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communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_other_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_cold_seep_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_cold_seep_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 End of cold seep community </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_cold_seep_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Distribution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Distribution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_Gulf_of_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Gulf_of_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 In the Gulf of Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Gulf_of_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Discoveries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Stability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Biology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Atlantic_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Atlantic_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 In the Atlantic Ocean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Atlantic_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Mediterranean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Mediterranean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 In the Mediterranean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Mediterranean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Indian_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Indian_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 In the Indian Ocean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Indian_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_West_Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_West_Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 In the West Pacific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_West_Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_East_Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_East_Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 In the East Pacific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_East_Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Antarctic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Antarctic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 In the Antarctic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Antarctic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Detection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossilized_records" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossilized_records"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Fossilized records </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossilized_records-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Environmental impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Cold seep</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" > 25 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="مسرب بارد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مسرب بارد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Студено изтичане – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Студено изтичане" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladni_odu%C5%A1ak" title="Hladni odušak – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hladni odušak" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanaci%C3%B3_freda" title="Emanació freda – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Emanació freda" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boblerev" title="Boblerev – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Boblerev" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Seep" title="Cold Seep – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Cold Seep" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanaci%C3%B3n_fr%C3%ADa" title="Emanación fría – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Emanación fría" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B4_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="تراوش سرد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تراوش سرد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suintement_froid" title="Suintement froid – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Suintement froid" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladni_izvori" title="Hladni izvori – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hladni izvori" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembesan_dingin" title="Rembesan dingin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rembesan dingin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Ладен извор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ладен извор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="തണുത്ത കടൽ ഉറവകൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തണുത്ത കടൽ ഉറവകൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Cold seep" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B7%E6%B0%B4%E6%B9%A7%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AF" title="冷水湧出帯 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="冷水湧出帯" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimne_wysi%C4%99ki" title="Zimne wysięki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zimne wysięki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emana%C3%A7%C3%A3o_fria" title="Emanação fria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Emanação fria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Холодное просачивание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Холодное просачивание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cold seep" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladni_izvori" title="Hladni izvori – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Hladni izvori" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladni_izvori" title="Hladni izvori – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hladni izvori" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubbelrev" title="Bubbelrev – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bubbelrev" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Холодні просочування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Холодні просочування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%97_phun_l%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Lỗ phun lạnh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lỗ phun lạnh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B7%E6%B3%89" title="冷泉 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="冷泉" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lamellibrachia_luymesi1.png/220px-Lamellibrachia_luymesi1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lamellibrachia_luymesi1.png/330px-Lamellibrachia_luymesi1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lamellibrachia_luymesi1.png/440px-Lamellibrachia_luymesi1.png 2x" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="1060" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">Tube worms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia_luymesi" title="Lamellibrachia luymesi">Lamellibrachia luymesi</a>) are among the dominant species in one of four cold seep community types in the Gulf of Mexico.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> A cold seep (sometimes called a cold vent) is an area of the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floor</a> where seepage of fluids rich in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> occurs, often in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">brine pool</a>. Cold does not mean that the temperature of the seepage is lower than that of the surrounding sea water; on the contrary, its temperature is often slightly higher.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The "cold" is relative to the very warm (at least 60 °C or 140 °F) conditions of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a>. Cold seeps constitute a <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> supporting several <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> species. Cold seeps develop unique <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> over time, where reactions between methane and seawater create <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> rock formations and <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">reefs</a>. These reactions may also be dependent on bacterial activity. <a href="/wiki/Ikaite" title="Ikaite">Ikaite</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrous</a> calcium carbonate, can be associated with oxidizing methane at cold seeps. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_seep#Offshore_seeps" title="Petroleum seep">Petroleum seep § Offshore seeps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">brine pool</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pockmark_(geology)" title="Pockmark (geology)">pockmark (geology)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcano</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NOAAseep_600CratersBrinePools.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/NOAAseep_600CratersBrinePools.jpg/220px-NOAAseep_600CratersBrinePools.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/NOAAseep_600CratersBrinePools.jpg/330px-NOAAseep_600CratersBrinePools.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/NOAAseep_600CratersBrinePools.jpg/440px-NOAAseep_600CratersBrinePools.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>These craters mark the formation of <a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">brine pools</a>, from which salt has seeped through the seafloor and encrusted the nearby substrate.</figcaption></figure> Types of cold seeps can be distinguished according to the depth, as shallow cold seeps and deep cold seeps.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> Cold seeps can also be distinguished in detail, as follows: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_seep" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil seep">oil</a>/gas seeps<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a></li> <li>gas seeps:<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> seeps</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas hydrate">gas hydrate</a> seeps<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a></li> <li>brine seeps<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> are formed in <a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">brine pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pockmark_(geology)" title="Pockmark (geology)">pockmarks</a><a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcanoes</a><a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_and_ecological_succession">Formation and ecological succession</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation and ecological succession">edit</a>]</div> Cold seeps occur over fissures on the seafloor caused by <a href="/wiki/Tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a> activity. <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">Oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> "seep" out of those fissures, get diffused by sediment, and emerge over an area several hundred meters wide.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Methane (CH 4) is the main component of <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> But in addition to being an important energy source for humans, methane also forms the basis of a cold seep <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Cold seep <a href="/wiki/Biota_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biota (ecology)">biota</a> below 200 m (660 ft) typically exhibit much greater systematic specialization and reliance on <a href="/wiki/Chemoautotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoautotrophy">chemoautotrophy</a> than those from shelf depths.<a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a> Deep-sea seeps sediments are highly heterogeneous.<a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a> They sustain different <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemical</a> and microbial processes that are reflected in a complex mosaic of habitats inhabited by a mixture of specialist (<a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiont</a>-associated) and background fauna.<a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemosynthetic_communities">Chemosynthetic communities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chemosynthetic communities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacterial_mat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bacterial_mat.jpg/220px-Bacterial_mat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bacterial_mat.jpg/330px-Bacterial_mat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bacterial_mat.jpg/440px-Bacterial_mat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial mat">Bacterial mat</a> consisting of sulfide-oxidizing bacteria <a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a> spp. at a seep on <a href="/wiki/Blake_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Blake Ridge">Blake Ridge</a>, off South Carolina. The red dots are range-finding laser beams.</figcaption></figure> Biological research in cold seeps and hydrothermal vents has been mostly focused on the <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a> and the prominent macro-invertebrates thriving on <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthetic</a> microorganisms.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> Much less research has been done on the smaller <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> fraction at the size of the <a href="/wiki/Meiofauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiofauna">meiofauna</a> (<1 mm).<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> A community composition's orderly shift from one set of species to another is called <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">ecological succession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> The first type of organism to take advantage of this deep-sea energy source is <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Aggregating into <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial mat">bacterial mats</a> at cold seeps, these bacteria metabolize methane and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> (another gas that emerges from seeps) for energy.