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id="toc-Polar_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contrast_between_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contrast_between_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Contrast between cells</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contrast_between_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Longitudinal_circulation_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Longitudinal_circulation_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Longitudinal circulation features</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Longitudinal_circulation_features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Longitudinal circulation features subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Longitudinal_circulation_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Walker_circulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Walker_circulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Walker circulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Walker_circulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-El_Niño_–_Southern_Oscillation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#El_Niño_–_Southern_Oscillation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>El Niño – Southern Oscillation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-El_Niño_–_Southern_Oscillation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Atmospheric circulation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A" title="دوران الغلاف الجوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دوران الغلاف الجوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3n_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Circulación atmosférica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Circulación atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfer_d%C3%B6vran%C4%B1" title="Atmosfer dövranı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atmosfer dövranı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9" title="বায়ুপ্রবাহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বায়ুপ্রবাহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3_atmosf%C3%A8rica" title="Circulació atmosfèrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Circulació atmosfèrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glob%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_cirkulace_atmosf%C3%A9ry" title="Globální cirkulace atmosféry – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Globální cirkulace atmosféry" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosf%C3%A6risk_cirkulation" title="Atmosfærisk cirkulation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Atmosfærisk cirkulation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarische_Zirkulation" title="Planetarische Zirkulation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Planetarische Zirkulation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cldine_%C3%B5huringlus" title="Üldine õhuringlus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Üldine õhuringlus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%84%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BA%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ατμοσφαιρική κυκλοφορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ατμοσφαιρική κυκλοφορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3n_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Circulación atmosférica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Circulación atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkulazio_atmosferiko" title="Zirkulazio atmosferiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zirkulazio atmosferiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B4_%D8%AC%D9%88%DB%8C" title="گردش جوی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گردش جوی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulation_atmosph%C3%A9rique" title="Circulation atmosphérique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Circulation atmosphérique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3n_xeral_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Circulación xeral atmosférica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Circulación xeral atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EA%B8%B0_%EC%88%9C%ED%99%98" title="대기 순환 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대기 순환" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A9%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%AB_%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մթնոլորտի շրջանառություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մթնոլորտի շրջանառություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirkulasi_atmosfer" title="Sirkulasi atmosfer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sirkulasi atmosfer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circolazione_atmosferica" title="Circolazione atmosferica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Circolazione atmosferica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ატმოსფეროს ცირკულაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ატმოსფეროს ცირკულაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatio_atmosphaerica" title="Circulatio atmosphaerica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Circulatio atmosphaerica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circolazion_atmosferega" title="Circolazion atmosferega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Circolazion atmosferega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Атмосферско кружење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Атмосферско кружење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Агаар мандлын эргэлт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Агаар мандлын эргэлт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosferische_circulatie" title="Atmosferische circulatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atmosferische circulatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B0%97%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0" title="大気循環 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="大気循環" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosf%C3%A6risk_sirkulasjon" title="Atmosfærisk sirkulasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Atmosfærisk sirkulasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosf%C3%A6risk_sirkulasjon" title="Atmosfærisk sirkulasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Atmosfærisk sirkulasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfera_sirkulyatsiyasi" title="Atmosfera sirkulyatsiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atmosfera sirkulyatsiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrkulacja_powietrza" title="Cyrkulacja powietrza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cyrkulacja powietrza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circula%C3%A7%C3%A3o_atmosf%C3%A9rica" title="Circulação atmosférica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Circulação atmosférica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circula%C8%9Bie_atmosferic%C4%83" title="Circulație atmosferică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Circulație