3">[3]</a> At the deepest point, the trench is nearly 11,000 m deep (almost 36,000 feet).<a href="#cite_note-:21-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-3">[3]</a> This is further below sea level than <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a> is above sea level, by over 2 kilometers. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg/220px-Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg/330px-Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg/440px-Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the Pacific Basin form the so-called Pacific Ring of fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ring_of_Fire">Ring of Fire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ring of Fire">edit</a>]</div> The Ring of Fire is situated around the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, created from several converging plate boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Its intense <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> activity poses a major threat for disastrous earthquakes, <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>, and volcanic eruptions.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Any <a href="/wiki/Early_warning_system" title="Early warning system">early warning systems</a> and mitigation techniques for these disastrous events will require marine geology of coastal and <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a> environments to predict events.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_benefits">Economic benefits</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economic benefits">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resource_exploration">Resource exploration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Resource exploration">edit</a>]</div> Marine geology has several methods of detecting geological features below the sea.<a href="#cite_note-:12-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:92-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:102-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-15">[15]</a> One of the economic benefits of geological surveying of the seafloor is determining valuable resources that can be extracted.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The two major resources <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">mined</a> at sea include oil and minerals. Over the last 30 years, deep-sea mining has generated between $9 -$11 billion <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">USD</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Although this sector seems profitable, it is a high risk, high reward industry with many harmful environmental impacts.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Some of the major minerals extracted from the sea include nickel, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, and other metals.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> These minerals are commonly formed around <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanic activity</a>, more specifically hydrothermal vents and <a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">polymetallic nodules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> These vents emit large volumes of super-heated, metal infused fluids that rise and rapidly cool when mixed with the cold <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> causes <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and minerals to <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitate</a> and from chimneys, towers, and mineral-rich deposits on the sea floor.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">Polymetallic nodules</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">manganese nodules</a>, are rounded <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a> formed over millions of years from precipitating metals from seawater and sediment pore water.<a href="#cite_note-:23-50">[50]</a> They are typically found unattached, spread across the abyssal seafloor and contain metals crucial for building batteries and touch screens, including cobalt, nickel, copper, and manganese.<a href="#cite_note-:23-50">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original%281%29.jpg/220px-2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original%281%29.jpg/330px-2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original%281%29.jpg/440px-2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6544" data-file-height="3680" /></a><figcaption>Manganese nodules on the seafloor in the Clarion–Clipperton zone. The image was taken with ROV KIEL 6000 during expedition SO239 with FS SONNE in April 2015.</figcaption></figure> A popular area for <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">deep-sea mining</a>, located in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Clarion%E2%80%93Clipperton_zone" title="Clarion–Clipperton zone">Clarion–Clipperton zone (CCZ)</a>. The CCZ is approximately 4,500,000 square kilometers constructed of various submarine <a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">fracture zones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:24-51">[51]</a> It has been divided into 16 mining claims and 9 sections dedicated to conservation.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Seabed_Authority" title="International Seabed Authority">International Seabed Authority (ISA)</a>, there is an estimated 21 billion tons (Bt) of nodules; 5.95 Bt of manganese, 0.27 Bt of nickel, 0.23 Bt of copper, and 0.05 Bt of cobalt. It is a highly sought-after area for mining because of the yield of minerals it possesses.<a href="#cite_note-:25-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Offshore_energy_development">Offshore energy development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Offshore energy development">edit</a>]</div> Marine geology also has many applications on the subject of offshore energy development.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Offshore energy is the generation of <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> using ocean-based resources. This includes using <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal" title="Thermal">thermal</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>], <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal</a> movement to convert to energy.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Understanding the seafloor and geological features can help develop the <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> to support these <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy sources</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Underwater geological features can dictate ocean properties, such as <a href="/wiki/Current_(fluid)" title="Current (fluid)">currents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperatures</a>, which are crucial for location placement of the necessary infrastructure to produce energy.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The stability of the seafloor is important for the creation of offshore <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Most turbines are secured to the seafloor using <a href="/wiki/Deep_foundation" title="Deep foundation">monopiles</a>, if the water depth is greater than 15 meters.<a href="#cite_note-:26-60">[60]</a> There must be inserted in areas that are not at risk to <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">sediment deposition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonic</a> activity. <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a> the geological area before development is needed to insure proper support of the <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">turbines</a> and forces applied to them.<a href="#cite_note-:26-60">[60]</a> Another example why marine geology is needed for future energy projects is to understand <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> and <a href="/wiki/Current_(water)" class="mw-redirect" title="Current (water)">current</a> patterns.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Analyzing the effects that the seafloor has on water movement can help support planning and location selection of generators offshore and optimize energy farming.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_impacts_and_mitigation">Environmental impacts and mitigation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Environmental impacts and mitigation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat_mapping_and_conservation">Habitat mapping and conservation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Habitat mapping and conservation">edit</a>]</div> Marine geology has a key role in <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> mapping and conservation. With global events causing potentially irreversible damage to the sea habitats, such as <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">deep-sea mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bottom_trawling" title="Bottom trawling">bottom trawling</a>, marine geology can help us study and mitigate the effects of these activity.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The CCZ has been surveyed and mapped to designate specific areas for mining and for conservation. The <a href="/wiki/International_Seabed_Authority" title="International Seabed Authority">International Seabed Authority</a> has set aside approximately 160,000 square kilometers of seabed within the CCZ as the area is rich with <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:24-51">[51]</a> The zone houses over 5,000 species, including <a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">sea cucumbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hexactinellid" title="Hexactinellid">glass sponges</a>, and members of the <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spider family</a> and, has been an area where new species of <a href="/wiki/Sea_worm" title="Sea worm">sea worms</a> have been discovered.