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> This process of obtaining energy from chemicals is known as <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Noaamussels_600A_musselNearBrinePoolExpLophelia_II_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Noaamussels_600A_musselNearBrinePoolExpLophelia_II_2010.jpg/220px-Noaamussels_600A_musselNearBrinePoolExpLophelia_II_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Noaamussels_600A_musselNearBrinePoolExpLophelia_II_2010.jpg/330px-Noaamussels_600A_musselNearBrinePoolExpLophelia_II_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Noaamussels_600A_musselNearBrinePoolExpLophelia_II_2010.jpg/440px-Noaamussels_600A_musselNearBrinePoolExpLophelia_II_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>A mussel bed at the edge of the brine pool</figcaption></figure> During this initial stage, when methane is relatively abundant, dense <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussel</a> beds also form near the cold seep.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Mostly composed of species in the genus <a href="/wiki/Bathymodiolus" title="Bathymodiolus">Bathymodiolus</a>, these mussels do not directly consume food;<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Instead, they are nourished by <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> bacteria that also produce energy from methane, similar to their relatives that form mats.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Chemosynthetic bivalves are prominent constituents of the fauna of cold seeps and are represented in that setting by five families: <a href="/wiki/Solemyidae" title="Solemyidae">Solemyidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucinidae" title="Lucinidae">Lucinidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">Vesicomyidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyasiridae" title="Thyasiridae">Thyasiridae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">Mytilidae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver_2011-5">[5]</a> This microbial activity produces <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, which is deposited on the <a href="/wiki/Seafloor" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor">seafloor</a> and forms a layer of rock.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> During a period lasting up to several decades, these rock formations attract <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">siboglinid</a> <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">tubeworms</a>, which settle and grow along with the mussels.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Like the mussels, tubeworms rely on chemosynthetic bacteria (in this case, a type that needs <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> instead of methane) for survival.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> True to any symbiotic relationship, a tubeworm also provides for its bacteria by appropriating hydrogen sulfide from the environment.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> The sulfide not only comes from the water, but is also mined from the sediment through an extensive "root" system that a tubeworm "bush" establishes in the hard, carbonate substrate.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> A tubeworm bush can contain hundreds of individual worms, which can grow a meter or more above the sediment.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Cold seeps do not last indefinitely. As the rate of gas seepage slowly decreases, the shorter-lived, methane-hungry mussels (or more precisely, their methane-hungry bacterial symbionts) start to die off.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> At this stage, tubeworms become the dominant organism in a seep community.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> As long as there is some sulfide in the sediment, the sulfide-mining tubeworms can persist.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Individuals of one tubeworm species <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia_luymesi" title="Lamellibrachia luymesi">Lamellibrachia luymesi</a> have been estimated to live for over 250 years in such conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> <table> <tbody><tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siboglinidae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Siboglinidae.jpg/220px-Siboglinidae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Siboglinidae.jpg/330px-Siboglinidae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Siboglinidae.jpg/440px-Siboglinidae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>"Roots" of tubeworms also provide a supply of hydrogen sulfide from the sediment to the bacteria inside these tubeworms.</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamellibrachia_luymesi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lamellibrachia_luymesi.png/220px-Lamellibrachia_luymesi.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lamellibrachia_luymesi.png/330px-Lamellibrachia_luymesi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Lamellibrachia_luymesi.png/440px-Lamellibrachia_luymesi.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="946" /></a><figcaption>Symbiotic vestimentiferan tubeworm <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia_luymesi" title="Lamellibrachia luymesi">Lamellibrachia luymesi</a> from a cold seep at 550 m depth in the Gulf of Mexico. In the sediments around the base are orange bacterial mats of the sulfide-oxidizing bacteria <a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a> spp. and empty shells of various clams and snails, which are also common inhabitants of the seeps.<a href="#cite_note-Boetius_2005-6">[6]</a></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_seep_community.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cold_seep_community.jpg/220px-Cold_seep_community.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cold_seep_community.jpg/330px-Cold_seep_community.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cold_seep_community.jpg/440px-Cold_seep_community.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">Tubeworms</a>, soft <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, and chemosynthetic mussels at a seep located 3,000 m (9,800 ft) down on the Florida Escarpment. <a href="/wiki/Eelpout" title="Eelpout">Eelpouts</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Galatheidae" title="Galatheidae">Galatheid</a> crab, and an <a href="/wiki/Alvinocarididae" title="Alvinocarididae">alvinocarid</a> shrimp feed on mussels damaged during a sampling exercise.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Benthic_Filter">The Benthic Filter</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Benthic Filter">edit</a>]</div> The organisms living at cold seeps have a large impact on the carbon cycle and on climate. Chemosynthetic organisms, specifically methanogenic (methane-consuming) organisms, prohibit the methane seeping up from beneath the seafloor from being released into the water above. Since methane is such a potent greenhouse gas, methane release could cause global warming when gas hydrate reservoirs destabilized.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> The consumption of methane by aerobic and anaerobic seafloor life is called “the benthic filter”.<a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a> The first part of this filter is the anaerobic bacteria and archaea underneath the seafloor that consume methane through the <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_oxidation_of_methane" title="Anaerobic oxidation of methane">anaerobic oxidation of methane</a> (AOM).<a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a> If the flux of methane flowing through the sediment is too large, and the anaerobic bacteria and archaea are consuming the maximum amount of methane, then the excess methane is consumed by free-floating or symbiotic aerobic bacteria above the sediment at the seafloor. The symbiotic bacteria have been found in organisms such as tube worms and clams living at cold seeps; these organisms provide oxygen to the aerobic bacteria as the bacteria provide energy they obtain from the consumption of methane. Understanding how efficient the benthic filter is can help predict how much methane escapes the seafloor at cold seeps and enters the water column and eventually the atmosphere. Studies have shown that 50-90% of methane is consumed at cold seeps with bacterial mats. Areas with clam beds have less than 15% of methane escaping.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> Efficiency is determined by a number of factors. The benthic layer is more efficient with low flow of methane, and efficiency decreases as methane flow or the speed of flow increases.<a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a> Oxygen demand for cold seep ecosystems is much higher than other benthic ecosystems, so if the bottom water does not have enough oxygen, then the efficiency of aerobic microbes in removing methane is reduced.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> The benthic filter cannot affect methane that is not traveling through the sediment. Methane can bypass the benthic filter if it bubbles to the surface or travels through cracks and fissures in the sediment.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> These organisms are the only biological sink of methane in the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_other_communities">Comparison with other communities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Comparison with other communities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expl1771_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Expl1771_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/220px-Expl1771_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Expl1771_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/330px-Expl1771_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Expl1771_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/440px-Expl1771_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">Lamellibrachia</a> tube worms and mussel at a cold seep</div></figcaption></figure> Cold seeps and <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a> of deep oceans are communities that do not rely on <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> for food and energy production.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> These systems are largely driven by <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemosynthetic">chemosynthetic</a> derived energy.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> Both systems share common characteristics such as the presence of reduced chemical compounds (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">H2S</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbonate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocarbonate">hydrocarbonates</a>), local <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxia</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">anoxia</a>, a high abundance and metabolic activity of bacterial populations, and the production of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/autochthonous" class="extiw" title="wikt:autochthonous">autochthonous</a>, organic material by <a href="/wiki/Chemoautotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoautotrophic">chemoautotrophic</a> bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> Both hydrothermal vents and cold seeps show highly increased levels of metazoan biomass in association with a low local diversity.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> This is explained through the presence of dense aggregations of foundation species and <a href="/wiki/Epizootic" title="Epizootic">epizootic</a> animals living within these aggregations.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> Community-level comparisons reveal that vent, seep, and organic-fall macrofauna are very distinct in terms of composition at the family level, although they share many dominant <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> among highly sulphidic habitats.<a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a> However, hydrothermal vents and cold seeps also differ in many ways. Compared to the more stable cold seeps, vents are characterized by locally-high temperatures, strongly fluctuating temperatures, pH, sulfide and oxygen concentrations, often the absence of sediments, a relatively young age, and often-unpredictable conditions, such as waxing and waning of vent fluids or volcanic eruptions.<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> Unlike hydrothermal vents, which are volatile and <a href="/wiki/Ephemeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephemeral">ephemeral</a> environments, cold seeps emit at a slow and dependable rate. Likely owing to the cooler temperatures and stability, many cold seep organisms are much longer-lived than those inhabiting hydrothermal vents. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_cold_seep_community">End of cold seep community</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: End of cold seep community">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deep_water_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep water coral">Deep water coral</a></div> Finally, as cold seeps become inactive, tubeworms also start to disappear, clearing the way for <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> to settle on the now-exposed carbonate substrate.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> The corals do not rely on hydrocarbons seeping out of the seafloor.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Studies on <a href="/wiki/Lophelia_pertusa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lophelia pertusa">Lophelia pertusa</a> suggest they derive their nutrition primarily from the ocean surface.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> Chemosynthesis plays only a very small role, if any, in their settlement and growth.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> While deepwater corals do not seem to be chemosynthesis-based organisms, the chemosynthetic organisms that come before them enable the corals' existence.<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a> This hypothesis about establishment of <a href="/wiki/Deep_water_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep water coral">deep water coral</a> reefs is called hydraulic theory.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</a>]</div> Cold seeps were discovered in 1983 by Charles Paull and colleagues on the Florida Escarpment in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> at a depth of 3,200 meters (10,500 ft).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Since then, seeps have been discovered in many other parts of the world's oceans. Most have been grouped into five <a href="/wiki/Biogeographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeographic">biogeographic</a> provinces: Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic, Mediterranean, East Pacific, and West Pacific,<a href="#cite_note-Olu_2010-12">[12]</a> but cold seeps are also known from under the <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelf</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skagerrak" title="Skagerrak">Skagerrak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kattegat" title="Kattegat">Kattegat</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_California" title="Gulf of California">Gulf of California</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, off <a href="/wiki/Southern_Australia" title="Southern Australia">southern Australia</a>, and in the inland <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levin2005-14">[14]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a>, a cold seep called <a href="/wiki/Pythia%27s_Oasis" title="Pythia's Oasis">Pythia's Oasis</a> was discovered in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> With the recent discovery of a methane seep in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Domack_2005-16">[16]</a> cold seeps are now known in all major oceans.<a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a> Cold seeps are common along continental margins in areas of high primary productivity and tectonic activity, where crustal deformation and compaction drive emissions of methane-rich fluid.<a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a> Cold seeps are patchily distributed, and they occur most frequently near ocean margins from <a href="/wiki/Intertidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Intertidal">intertidal</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hadal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadal">hadal</a> depths.<a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a> In Chile, cold seeps are known from the intertidal zone,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> in Kattegat, the methane seeps are known as "bubbling reefs" and are typically at depths of 0–30 m (0–100 ft),<a href="#cite_note-HelcomCS-18">[18]</a> and off northern California, they can be found as shallow as 35–55 m (115–180 ft).<a href="#cite_note-Levin2005-14">[14]</a> Most cold seeps are located considerably deeper, well beyond the reach of ordinary <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">scuba diving</a>, and the deepest seep community known is found in the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a> at a depth of 7,326 m (24,035 ft).<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In addition to cold seeps existing today, the fossil remains of ancient seep systems have been found in several parts of the world. Some of these are located far inland in places formerly covered by <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric ocean">prehistoric oceans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levin2005-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Gulf_of_Mexico">In the Gulf of Mexico</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In the Gulf of Mexico">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ALVIN_submersible.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ALVIN_submersible.jpg/220px-ALVIN_submersible.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ALVIN_submersible.jpg/330px-ALVIN_submersible.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ALVIN_submersible.jpg/440px-ALVIN_submersible.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="1197" /></a><figcaption>The crewed submersible <a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a>, which made possible the discovery of chemosynthetic communities in the Gulf of Mexico in 1983.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Discoveries">Discoveries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Discoveries">edit</a>]</div> The chemosynthetic communities of the Gulf of Mexico have been studied extensively since the 1990s, and communities first discovered on the upper slope are likely the best understood seep communities in the world. The history of the discovery of these remarkable animals has all occurred since the 1980s. Each major discovery was unexpected―from the first hydrothermal vent communities anywhere in the world to the first cold seep communities in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Communities were discovered in the eastern Gulf of Mexico in 1983 using the crewed submersible <a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a>, during a cruise investigating the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Escarpment" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Escarpment">Florida Escarpment</a> in areas of "cold" brine seepage, where they unexpectedly discovered <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">tubeworms</a> and mussels (Paull et al., 1984).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Two groups fortuitously discovered chemosynthetic communities in the central Gulf of Mexico concurrently in November 1984. During investigations by <a href="/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University" title="Texas A&M University">Texas A&M University</a> to determine the effects of <a href="/wiki/Oil_seep" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil seep">oil seepage</a> on <a href="/wiki/Benthic_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic ecology">benthic ecology</a> (until this investigation, all effects of oil seepage were assumed to be detrimental), bottom trawls unexpectedly recovered extensive collections of chemosynthetic organisms, including tube worms and clams (Kennicutt et al., 1985). At the same time, LGL Ecological Research Associates was conducting a research cruise as part of the multiyear <a href="/wiki/Minerals_Management_Service" title="Minerals Management Service">MMS</a> Northern Gulf of Mexico Continental Slope Study (Gallaway et al., 1988). Bottom photography (processed on board the vessel) resulted in clear images of <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">vesicomyid</a> clam chemosynthetic communities coincidentally in the same manner as the first discovery by camera sled in the Pacific in 1977. Photography during the same LGL/MMS cruise also documented tube-worm communities in situ in the Central Gulf of Mexico for the first time (not processed until after the cruise; Boland, 1986) prior to the initial submersible investigations and firsthand descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Green_Canyon" title="Green Canyon">Bush Hill</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Cold_seep&params=27_47_02_N_91_30_31_W_&title=Bush+Hill">27°47′02″N 91°30′31″W / 27.78389°N 91.50861°W / 27.78389; -91.50861 (Bush Hill)</a>) in 1986 (Rosman et al., 1987a; MacDonald et al., 1989b). The site was targeted by acoustic "wipeout" zones or lack of substrate structure caused by seeping hydrocarbons. This was determined using an acoustic pinger system during the same cruise on the R/V Edwin Link (the old one, only 113 ft (34 m)), which used one of the <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Sea_Link" title="Johnson Sea Link">Johnson Sea Link</a> submersibles. The site is characterized by dense tubeworm and mussel accumulations, as well as exposed carbonate outcrops with numerous <a href="/wiki/Gorgonia" title="Gorgonia">gorgonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lophelia" title="Lophelia">Lophelia</a> coral colonies. Bush Hill has become one of the most thoroughly-studied chemosynthetic sites in the world.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Distribution_2">Distribution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2000.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2000.png/220px-Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2000.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2000.png/330px-Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2000.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2000.png/440px-Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2000.png 2x" data-file-width="2588" data-file-height="1884" /></a><figcaption>Chemosynthetic communities in the northern part of Gulf of Mexico around cold seeps known in 2000</figcaption></figure> There is a clear relationship between known hydrocarbon discoveries at great depth in the Gulf slope and chemosynthetic communities, hydrocarbon seepage, and <a href="/wiki/Authigenesis" title="Authigenesis">authigenic</a> minerals including carbonates at the seafloor (Sassen et al., 1993a and b). While the hydrocarbon reservoirs are broad areas several kilometers beneath the Gulf, chemosynthetic communities occur in isolated areas with thin veneers of sediment only a few meters thick.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> The northern Gulf of Mexico slope includes a <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic_section" title="Stratigraphic section">stratigraphic section</a> more than 10 km (6 mi) thick and has been profoundly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Salt_tectonics" title="Salt tectonics">salt movement</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> source rocks from <a href="/wiki/Upper_Jurassic" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Jurassic">Upper Jurassic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Upper_Cretaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Cretaceous">Upper Cretaceous</a> generate oil in most of the Gulf slope fields (Sassen et al., 1993a and b). Migration conduits supply fresh hydrocarbon materials through a vertical scale of 6–8 km (4–5 mi) toward the surface. The surface expressions of hydrocarbon migration are called seeps. Geological evidence demonstrates that hydrocarbon and brine seepage persists in spatially discrete areas for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> The time scale for oil and gas migration from source systems is on the scale of millions of years (Sassen, 1997). Seepage from hydrocarbon sources through faults towards the surface tends to be diffused through the overlying sediment, carbonate outcroppings, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrate</a> deposits, so the corresponding hydrocarbon seep communities tend to be larger (a few hundred meters wide) than chemosynthetic communities found around the hydrothermal vents of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Pacific">Eastern Pacific</a> (MacDonald, 1992).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> There are large differences in the concentrations of hydrocarbons at seep sites. Roberts (2001) presented a spectrum of responses to be expected under a variety of flux rate conditions varying from very slow seepage to rapid venting.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Very-slow-seepage sites do not support complex chemosynthetic communities; rather, they usually only support simple <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial mat">microbial mats</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a> sp.).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> In the upper slope environment, the hard substrates resulting from carbonate precipitation can have associated communities of non-chemosynthetic animals, including a variety of sessile <a href="/wiki/Cnidarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarian">cnidarians</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>. At the rapid flux end of the spectrum, <a href="/wiki/Fluidization" title="Fluidization">fluidized</a> sediment generally accompanies hydrocarbons and formation fluids arriving at the seafloor. <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">Mud volcanoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mud_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud flow">mud flows</a> result. Somewhere between these two end members exists the conditions that support densely populated and diverse communities of chemosynthetic organisms (microbial mats, <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">siboglinid</a> tube worms, <a href="/wiki/Bathymodiolus" title="Bathymodiolus">bathymodioline</a> mussels, <a href="/wiki/Lucinidae" title="Lucinidae">lucinid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">vesicomyid</a> clams, and associated organisms). These areas are frequently associated with surface or near-surface <a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas hydrate">gas hydrate</a> deposits. They also have localized areas of lithified seafloor, generally authigenic carbonates but sometimes more exotic minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Barite" class="mw-redirect" title="Barite">barite</a> are present.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2006.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2006.png/220px-Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2006.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2006.png/330px-Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2006.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2006.png/440px-Chemosynthetic_communities_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico_2006.png 2x" data-file-width="2520" data-file-height="1499" /></a><figcaption>Chemosynthetic communities in the northern part of Gulf of Mexico around cold seeps known in 2006 include more than 50 communities</figcaption></figure> The widespread nature of Gulf of Mexico chemosynthetic communities was first documented during contracted investigations by the Geological and Environmental Research Group (GERG) of Texas A&M University for the Offshore Operators Committee (Brooks et al., 1986).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> This survey remains the most widespread and comprehensive, although numerous additional communities have been documented since that time.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Industry exploration for <a href="/wiki/Offshore_oil_and_gas_in_the_US_Gulf_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore oil and gas in the US Gulf of Mexico">energy reserves in the Gulf of Mexico</a> has also documented numerous new communities through a wide range of depths, including the deepest-known occurrence in the Central Gulf of Mexico in Alaminos Canyon Block 818 at a depth of 2,750 m (9,022 ft).