<a href="#cite_note-:25-53">[53]</a> Furthermore, 90% of the species have yet to be identified.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Proper marine survey techniques have protected thousands of habitats and species by dedicating it to conservation. Bottom trawling also poses a detrimental effects to the sea and using marine geology techniques can be helpful at mitigating them.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Bottom trawling, generally a <a href="/wiki/Commercial_fishing" title="Commercial fishing">commercial fishing</a> technique, involves dragging a large net that herds and captures a target species, such as <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> or crabs.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> During this process, the net damages the seafloor by scraping and removing animals and vegetation living on the seabed, including <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle" title="Sea turtle">sea turtles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> It can tear up <a href="/wiki/Root_system" title="Root system">root systems</a> and animal <a href="/wiki/Burrow" title="Burrow">burrows</a>, which can directly affect the sediment distribution.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> This can lead to the change in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutriment</a> levels in the sea water.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Marine geology can determine areas which have been damaged to employ habitat restoration techniques. It can also help determine areas that have not been affecting by bottom trawling and employ conservation protection. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sediment_transportation_and_coastal_erosion">Sediment transportation and coastal erosion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sediment transportation and coastal erosion">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transportation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a> is a complex subject that is necessary to understand to protect infrastructure and the environment.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a> is the process of sediment and materials breaking down and transported due to the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> This can lead to destruction animal habitats, fishing industries, and infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In the United States, damages to properties and infrastructure has caused approximately $500 million per year, and an additional $150 million a year is dedicated to mitigation from the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. federal government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Marine geology supports the study of sediment types, <a href="/wiki/Current_(fluid)" title="Current (fluid)">current patterns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">ocean topography</a> to predict erosional trends which can protect these environments.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_hazard_assessment">Natural hazard assessment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Natural hazard assessment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_Complete.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_Complete.gif/220px-2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_Complete.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_Complete.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption>Model of the earthquake epicenter and tsunami extent of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</figcaption></figure> Earthquakes are one of the most common <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:27-75">[75]</a> Furthermore, they can cause other disasters, such as tsunamis and <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">underwater earthquake in the Indian Ocean</a> occurred at a <a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(earthquake)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnitude (earthquake)">magnitude</a> of 9.1 which then triggered a tsunami that caused waves to reach a height of at least 30 ft and killed approximately 230,000 people in 13 different countries.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Marine geology and understanding plate boundaries supports the development of <a href="/wiki/Early_warning_system" title="Early warning system">early warning systems</a> and other mitigation techniques to protect the people and environments who may be susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Earthquake_early_warning_system" title="Earthquake early warning system">earthquake early warning systems</a> (EEWS) are in place and more are being developed.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_research">Future research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Future research">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seafloor_mapping_and_bathymetry">Seafloor mapping and bathymetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Seafloor mapping and bathymetry">edit</a>]</div> Many section of the oceans are permanently dark, low temperatures, and are under extreme pressure, making them difficult to observe.<a href="#cite_note-:29-81">[81]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA), only 23% of the seafloor has been mapped in detail and one of the leading projects in exploration is developing high-resolution maps of the seafloor. The <a href="/wiki/NOAAS_Okeanos_Explorer" title="NOAAS Okeanos Explorer">Okeanos Explorer</a>, a vessel owned by NOAA, has already mapped over 2 million km2 of the seafloor using <a href="/wiki/Multibeam_echosounder" title="Multibeam echosounder">multibeam sonar</a> since 2008, but this technique has proved to be too time-consuming.<a href="#cite_note-:28-82">[82]</a> The importance of mapping the seafloor has been recognized by governments and scientists alike. Because of this, an international collaboration effort to create a high-definition map of the entire seafloor was developed, called the <a href="/wiki/Nippon_Foundation-GEBCO_Seabed_2030_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project">Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project</a>. This committee has a set goal to have the project finished by 2030. To reach their goal, they are equipping old, new, and <a href="/wiki/Vehicular_automation" title="Vehicular automation">autonomous vehicles</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">GIS</a> based technology to reach their goal.<a href="#cite_note-:28-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian-Emperor_seamount_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain">Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediments" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic sediments">Pelagic sediments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor mapping">Seafloor mapping</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:02-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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Retrieved 2023-02-10.</li> <li>Atwood, Trisha B.; Witt, Andrew; Mayorga, Juan; Hammill, Edd; Sala, Enric (2020). "Global Patterns in Marine Sediment Carbon Stocks". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:10.3389/fmars.2020.00165/full. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> 2296-7745.</li> <li>Merino, Nancy; Aronson, Heidi S.; Bojanova, Diana P.; Feyhl-Buska, Jayme; Wong, Michael L.; Zhang, Shu; Giovannelli, Donato (2019). "Living at the Extremes: Extremophiles and the Limits of Life in a Planetary Context". Frontiers in Microbiology. 10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:10.3389/fmicb.2019.00780/full. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> 1664-302X.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_geology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://soundwaves.usgs.gov/">Soundwaves Coastal Science & Research News from Across the USGS</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/aboutmgg/aboutwdcmgg.html">Marine Geology and Geophysics – NOAA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/pacmaps/">Pacific Seafloor Mapping Project – USGS</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/mit-whoi/www/research/mgg/">Marine Geology and Geophysics at MIT</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-odp.tamu.edu/">Ocean Drilling Program</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Geology">Geology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Outline of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Glossary of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index of geology articles</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/50px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" 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structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a 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title="Tectonophysics">Tectonophysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geology" title="Environmental geology">Environmental geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a 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hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a 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href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" 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