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> The occurrence of chemosynthetic organisms dependent on hydrocarbon seepage has been documented in water depths as shallow as 290 m (951 ft) (Roberts et al., 1990) and as deep as 2,744 m (9,003 ft).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> This depth range specifically places chemosynthetic communities in the deepwater region of the Gulf of Mexico, which is defined as water depths greater than 305 m (1,000 ft).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Chemosynthetic communities are not found on the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>, although they do appear in the fossil record in water shallower than 200 m (656 ft).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> One theory explaining this is that <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> pressure has varied substantially over the time period involved (Callender and Powell 1999).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> More than 50 communities are now known to exist in 43 <a href="/wiki/Outer_Continental_Shelf" title="Outer Continental Shelf">Outer Continental Shelf</a> (OCS) blocks.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Although a systematic survey has not been done to identify all chemosynthetic communities in the Gulf of Mexico, there is evidence indicating that many more such communities may exist.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> The depth limits of discoveries probably reflect the limits of exploration (lack of <a href="/wiki/Submersibles" class="mw-redirect" title="Submersibles">submersibles</a> capable of depths over 1,000 m (3,281 ft)).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> MacDonald et al. (1993 and 1996) have analyzed <a href="/wiki/Remote-sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote-sensing">remote-sensing</a> images from space that reveal the presence of <a href="/wiki/Oil_slick" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil slick">oil slicks</a> across the north-central Gulf of Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Results confirmed extensive natural oil seepage in the Gulf of Mexico, especially in water depths greater than 1,000 m (3,281 ft).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> A total of 58 additional potential locations were documented where seafloor sources were capable of producing perennial oil slicks (MacDonald et al., 1996).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Estimated seepage rates ranged from 4 bbl/d (0.64 m3/d) to 70 bbl/d (11 m3/d) compared to less than 0.1 bbl/d (0.016 m3/d) for ship discharges (both normalized for 1,000 mi2 (640,000 ac)).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> This evidence considerably increases the area where chemosynthetic communities dependent on hydrocarbon seepage may be expected.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> The densest aggregations of chemosynthetic organisms have been found at water depths of around 500 m (1,640 ft) and deeper.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> The best known of these communities was named Bush Hill by the investigators who first described it (MacDonald et al., 1989b).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> It is a surprisingly large and dense community of chemosynthetic tube worms and mussels at a site of natural petroleum and gas seepage over a <a href="/wiki/Salt_diapir" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt diapir">salt diapir</a> in Green Canyon Block 185. The seep site is a small knoll that rises about 40 m (131 ft) above the surrounding seafloor in about 580-m (1,903-ft) water depth.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stability">Stability</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Stability">edit</a>]</div> According to Sassen (1997) the role of <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrates</a> at chemosynthetic communities has been greatly underestimated.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> The biological alteration of frozen <a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas hydrate">gas hydrates</a> was first discovered during the <a href="/wiki/Minerals_Management_Service" title="Minerals Management Service">MMS</a> study entitled "Stability and Change in Gulf of Mexico Chemosynthetic Communities".<a href="#cite_note-ir_mcdonald-26">[26]</a> It is hypothesized (MacDonald, 1998b) that the dynamics of hydrate alteration could play a major role as a mechanism for regulation of the release of hydrocarbon gases to fuel biogeochemical processes and could also play a substantial role in community stability. Recorded bottom-water temperature excursions of several degrees in some areas such as the Bush Hill site (4–5 °C at 500-m (1,640-ft) depth) are believed to result in dissociation of hydrates, resulting in an increase in gas fluxes (MacDonald et al., 1994). Although not as destructive as the <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> at vent sites of the <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>, the dynamics of shallow hydrate formation and movement will clearly affect <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(motility)" title="Sessility (motility)">sessile animals</a> that form part of the seepage barrier. There is potential of a catastrophic event where an entire layer of shallow hydrate could break free of the bottom and considerably affect local communities of chemosynthetic fauna.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> At deeper depths (>1,000 m, >3,281 ft), the bottom-water temperature is colder (by approximately 3 °C) and undergoes less fluctuation. The formation of more stable and probably-deeper hydrates influences the flux of light hydrocarbon gases to the sediment surface, thus influencing the surface morphology and characteristics of chemosynthetic communities. Within complex communities such as Bush Hill, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> seems less important than previously thought (MacDonald, 1998b).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Through <a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">taphonomic</a> studies (death assemblages of shells) and interpretation of seep assemblage composition from cores, Powell et al. (1998) reported that, overall, seep communities were persistent over periods of 500–1,000 years and probably throughout the entire <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Cold_seep#Dubious" title="Talk:Cold seep">discuss</a>]. Some sites retained optimal <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> over <a href="/wiki/Geological_time_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological time scale">geological time scales</a>. Powell reported evidence of mussel and clam communities persisting in the same sites for 500–4,000 years. Powell also found that both the composition of species and <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic</a> tiering of hydrocarbon seep communities tend to be fairly constant across time, with temporal variations only in numerical abundance. He found few cases in which the community type changed (from mussel to clam communities, for example) or had disappeared completely. Faunal <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">succession</a> was not observed. Surprisingly, when recovery occurred after a past destructive event, the same chemosynthetic species reoccupied a site. There was little evidence of catastrophic burial events, but two instances were found in mussel communities in Green Canyon Block 234. The most notable observation reported by Powell (1995) was the uniqueness of each chemosynthetic community site.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Precipitation of <a href="/wiki/Authigenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Authigenic">authigenic</a> carbonates and other geologic events will undoubtedly alter surface seepage patterns over periods of many years, although through direct observation, no changes in chemosynthetic fauna distribution or composition were observed at seven separate study sites (MacDonald et al., 1995). A slightly longer period (19 years) can be referenced in the case of Bush Hill, the first Central Gulf of Mexico community described <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a> in 1986. No mass die-offs or large-scale shifts in faunal composition have been observed (with the exception of collections for scientific purposes) over the 19-year history of research at this site.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> All chemosynthetic communities are located in water depths beyond the effect of severe storms, including hurricanes, and there would have been no alteration of these communities caused from surface storms, including <a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricanes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biology">Biology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Biology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bathymodiolus_childressi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bathymodiolus_childressi.jpg/220px-Bathymodiolus_childressi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bathymodiolus_childressi.jpg/330px-Bathymodiolus_childressi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bathymodiolus_childressi.jpg/440px-Bathymodiolus_childressi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>The mussel species <a href="/wiki/Bathymodiolus_childressi" title="Bathymodiolus childressi">Bathymodiolus childressi</a> is the dominant species in the <a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">mytilid</a> type of cold seep communities in the Gulf of Mexico.</figcaption></figure> MacDonald et al. (1990) has described four general community types. These are communities dominated by <a href="/wiki/Vestimentifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestimentifera">Vestimentiferan</a> tube worms (<a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">Lamellibrachia</a> c.f. <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia_barhami" title="Lamellibrachia barhami">barhami</a> and <a href="/wiki/Escarpia" title="Escarpia">Escarpia</a> spp.), <a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">mytilid</a> mussels (Seep Mytilid Ia, Ib, and III, and others), <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">vesicomyid</a> clams (Vesicomya cordata and Calyptogena ponderosa), and infaunal <a href="/wiki/Lucinidae" title="Lucinidae">lucinid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thyasiridae" title="Thyasiridae">thyasirid</a> clams (<a href="/wiki/Lucinoma" title="Lucinoma">Lucinoma</a> sp. or <a href="/wiki/Thyasira" title="Thyasira">Thyasira</a> sp.). <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial mat">Bacterial mats</a> are present at all sites visited to date. These faunal groups tend to display distinctive characteristics in terms of how they aggregate, the size of aggregations, the geological and chemical properties of the habitats in which they occur, and, to some degree, the heterotrophic fauna that occur with them. Many of the species found at these cold seep communities in the Gulf of Mexico are new to science and remain <a href="/wiki/Undescribed_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Undescribed species">undescribed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Individual lamellibrachid <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">tube worms</a>, the longer of two taxa found at seeps, can reach lengths of 3 m (10 ft) and live hundreds of years (Fisher et al., 1997; Bergquist et al., 2000). <a href="/wiki/Population_growth_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Population growth rate">Growth rates</a> determined from recovered marked tube worms have been variable, ranging from no growth of 13 individuals measured one year to a maximum growth of 9.6 cm/yr (3.8 in/yr) in a <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">Lamellibrachia</a> individual (MacDonald, 2002). Average growth rate was 2.19 cm/yr (0.86 in/yr) for the <a href="/wiki/Escarpia" title="Escarpia">Escarpia</a>-like species and 2.92 cm/yr (1.15 in/yr) for lamellibrachids. These are slower growth rates than those of their <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a> relatives, but Lamellibrachia individuals can reach lengths 2–3 times that of the largest known hydrothermal vent species.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Individuals of Lamellibrachia sp. in excess of 3 m (10 ft) have been collected on several occasions, representing probable ages in excess of 400 years (Fisher, 1995). Vestimentiferan tube worm spawning is not seasonal, and recruitment is episodic.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Tubeworms are either male or female. One recent discovery indicates that the spawning of female Lamellibrachia appears to have produced a unique association with the large bivalve Acesta bullisi, which lives permanently attached to the anterior tube opening of the tubeworm, and feeds on the periodic egg release (Järnegren et al., 2005). This close association between the bivalves and tubeworms was discovered in 1984 (Boland, 1986) but not fully explained. Virtually all mature <a href="/wiki/Acesta" title="Acesta">Acesta</a> individuals are found on female rather than male tubeworms. This evidence and other experiments by Järnegren et al. (2005) seem to have solved this mystery.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Growth rates for methanotrophic mussels at cold seep sites have been reported (Fisher, 1995).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> General growth rates were found to be relatively high. Adult mussel growth rates were similar to mussels from a littoral environment at similar temperatures. Fisher also found that juvenile mussels at hydrocarbon seeps initially grow rapidly, but the growth rate drops markedly in adults; they grow to reproductive size very quickly. Both individuals and communities appear to be very long-lived. These <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>-dependent mussels have strict chemical requirements that tie them to areas of the most active seepage in the Gulf of Mexico. As a result of their rapid growth rates, mussel recolonization of a disturbed seep site could occur relatively rapidly. There is some evidence that mussels also have some requirement of a hard substrate and could increase in numbers if suitable substrate is increased on the seafloor (Fisher, 1995). Two associated species are always found associated with mussel beds—the gastropod <a href="/wiki/Bathynerita_naticoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathynerita naticoidea">Bathynerita naticoidea</a> and a small <a href="/wiki/Alvinocarididae" title="Alvinocarididae">Alvinocarid</a> shrimp—suggesting these endemic species have excellent <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal abilities</a> and can tolerate a wide range of conditions (MacDonald, 2002).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Unlike mussel beds, chemosynthetic clam beds may persist as a visual surface phenomenon for an extended period without input of new living individuals because of low dissolution rates and low sedimentation rates. Most clam beds investigated by Powell (1995) were inactive. Living individuals were rarely encountered. Powell reported that over a 50-year timespan, local extinctions and recolonization should be gradual and exceedingly rare. Contrasting these inactive beds, the first community discovered in the Central Gulf of Mexico consisted of numerous actively-plowing clams. The images obtained of this community were used to develop length/frequency and live/dead ratios as well as spatial patterns (Rosman et al., 1987a).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Extensive <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial mat">bacterial mats</a> of free-living <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> are also evident at all hydrocarbon seep sites. These bacteria may compete with the major fauna for <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> energy sources and may also contribute substantially to overall production (MacDonald, 1998b). The white, nonpigmented mats were found to be an <a href="/wiki/Autotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophic">autotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Thiotrichaceae" title="Thiotrichaceae">sulfur bacteria</a> <a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a> species, and the orange mats possessed an unidentified non-chemosynthetic metabolism (MacDonald, 1998b).<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> Heterotrophic species at seep sites are a mixture of species unique to seeps (particularly <a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">molluscs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustacean</a> invertebrates) and those that are a normal component from the surrounding environment. Carney (1993) first reported a potential imbalance that could occur as a result of chronic disruption. Because of sporadic recruitment patterns, predators could gain an advantage, resulting in exterminations in local populations of mussel beds. It is clear that seep systems do interact with the background fauna, but conflicting evidence remains as to what degree outright predation on some specific community components such as tubeworms occurs (MacDonald, 2002). The more surprising results from this recent work is why background species do not utilize seep production more than seems to be evident. In fact, seep-associated consumers such as <a href="/wiki/Galatheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Galatheid">galatheid</a> crabs and <a href="/wiki/Neritidae" title="Neritidae">nerite</a> gastropods had isotopic signatures, indicating that their diets were a mixture of seep and background production. At some sites, <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> seep invertebrates that would have been expected to obtain much if not all their diet from seep production actually consumed as much as 50 percent of their diets from the background.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Atlantic_Ocean">In the Atlantic Ocean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In the Atlantic Ocean">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_seeps_of_the_Atlantic_Ocean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Cold_seeps_of_the_Atlantic_Ocean.png/220px-Cold_seeps_of_the_Atlantic_Ocean.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Cold_seeps_of_the_Atlantic_Ocean.png/330px-Cold_seeps_of_the_Atlantic_Ocean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Cold_seeps_of_the_Atlantic_Ocean.png/440px-Cold_seeps_of_the_Atlantic_Ocean.png 2x" data-file-width="2028" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption>Map of cold seeps in the Atlantic Equatorial Belt. BR – <a href="/wiki/Blake_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Blake Ridge">Blake Ridge</a> diapir BT – Barbados trench OR – Orenoque sectors EP – El Pilar sector NIG – Nigerian slope GUI – Guiness area REG – Regab pockmark.</figcaption></figure> Cold-seep communities in the western <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> have also been described from a few dives on mud volcanoes and <a href="/wiki/Diapir" title="Diapir">diapirs</a> between 1,000 and 5,000 m (3,300–16,400 ft) depth in the <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> <a href="/wiki/Accretionary_wedge" title="Accretionary wedge">accretionary prism</a> area and from the <a href="/wiki/Blake_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Blake Ridge">Blake Ridge</a> diapir off <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>. More recently, seep communities have been discovered in the eastern Atlantic, on a giant pockmark cluster in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo</a> deep channel, and also on other pockmarks of the Congo margin, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a> margin and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> margin and in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Gulf of Cádiz">Gulf of Cádiz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Olu_2010-12">[12]</a> The occurrence of chemosymbiotic <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_C%C3%A1diz#Biota" title="Gulf of Cádiz">biota in the extensive mud volcano fields of the Gulf of Cádiz</a> was first reported in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-Pinheiro_2003-27">[27]</a> The chemosymbiotic <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a> collected from the mud volcanoes of the Gulf of Cadiz were reviewed in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-Oliver_2011-5">[5]</a> Cold seeps are also known from the Northern Atlantic Ocean,<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a> even ranging into the Arctic Ocean, off Canada and <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levin2005-14">[14]</a> Extensive faunal sampling has been conducted from 400 and 3,300 m (1,300–10,800 ft) in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_Equatorial_Belt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atlantic Equatorial Belt (page does not exist)">Atlantic Equatorial Belt</a> from the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of Guinea including the Barbados accretionary prism, the Blake Ridge diapir, and in the Eastern Atlantic from the Congo and Gabon margins and the recently explored Nigeria margin during <a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a> <a href="/wiki/Biogeography_of_Deep-Water_Chemosynthetic_Ecosystems" title="Biogeography of Deep-Water Chemosynthetic Ecosystems">ChEss</a> project. Of the 72 taxa identified at the species level, a total of 9 species or species complexes are identified as amphi-Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-Olu_2010-12">[12]</a> The Atlantic Equatorial Belt seep megafauna community structure is influenced primarily by depth rather than by geographic distance. The bivalves <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bathymodiolinae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bathymodiolinae (page does not exist)">Bathymodiolinae</a> (within <a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">Mytilidae</a>) species or complexes of species are the most widespread in the Atlantic. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bathymodiolus_boomerang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bathymodiolus boomerang (page does not exist)">Bathymodiolus boomerang</a> complex is found at the Florida escarpment site, the Blake Ridge diapir, the Barbados prism, and the Regab site of Congo. The <a href="/wiki/Bathymodiolus_childressi" title="Bathymodiolus childressi">Bathymodiolus childressi</a> complex is also widely distributed along the Atlantic Equatorial Belt from the Gulf of Mexico across to the Nigerian Margin, although not on the Regab or Blake Ridge sites. The commensal <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polynoid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polynoid (page does not exist)">polynoid</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Branchipolynoe_seepensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Branchipolynoe seepensis (page does not exist)">Branchipolynoe seepensis</a> is known from the Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Guinea, and Barbados. Other species with distributions extending from the eastern to western Atlantic are: gastropod <a href="/wiki/Cordesia_provannoides" title="Cordesia provannoides">Cordesia provannoides</a>, the shrimp <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alvinocaris_muricola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alvinocaris muricola (page does not exist)">Alvinocaris muricola</a>, the galatheids <a href="/w/index.php?title=Munidopsis_geyeri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Munidopsis geyeri (page does not exist)">Munidopsis geyeri</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Munidopsis_livida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Munidopsis livida (page does not exist)">Munidopsis livida</a>, and probably the holothurid <a href="/wiki/Chiridota_heheva" title="Chiridota heheva">Chiridota heheva</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Olu_2010-12">[12]</a> There have been found cold seeps also in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon</a> deepsea fan. High-resolution seismic profiles near the shelf edge show evidence of near-surface slumps and faulting 20–50 m (66–164 ft) in the subsurface and concentrations (about 500 m2 or 5,400 sq ft) of methane gas. Several studies (e.g., Amazon Shelf Study—<a href="/w/index.php?title=AMASEDS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AMASEDS (page does not exist)">AMASEDS</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=LEPLAC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LEPLAC (page does not exist)">LEPLAC</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=REMAC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="REMAC (page does not exist)">REMAC</a>, GLORIA, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Drilling_Program" title="Ocean Drilling Program">Ocean Drilling Program</a>) indicate that there is evidence for gas seepage on the slope off the Amazon fan based on the incidence of bottom-simulating reflections (BSRs), mud volcanoes, pockmarks, gas in sediments, and deeper hydrocarbon occurrences. The existence of methane at relatively shallow depths and extensive areas of gas hydrates have been mapped in this region. Also, <a href="/wiki/Methane_chimney" title="Methane chimney">gas chimneys</a> have been reported, and exploratory wells have discovered sub-commercial gas accumulations and pockmarks along fault planes. A sound geological and geophysical understanding of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Foz_do_Amazonas_Basin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foz do Amazonas Basin (page does not exist)">Foz do Amazonas Basin</a> is already available and used by the energy companies.<a href="#cite_note-Miloslavich_2011-28">[28]</a> Exploration of new areas, such as potential seep sites off of the east coast of the U.S. and the <a href="/wiki/Laurentian_Abyss" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurentian Abyss">Laurentian</a> fan where chemosynthetic communities are known deeper than 3,500 m (11,500 ft), and shallower sites in the Gulf of Guinea are need to study in the future.<a href="#cite_note-Olu_2010-12">[12]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Mediterranean">In the Mediterranean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In the Mediterranean">edit</a>]</div> The first biological evidence for reduced environments in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> was the presence of <a href="/wiki/Lucinidae" title="Lucinidae">Lucinidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">Vesicomyidae</a> <a href="/wiki/Bivalve_shell" title="Bivalve shell">bivalve shells</a> cored on the top of the Napoli <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcano</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Cold_seep&params=33_43_52_N_24_40_52_E_&title=Napoli+mud+Volcano">33°43′52″N 24°40′52″E / 33.73111°N 24.68111°E / 33.73111; 24.68111 (Napoli mud Volcano)</a>; "Napoli" is only a name of a seamount. It is located south of Crete), located at 1,900 m deep on the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Ridge" title="Mediterranean Ridge">Mediterranean Ridge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zone">subduction zone</a> of the <a href="/wiki/African_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="African Plate">African Plate</a>. This was followed by the description of a new Lucinidae bivalve species, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lucinoma_kazani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lucinoma kazani (page does not exist)">Lucinoma kazani</a>, associated with bacterial <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a>. In the southeastern Mediterranean, communities of <a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">polychaetes</a> and bivalves were also found associated with cold seeps and carbonates near <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a> at depths of 500–800 m, but no living fauna was collected. The first <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a> observations of extensive living chemosynthetic communities in the eastern Mediterranean Sea prompted cooperation between biologists, <a href="/wiki/Geochemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Geochemist">geochemists</a>, and geologists. During <a href="/wiki/Submersible" title="Submersible">submersible</a> dives, communities comprising large fields of small bivalves (dead and alive), large <a href="/wiki/Siboglinid" class="mw-redirect" title="Siboglinid">siboglinid</a> tube worms, isolated or forming dense aggregations, large <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, and associated endemic fauna were observed in various cold seep habitats associated with carbonate crusts at 1,700–2,000 m depth. Two mud volcano fields were first explored, one along the Mediterranean Ridge, where most of them were partially (Napoli, Milano mud volcanoes) or totally (Urania, Maidstone mud volcanoes) affected by <a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">brines</a>, and the other on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anaximander_mound&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anaximander mound (page does not exist)">Anaximander mounds</a> south of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. The latter area includes the large Amsterdam mud volcano, which is affected by recent <a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">mudflows</a>, and the smaller Kazan or Kula mud volcanoes. <a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas hydrate">Gas hydrates</a> have been sampled at the Amsterdam and Kazan mud volcanoes, and high methane levels have been recorded above the seafloor. Several provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> deep-sea fan have been explored recently. These include the very active brine seepage named the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Menes_Caldera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Menes Caldera (page does not exist)">Menes Caldera</a> in the eastern province between 2,500 m and 3,000 m, the pockmarks in the central area along middle and lower slopes, and the mud volcanoes of the eastern province, as well as one in the central upper slope (<a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Alex&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="North Alex (page does not exist)">North Alex</a> area) at 500 m depth.<a href="#cite_note-Danovaro_2010-29">[29]</a> During these first exploratory dives, symbiont-bearing taxa that are similar to those observed on the Olimpi and Anaximander mud fields were sampled and identified. This similarity is not surprising, as most of these taxa were originally described from dredging in the Nile fan.<a href="#cite_note-Danovaro_2010-29">[29]</a> Up to five species of bivalves harboring bacterial symbionts colonized these methane- and sulfide-rich environments. A new species of <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">Siboglinidae</a> polychaete, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lamellibrachia_anaximandri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lamellibrachia anaximandri (page does not exist)">Lamellibrachia anaximandri</a>, the tubeworm colonizing cold seeps from the Mediterranean ridge to the Nile deep-sea fan, has just been described in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-Danovaro_2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Moreover, the study of symbioses revealed associations with chemoautotrophic <a href="/wiki/Sulfur-reducing_bacteria" title="Sulfur-reducing bacteria">bacteria, sulfur oxidizers</a> in Vesicomyidae and Lucinidae bivalves and Siboglinidae tubeworms, and highlighted the exceptional diversity of bacteria living in symbiosis with small Mytilidae. The Mediterranean seeps appear to represent a rich habitat characterized by megafauna <a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">species richness</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a>) or the exceptional size of some species such as sponges (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhizaxinella_pyrifera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhizaxinella pyrifera (page does not exist)">Rhizaxinella pyrifera</a>) and crabs (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaceon_mediterraneus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chaceon mediterraneus (page does not exist)">Chaceon mediterraneus</a>), compared with their background counterparts. This contrasts with the low macro- and mega-faunal abundance and diversity of the deep <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a>. Seep communities in the Mediterranean that include endemic chemosynthetic species and associated fauna differ from the other known seep communities in the world at the species level but also by the absence of the large-size bivalve genera <a href="/wiki/Calyptogena" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyptogena">Calyptogena</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bathymodiolus" title="Bathymodiolus">Bathymodiolus</a>. The isolation of the Mediterranean seeps from the Atlantic Ocean after the <a href="/wiki/Messinian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Messinian crisis">Messinian crisis</a> led to the development of unique communities, which are likely to differ in composition and structure from those in the Atlantic Ocean. Further expeditions involved quantitative sampling of habitats in different areas, from the Mediterranean Ridge to the eastern Nile deep-sea fan.<a href="#cite_note-Danovaro_2010-29">[29]</a> Cold seeps discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a> in 2008<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> have also revealed chemosynthesis-based communities that showed a considerable similarity to the symbiont-bearing fauna of eastern Mediterranean cold seeps.<a href="#cite_note-Danovaro_2010-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Indian_Ocean">In the Indian Ocean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In the Indian Ocean">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Makran_Trench" title="Makran Trench">Makran Trench</a>, a subduction zone along the northeastern margin of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Oman" title="Gulf of Oman">Gulf of Oman</a> adjacent to the southwestern coast of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and the southeastern coast of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, compression of an accretionary wedge has resulted in the formation of cold seeps and mud volcanoes.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_West_Pacific">In the West Pacific</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In the West Pacific">edit</a>]</div> Native <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> has been reported also in cold seeps in the northeastern <a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">continental slope</a> of the <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a> and Chen et al. (2011)<a href="#cite_note-Chen_2011-33">[33]</a> have proposed a theory of its origin as resulting by <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a> from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tetrahydroxoaluminate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tetrahydroxoaluminate (page does not exist)">tetrahydroxoaluminate</a> Al(OH)4− to metallic aluminium by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chen_2011-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right"> <caption>Chemosynthetic communities around Japan<a href="#cite_note-Fujikura2008p450-34">[34]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Cold seep </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuril%E2%80%93Kamchatka_Trench" title="Kuril–Kamchatka Trench">Kuril–Kamchatka Trench</a>-<a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Japan" title="Sea of Japan">Sea of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagami_Bay" title="Sagami Bay">Sagami Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suruga_Bay" title="Suruga Bay">Suruga Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nankai_Trough" title="Nankai Trough">Nankai Trough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagoshima_Bay" title="Kagoshima Bay">Kagoshima Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Trench" title="Ryukyu Trench">Ryukyu Trench</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hydrothermal vent </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Izu_Islands" title="Izu Islands">Izu Islands</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bonin_Islands" title="Bonin Islands">Bonin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Trough" title="Okinawa Trough">Okinawa Trough</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Whale fall </td> <td> <ul><li>Sagami Bay</li> <li>Off Cape Nomamisaki (<a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China Sea</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tori-shima_(Izu_Islands)" title="Tori-shima (Izu Islands)">Tori-shima</a> seamount (Izu Islands)</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> Deep sea communities around Japan are mainly researched by <a href="/wiki/Japan_Agency_for_Marine-Earth_Science_and_Technology" title="Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology">Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology</a> (JAMSTEC). <a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_6500" title="DSV Shinkai 6500">DSV Shinkai 6500</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaikō">Kaikō</a>, and other groups have discovered many sites. Methane seep communities in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> are distributed along <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">plate convergence</a> areas because of the accompanying <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonic</a> activity. Many seeps have been found in the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nankai_Trough" title="Nankai Trough">Nankai Trough</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Trench" title="Ryukyu Trench">Ryukyu Trench</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sagami_Bay" title="Sagami Bay">Sagami Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suruga_Bay" title="Suruga Bay">Suruga Bay</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Japan" title="Sea of Japan">Sea of Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fujikura_2010-35">[35]</a> Members of cold seep communities are similar to other regions in terms of family or genus, such as Polycheata, Lamellibrachia, Bivalavia, Solemyidae, Bathymodiolus in Mytilidae, Thyasiridae, Calyptogena in Vesicomyidae, and so forth.<a href="#cite_note-Fujikura2008p450-34">[34]</a> Many of the species in Japan's cold seeps are <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fujikura_2010-35">[35]</a> In Kagoshima Bay, there are methane gas seepages called "tagiri" (boiling). <a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia_satsuma" title="Lamellibrachia satsuma">Lamellibrachia satsuma</a> live around there. The depth of this site is only 80 m, which is the shallowest point where Siboglinidae are known to live. L. satsuma may be kept in an aquarium for a long period at 1 atm. Two aquariums in Japan are keeping and displaying L. satsuma. An observation method to introduce it into a transparent vinyl tube is being developed.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JAMSTEC%27s_Shinkai_6500.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/JAMSTEC%27s_Shinkai_6500.jpg/220px-JAMSTEC%27s_Shinkai_6500.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/JAMSTEC%27s_Shinkai_6500.jpg/330px-JAMSTEC%27s_Shinkai_6500.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/JAMSTEC%27s_Shinkai_6500.jpg/440px-JAMSTEC%27s_Shinkai_6500.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1844" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_6500" title="DSV Shinkai 6500">DSV Shinkai 6500</a></figcaption></figure> DSV Shinkai 6500 discovered vesicomyid clam communities in the Southern <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mariana_Forearc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mariana Forearc (page does not exist)">Mariana Forearc</a>. They depend on methane, which originates in <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentinite</a>. Other chemosynthetic communities would depend on hydrocarbon origins organic substance in crust, but these communities depend on methane originating from inorganic substances from the mantle.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> In 2011, the area around the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a> suffered from the <a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">Tōhoku earthquake</a>. There are cracks, methane seepages, and bacterial mats which were probably created by the earthquake.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: New Zealand">edit</a>]</div> Off the mainland coast of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, shelf-edge instability is enhanced in some locations by cold seeps of methane-rich fluids that likewise support chemosynthetic faunas and carbonate concretions.<a href="#cite_note-Gordon_2010-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baco_2009-44">[44]</a> Dominant animals are tubeworms of the family <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">Siboglinidae</a> and bivalves of families <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">Vesicomyidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">Mytilidae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bathymodiolus" title="Bathymodiolus">Bathymodiolus</a>). Many of its species appear to be endemic. Deep <a href="/wiki/Bottom_trawling" title="Bottom trawling">bottom trawling</a> has <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_fishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of fishing">severely damaged</a> cold seep communities, and those ecosystems are threatened. Cold seeps are found at depths down to 2,000 m, and the topographic and chemical complexity of the habitats are not yet mapped[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>]. The scale of new-species discovery in these poorly-studied or unexplored ecosystems is likely to be high.<a href="#cite_note-Baco_2009-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gordon_2010-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_East_Pacific">In the East Pacific</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In the East Pacific">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ROV_Ventana_on_Point_Lobos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/ROV_Ventana_on_Point_Lobos.jpg/220px-ROV_Ventana_on_Point_Lobos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/ROV_Ventana_on_Point_Lobos.jpg/330px-ROV_Ventana_on_Point_Lobos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/ROV_Ventana_on_Point_Lobos.jpg/440px-ROV_Ventana_on_Point_Lobos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1856" data-file-height="2350" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay_Aquarium_Research_Institute" title="Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a> has used <a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely operated underwater vehicle</a> Ventana in the research of <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay" title="Monterey Bay">Monterey Bay</a> cold seeps.</figcaption></figure> In the deep sea, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=COMARGE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="COMARGE (page does not exist)">COMARGE</a> project has studied the biodiversity patterns along and across the <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chilean</a> margin through a complexity of ecosystems such as methane seeps and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_minimum_zone" title="Oxygen minimum zone">oxygen minimum zones</a>, reporting that such habitat <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneity">heterogeneity</a> may influence the biodiversity patterns of the local fauna.<a href="#cite_note-Miloslavich_2011-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sellanes_2008-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Seep fauna include bivalves of families <a href="/wiki/Lucinidae" title="Lucinidae">Lucinidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyasiridae" title="Thyasiridae">Thyasiridae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solemyidae" title="Solemyidae">Solemyidae</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Acharax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acharax (page does not exist)">Acharax</a> sp.), and <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">Vesicomyidae</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Calyptogena_gallardoi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calyptogena gallardoi (page does not exist)">Calyptogena gallardoi</a>) and polychaetes (<a href="/wiki/Lamellibrachia" title="Lamellibrachia">Lamellibrachia</a> sp. and two other polychaete species).<a href="#cite_note-Sellanes_2008-46">[46]</a> Furthermore, in these soft reduced <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> below the oxygen minimum zone off the Chilean margin, a diverse microbial community composed by a variety of large <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> (mainly large multi-cellular filamentous "mega bacteria" of the genera <a href="/wiki/Thioploca" title="Thioploca">Thioploca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a>, and of "macrobacteria" including a diversity of phenotypes), <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> (ciliates, flagellates, and foraminifers), as well as small metazoans (mostly nematodes and polychaetes) has been found.<a href="#cite_note-Miloslavich_2011-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gallardo_2007-48">[48]</a> Gallardo et al. (2007)<a href="#cite_note-Gallardo_2007-48">[48]</a> argue that the likely chemolithotrophic metabolism of most of these mega- and macrobacteria offer an alternative explanation to <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> findings, in particular to those from obvious non-littoral origins, suggesting that traditional hypotheses on the cyanobacterial origin of some fossils may have to be revised.<a href="#cite_note-Miloslavich_2011-28">[28]</a> Cold seeps (<a href="/wiki/Pockmark_(geology)" title="Pockmark (geology)">pockmarks</a>) are also known from depths of 130 m in the <a href="/wiki/Hecate_Strait" title="Hecate Strait">Hecate Strait</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada.<a href="#cite_note-Barrie_2010-49">[49]</a> Unobvious fauna (also unobvious for cold seeps) have been found there with these dominating species: sea snail <a href="/wiki/Fusitriton_oregonensis" title="Fusitriton oregonensis">Fusitriton oregonensis</a>, anemone <a href="/wiki/Metridium_giganteum" class="mw-redirect" title="Metridium giganteum">Metridium giganteum</a>, encrusting sponges, and bivalve <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solemya_reidi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solemya reidi (page does not exist)">Solemya reidi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Barrie_2010-49">[49]</a> Cold seeps with chemosynthetic communities along the USA Pacific coast occur in <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Canyon" title="Monterey Canyon">Monterey Canyon</a>, just off <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay" title="Monterey Bay">Monterey Bay</a>, California on a <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcano</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lorenson_1999-50">[50]</a> There have been found, for example, <a href="/wiki/Calyptogena" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyptogena">Calyptogena</a> clams <a href="/w/index.php?title=Calyptogena_kilmeri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calyptogena kilmeri (page does not exist)">Calyptogena kilmeri</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Calyptogena_pacifica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Calyptogena pacifica (page does not exist)">Calyptogena pacifica</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminiferan</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiroplectammina_biformis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spiroplectammina biformis (page does not exist)">Spiroplectammina biformis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mbari.org/benthic/coldseeploc.htm">map of cold seeps in the Monterey Bay</a></li></ul> Additionally, seeps have been discovered offshore southern California in the inner California Borderlands along several fault systems including the San Clemente fault,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> San Pedro fault,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Trough_Fault_Zone" title="San Diego Trough Fault Zone">San Diego Trough fault</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-55">[55]</a> Fluid flow at the seeps along the San Pedro and San Diego Trough faults appears controlled by localized restraining bends in the faults.<a href="#cite_note-:0-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Antarctic">In the Antarctic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In the Antarctic">edit</a>]</div> The first cold seep from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> was reported in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-Domack_2005-16">[16]</a> The relatively few investigations to the Antarctic deep sea have shown the presence of deep-water habitats, including <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>, cold seeps, and <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcanoes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths_2010-56">[56]</a> Other than the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Benthic_Deep-Sea_Biodiversity_Project" title="Antarctic Benthic Deep-Sea Biodiversity Project">Antarctic Benthic Deep-Sea Biodiversity Project</a> (ANDEEP) cruises, little work has been done in the deep sea.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths_2010-56">[56]</a> There are more species waiting to be described.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths_2010-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Detection">Detection</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Detection">edit</a>]</div> With continuing experience, particularly on the upper continental slope in the Gulf of Mexico, the successful prediction of the presence of tubeworm communities continues to improve; however, chemosynthetic communities cannot be reliably detected directly using <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">geophysical techniques</a>. Hydrocarbon seeps that allow chemosynthetic communities (<a href="/wiki/Guaymas_Basin" title="Guaymas Basin">Guaymas Basin</a>) to exist do modify the geological characteristics in ways that can be remotely detected, but the time scales of co-occurring active seepage and the presence of living communities is always uncertain. These known sediment modifications include (1) precipitation of <a href="/wiki/Authigenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Authigenic">authigenic</a> carbonate in the form of micronodules, <a href="/wiki/Nodule_(geology)" title="Nodule (geology)">nodules</a>, or rock masses; (2) formation of <a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas hydrate">gas hydrates</a>; (3) modification of <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> composition through concentration of hard chemosynthetic organism remains (such as shell fragments and layers); (4) formation of interstitial gas bubbles or hydrocarbons; and (5) formation of depressions or pockmarks by gas expulsion. These features give rise to acoustic effects such as wipeout zones (no echoes), hard bottoms (strongly reflective echoes), bright spots (reflection enhanced layers), or reverberant layers (Behrens, 1988; Roberts and Neurauter, 1990). Potential locations for most types of communities can be determined by careful interpretation of these various geophysical modifications, but to date, the process remains imperfect and confirmation of living communities requires direct visual techniques.<a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fossilized_records">Fossilized records</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fossilized records">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CretaceousSeep17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/CretaceousSeep17.jpg/220px-CretaceousSeep17.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/CretaceousSeep17.jpg/330px-CretaceousSeep17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/CretaceousSeep17.jpg/440px-CretaceousSeep17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Late <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> cold seep deposit in the <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Shale" title="Pierre Shale">Pierre Shale</a>, southwest South Dakota</figcaption></figure> Cold seep deposits are found throughout the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> geologic record, especially in the Late <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>. Notable examples can be found in the Permian of Tibet,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> the Cretaceous of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a><a href="#cite_note-RussellScottShapiro2004-58">[58]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>,<a href="#cite_note-KaimEtAl2008-59">[59]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Palaeogene" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeogene">Palaeogene</a> of <a href="/wiki/Honshu" title="Honshu">Honshu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-AmanuEtAl2013-60">[60]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ContiEtAl2017-61">[61]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> cold seeps are characterized by mound-like topography (where preserved), coarsely crystalline carbonates, and abundant mollusks and <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_impacts">Environmental impacts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Environmental impacts">edit</a>]</div> Major threats that cold seep ecosystems and their communities face today are seafloor litter, chemical contaminants, and climate change. Seafloor litter alters the habitat by providing hard substrate where none was available before or by overlying the sediment, thereby inhibiting gas exchange and interfering with organisms on the bottom of the sea. Studies of marine litter in the Mediterranean include surveys of seabed debris on the continental shelf, slope, and bathyal plain.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In most studies, plastic items accounted for much of the debris, sometimes as much as 90% or more of the total, owing to their ubiquitous use and poor degradability. Weapons and bombs have also been discarded at sea, and their dumping in open waters contributes to seafloor contamination. Another major threat to the benthic fauna is the presence of lost fishing gear, such as nets and longlines, which contribute to <a href="/wiki/Ghost_net" title="Ghost net">ghost fishing</a> and can damage fragile ecosystems such as cold-water corals. Chemical contaminants such as <a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent organic pollutants">persistent organic pollutants</a>, toxic metals (e.g., Hg, Cd, Pb, Ni), radioactive compounds, pesticides, herbicides, and pharmaceuticals are also accumulating in deep-sea sediments.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Topography (such as canyons) and hydrography (such as cascading events) play a major role in the transportation and accumulation of these chemicals from the coast and shelf to the deep basins, affecting the local fauna. Recent studies have detected the presence of significant levels of <a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">dioxins</a> in the commercial shrimp Aristeus antennatus <a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> and significant levels of <a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">persistent organic pollutants</a> in mesopelagic and bathypelagic cephalopods.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Climate-driven processes and climate change will affect the frequency and intensity of cascading, with unknown effects on the benthic fauna. Another potential effect of climate change is related to energy transport from surface waters to the seafloor.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Primary production will change in the surface layers according to sun exposure, water temperature, major stratification of water masses, and other effects, and this will affect the food chain down to the deep seafloor, which will be subject to differences in quantity, quality, and timing of organic matter input. As commercial fisheries move into deeper waters, all of these effects will affect the communities and populations of organisms in cold seeps and the deep sea in general. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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title="Chemotroph">Chemotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrate_pingo" title="Gas hydrate pingo">Gas hydrate pingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaymas_Basin" title="Guaymas Basin">Guaymas Basin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> This article incorporates a <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> <a href="/wiki/Work_of_the_United_States_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Work of the United States Government">work of the United States Government</a> from references<a href="#cite_note-Hsing_2010-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-MMS_2006-21">[21]</a> and CC-BY-2.5 from references<a href="#cite_note-Vanreusel_2010-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernardino_2012-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Boetius_2005-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Olu_2010-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Miloslavich_2011-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Danovaro_2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fujikura_2010-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gordon_2010-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Griffiths_2010-56">[56]</a> and CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference<a href="#cite_note-Oliver_2011-5">[5]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output 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Deep-Sea Research Part I. 53 (12): 1895–1906. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006DSRI...53.1895R">2006DSRI...53.1895R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dsr.2006.09.004">10.1016/j.dsr.2006.09.004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research+Part+I&rft.atitle=Dioxin+compounds+in+the+deep-sea+rose+shrimp+Aristeus+antennatus+%28Risso%2C+1816%29+throughout+the+Mediterranean+Sea&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1895-1906&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.dsr.2006.09.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006DSRI...53.1895R&rft.aulast=Rotllant&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Holgado%2C+A.E.&rft.au=Sarda%2C+F.&rft.au=Abalos%2C+M.&rft.au=Company%2C+J.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|last5=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUngerHarveyVadasVecchione2008" class="citation journal cs1">Unger, MA; Harvey, E.; Vadas, GG; Vecchione, M. (2008). "Persistent pollutants in nine species of deep-sea cephalopods". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 56 (8): 1486–1512. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008MarPB..56.1498U">2008MarPB..56.1498U</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2008.04.018">10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.04.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18501382">18501382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Pollution+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Persistent+pollutants+in+nine+species+of+deep-sea+cephalopods&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1486-1512&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18501382&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2008.04.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008MarPB..56.1498U&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Harvey%2C+E.&rft.au=Vadas%2C+GG&rft.au=Vecchione%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithRuhlBettBillet2009" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, K.L.; Ruhl, H.A.; Bett, B.J.; Billet, D.S.M.; Lampitt, R.S. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2780780">"Climate, carbon cycling, and deep ocean ecosystems"</a>. PNAS. 106 (46): 19211–19218. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..10619211S">2009PNAS..10619211S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0908322106">10.1073/pnas.0908322106</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2780780">2780780</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19901326">19901326</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Climate%2C+carbon+cycling%2C+and+deep+ocean+ecosystems&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=19211-19218&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2780780%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19901326&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0908322106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..10619211S&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=K.L.&rft.au=Ruhl%2C+H.A.&rft.au=Bett%2C+B.J.&rft.au=Billet%2C+D.S.M.&rft.au=Lampitt%2C+R.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2780780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrightPlumRiavitzNikolov2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bright, M.; Plum, C.; Riavitz, L. A.; Nikolov, N.; Martínez Arbizu, P.; Cordes, E. E.; Gollner, S. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2995211">"Epizooic metazoan meiobenthos associated with tubeworm and mussel aggregations from cold seeps of the Northern Gulf of Mexico"</a>. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 57 (21–23): 1982–1989. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010DSRII..57.1982B">2010DSRII..57.1982B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dsr2.2010.05.003">10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.05.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2995211">2995211</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21264038">21264038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research+Part+II%3A+Topical+Studies+in+Oceanography&rft.atitle=Epizooic+metazoan+meiobenthos+associated+with+tubeworm+and+mussel+aggregations+from+cold+seeps+of+the+Northern+Gulf+of+Mexico&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=21%E2%80%9323&rft.pages=1982-1989&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2995211%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21264038&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.dsr2.2010.05.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010DSRII..57.1982B&rft.aulast=Bright&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Plum%2C+C.&rft.au=Riavitz%2C+L.+A.&rft.au=Nikolov%2C+N.&rft.au=Mart%C3%ADnez+Arbizu%2C+P.&rft.au=Cordes%2C+E.+E.&rft.au=Gollner%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2995211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGermanRamirez-LlodraBakerTyler2011" class="citation journal cs1">German, C. R.; Ramirez-Llodra, E.; Baker, M. C.; Tyler, P. A.; the <a href="/wiki/Biogeography_of_Deep-Water_Chemosynthetic_Ecosystems" title="Biogeography of Deep-Water Chemosynthetic Ecosystems">ChEss</a> Scientific Steering Committee (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3150416">"Deep-Water Chemosynthetic Ecosystem Research during the Census of Marine Life Decade and Beyond: A Proposed Deep-Ocean Road Map"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PLoS_ONE" class="mw-redirect" title="PLoS ONE">PLoS ONE</a>. 6 (8): e23259. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLoSO...623259G">2011PLoSO...623259G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0023259">10.1371/journal.pone.0023259</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3150416">3150416</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21829722">21829722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft.atitle=Deep-Water+Chemosynthetic+Ecosystem+Research+during+the+Census+of+Marine+Life+Decade+and+Beyond%3A+A+Proposed+Deep-Ocean+Road+Map&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=e23259&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3150416%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21829722&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0023259&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PLoSO...623259G&rft.aulast=German&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft.au=Ramirez-Llodra%2C+E.&rft.au=Baker%2C+M.+C.&rft.au=Tyler%2C+P.+A.&rft.au=the+ChEss+Scientific+Steering+Committee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3150416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloydAlbertBiddleChanton2010" class="citation journal cs1">Lloyd, K. G.; Albert, D. B.; Biddle, J. F.; Chanton, J. P.; Pizarro, O.; Teske, A. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2806916">"Spatial Structure and Activity of Sedimentary Microbial Communities Underlying a Beggiatoa spp. Mat in a Gulf of Mexico Hydrocarbon Seep"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PLoS_ONE" class="mw-redirect" title="PLoS ONE">PLoS ONE</a>. 5 (1): e8738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PLoSO...5.8738L">2010PLoSO...5.8738L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0008738">10.1371/journal.pone.0008738</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2806916">2806916</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20090951">20090951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft.atitle=Spatial+Structure+and+Activity+of+Sedimentary+Microbial+Communities+Underlying+a+Beggiatoa+spp.+Mat+in+a+Gulf+of+Mexico+Hydrocarbon+Seep&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e8738&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2806916%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20090951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0008738&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PLoSO...5.8738L&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=K.+G.&rft.au=Albert%2C+D.+B.&rft.au=Biddle%2C+J.+F.&rft.au=Chanton%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Pizarro%2C+O.&rft.au=Teske%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2806916&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetaxasKelly2010" class="citation journal cs1">Metaxas, A.; Kelly, N. E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2906503">"Do Larval Supply and Recruitment Vary among Chemosynthetic Environments of the Deep Sea?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PLoS_ONE" class="mw-redirect" title="PLoS ONE">PLoS ONE</a>. 5 (7): e11646. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PLoSO...511646M">2010PLoSO...511646M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0011646">10.1371/journal.pone.0011646</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2906503">2906503</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20657831">20657831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft.atitle=Do+Larval+Supply+and+Recruitment+Vary+among+Chemosynthetic+Environments+of+the+Deep+Sea%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=e11646&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2906503%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20657831&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0011646&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PLoSO...511646M&rft.aulast=Metaxas&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Kelly%2C+N.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2906503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguezDaly2010" class="citation journal cs1">Rodríguez, E.; Daly, M. 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Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 45 (1–3): 517–567. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998DSRII..45..517S">1998DSRII..45..517S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2897%2900074-X">10.1016/S0967-0645(97)00074-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research+Part+II%3A+Topical+Studies+in+Oceanography&rft.atitle=Biogeography%2C+biodiversity+and+fluid+dependence+of+deep-sea+cold-seep+communities+at+active+and+passive+margins&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=517-567&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2897%2900074-X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998DSRII..45..517S&rft.aulast=Sibuet&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Olu%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinnHryniewiczLittleNakrem2014" class="citation journal cs1">Vinn, O.; Hryniewicz, K; Little, C.T.S.; Nakrem, H.A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269334543">"A Boreal serpulid fauna from Volgian-Ryazanian (latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous) shelf sediments and hydrocarbon seeps from Svalbard"</a>. Geodiversitas. 36 (4): 527–540. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5252%2Fg2014n4a2">10.5252/g2014n4a2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129587761">129587761</a>. Retrieved 9 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geodiversitas&rft.atitle=A+Boreal+serpulid+fauna+from+Volgian-Ryazanian+%28latest+Jurassic-earliest+Cretaceous%29+shelf+sediments+and+hydrocarbon+seeps+from+Svalbard&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=527-540&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5252%2Fg2014n4a2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129587761%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Vinn&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Hryniewicz%2C+K&rft.au=Little%2C+C.T.S.&rft.au=Nakrem%2C+H.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F269334543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinnKupriyanovaKiel2013" class="citation journal cs1">Vinn, O.; Kupriyanova, E.K.; Kiel, S. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236839205">"Serpulids (Annelida, Polychaeta) at Cretaceous to modern hydrocarbon seeps: Ecological and evolutionary patterns"</a>. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 390: 35–41. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PPP...390...35V">2013PPP...390...35V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2012.08.003">10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.08.003</a>. Retrieved 9 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=Serpulids+%28Annelida%2C+Polychaeta%29+at+Cretaceous+to+modern+hydrocarbon+seeps%3A+Ecological+and+evolutionary+patterns&rft.volume=390&rft.pages=35-41&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2012.08.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PPP...390...35V&rft.aulast=Vinn&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Kupriyanova%2C+E.K.&rft.au=Kiel%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F236839205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACold+seep" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cold_seep&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cold_seeps" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cold seeps">Cold seeps</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.whitman.edu/~yancey/califseeps.html">Paul Yancy's vents and seeps page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mbari.org/benthic/coldseeps.htm">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute's seeps page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/02/000203075002.htm">ScienceDaily News: Tubeworms in deep sea discovered to have record long life spans</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense, counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biomes" title="Template:Biomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biomes" title="Template talk:Biomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography#Biogeographic_regionalisations" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and subtropical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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