atmosferică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Циркуляция атмосферы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Циркуляция атмосферы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Atmospheric circulation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarno_kro%C5%BEenje_zraka" title="Planetarno kroženje zraka – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Planetarno kroženje zraka" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Атмосферска циркулација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Атмосферска циркулација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmakeh%C3%A4n_kiertoliike" title="Ilmakehän kiertoliike – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ilmakehän kiertoliike" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosfer_d%C3%B6ng%C3%BCs%C3%BC" title="Atmosfer döngüsü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atmosfer döngüsü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Циркуляція атмосфери – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Циркуляція атмосфери" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process which distributes thermal energy about the Earth's surface</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_Global_Circulation_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Earth_Global_Circulation_-_en.svg/350px-Earth_Global_Circulation_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Earth_Global_Circulation_-_en.svg/525px-Earth_Global_Circulation_-_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Earth_Global_Circulation_-_en.svg/700px-Earth_Global_Circulation_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Idealised depiction (at <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinox</a>) of large-scale atmospheric circulation on Earth</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MeanMonthlyP.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/MeanMonthlyP.gif/350px-MeanMonthlyP.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/MeanMonthlyP.gif/525px-MeanMonthlyP.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/MeanMonthlyP.gif/700px-MeanMonthlyP.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Long-term mean <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> by month</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Atmospheric circulation</b> is the large-scale movement of <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">air</a> and together with <a href="/wiki/Ocean_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean circulation">ocean circulation</a> is the means by which <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> is redistributed on the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. The Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the large-scale structure of its circulation remains fairly constant. The smaller-scale weather systems – <a href="/wiki/Middle_latitudes" title="Middle latitudes">mid-latitude</a> <a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">depressions</a>, or tropical convective cells – occur chaotically, and long-range weather predictions of those cannot be made beyond ten days in practice, or a month in theory (see <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Butterfly_effect" title="Butterfly effect">butterfly effect</a>). </p><p>The Earth's <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a> is a consequence of its illumination by the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and the laws of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>. The atmospheric circulation can be viewed as a heat engine driven by the Sun's energy and whose <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">energy sink</a>, ultimately, is the blackness of space. The work produced by that engine causes the motion of the masses of air, and in that process it redistributes the energy absorbed by the Earth's surface near the tropics to the latitudes nearer the poles, and thence to space. </p><p>The large-scale atmospheric circulation "cells" shift polewards in warmer periods (for example, <a href="/wiki/Interglacial" title="Interglacial">interglacials</a> compared to <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">glacials</a>), but remain largely constant as they are, fundamentally, a property of the Earth's size, rotation rate, heating and atmospheric depth, all of which change little. Over very long time periods (hundreds of millions of years), a <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">tectonic uplift</a> can significantly alter their major elements, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">jet stream</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> may shift <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a>. During the extremely hot climates of the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, a third <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> belt may have existed at the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latitudinal_circulation_features">Latitudinal circulation features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Latitudinal circulation features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AtmosphCirc2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/AtmosphCirc2.png/220px-AtmosphCirc2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/AtmosphCirc2.png/330px-AtmosphCirc2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/AtmosphCirc2.png/440px-AtmosphCirc2.png 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>An idealised view of three large circulation cells showing surface winds</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png/220px-Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png/330px-Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png/440px-Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>Vertical velocity at 500 hPa, July average. Ascent (negative values; blue to violet) is concentrated close to the solar equator; descent (positive values; red to yellow) is more diffuse but also occurs mainly in the Hadley cell.</figcaption></figure> <p>The wind belts girdling the planet are organised into three cells in each hemisphere—the <a href="/wiki/Hadley_cell" title="Hadley cell">Hadley cell</a>, the Ferrel cell, and the polar cell. Those cells exist in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The vast bulk of the atmospheric motion occurs in the Hadley cell. The high pressure systems acting on the Earth's surface are balanced by the low pressure systems elsewhere. As a result, there is a balance of forces acting on the Earth's surface. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Horse_latitudes" title="Horse latitudes">horse latitudes</a> are an area of high pressure at about 30° to 35° latitude (north or south) where winds diverge into the adjacent zones of Hadley or Ferrel cells, and which typically have light winds, sunny skies, and little precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hadley_cell">Hadley cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hadley cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hadley_cell" title="Hadley cell">Hadley cell</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg/220px-IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg/330px-IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg/440px-IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2772" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/ITCZ" class="mw-redirect" title="ITCZ">ITCZ</a>'s band of clouds over the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Pacific">Eastern Pacific</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> as seen from space</figcaption></figure> <p>The atmospheric circulation pattern that <a href="/wiki/George_Hadley" title="George Hadley">George Hadley</a> described was an attempt to explain the <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a>. The Hadley cell is a closed circulation loop which begins at the equator. There, moist air is warmed by the Earth's surface, decreases in density and rises. A similar air mass rising on the other side of the equator forces those rising air masses to move poleward. The rising air creates a low pressure zone near the equator. As the air moves poleward, it cools, becomes denser, and descends at about the <a href="/wiki/30th_parallel_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="30th parallel (disambiguation)">30th parallel</a>, creating a <a href="/wiki/High-pressure_area" title="High-pressure area">high-pressure area</a>. The descended air then travels toward the equator along the surface, replacing the air that rose from the equatorial zone, closing the loop of the Hadley cell.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poleward movement of the air in the upper part of the troposphere deviates toward the east, caused by the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_acceleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis acceleration">coriolis acceleration</a>. At the ground level, however, the movement of the air toward the equator in the lower troposphere deviates toward the west, producing a wind from the east. The winds that flow to the west (from the east, easterly wind) at the ground level in the Hadley cell are called the trade winds. </p><p>Though the Hadley cell is described as located at the equator, it shifts northerly (to higher latitudes) in June and July and southerly (toward lower latitudes) in December and January, as a result of the Sun's heating of the surface. The zone where the greatest heating takes place is called the "<a href="/wiki/Thermal_equator" title="Thermal equator">thermal equator</a>". As the southern hemisphere's summer is in December to March, the movement of the thermal equator to higher southern latitudes takes place then. </p><p>The Hadley system provides an example of a thermally direct circulation. The power of the Hadley system, considered as a heat engine, is estimated at 200 tera<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RERLHadley_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RERLHadley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ferrel_cell">Ferrel cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ferrel cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Part of the air rising at 60° latitude diverges at high altitude toward the poles and creates the polar cell. The rest moves toward the equator where it collides at 30° latitude with the high-level air of the Hadley cell. There it subsides and strengthens the high pressure ridges beneath. A large part of the energy that drives the Ferrel cell is provided by the polar and Hadley cells circulating on either side, which drag the air of the Ferrel cell with it.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Climate_System:_General_Circulation_and_Climate_Zones_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Climate_System:_General_Circulation_and_Climate_Zones-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ferrel cell, theorized by <a href="/wiki/William_Ferrel" title="William Ferrel">William Ferrel</a> (1817–1891), is, therefore, a secondary circulation feature, whose existence depends upon the Hadley and polar cells on either side of it. It might be thought of as an <a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">eddy</a> created by the Hadley and polar cells. </p><p>The air of the Ferrel cell that descends at 30° latitude returns poleward at the ground level, and as it does so it deviates toward the east. In the upper atmosphere of the Ferrel cell, the air moving toward the equator deviates toward the west. Both of those deviations, as in the case of the Hadley and polar cells, are driven by conservation of angular momentum. As a result, just as the easterly Trade Winds are found below the Hadley cell, the <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">Westerlies</a> are found beneath the Ferrel cell. </p><p>The Ferrel cell is weak, because it has neither a strong source of heat nor a strong sink, so the airflow and temperatures within it are variable. For this reason, the mid-latitudes are sometimes known as the <b>"zone of mixing."</b> The Hadley and polar cells are truly closed loops, the Ferrel cell is not, and the telling point is in the Westerlies, which are more formally known as "the Prevailing Westerlies." The easterly Trade Winds and the polar easterlies have nothing over which to prevail, as their parent circulation cells are strong enough and face few obstacles either in the form of massive terrain features or high pressure zones. The weaker Westerlies of the Ferrel cell, however, can be disrupted. The local passage of a cold front may change that in a matter of minutes, and frequently does. As a result, at the surface, winds can vary abruptly in direction. But the winds above the surface, where they are less disrupted by terrain, are essentially westerly. A low pressure zone at 60° latitude that moves toward the equator, or a high pressure zone at 30° latitude that moves poleward, will accelerate the Westerlies of the Ferrel cell. A strong high, moving polewards may bring westerly winds for days. </p><p>The Ferrel system acts as a <a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">heat pump</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_performance" title="Coefficient of performance">coefficient of performance</a> of 12.1, consuming kinetic energy from the Hadley and polar systems at an approximate rate of 275 terawatts.<sup id="cite_ref-RERLHadley_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RERLHadley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polar_cell">Polar cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Polar cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Polar_vortex" title="Polar vortex">Polar vortex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_easterlies" title="Polar easterlies">Polar easterlies</a></div> <p>The <b>polar cell</b> is a simple system with strong convection drivers. Though cool and dry relative to equatorial air, the air masses at the <a href="/wiki/60th_parallel_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="60th parallel (disambiguation)">60th parallel</a> are still sufficiently warm and moist to undergo <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> and drive a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_loop" title="Thermal loop">thermal loop</a>. At the 60th parallel, the air rises to the tropopause (about 8 km at this latitude) and moves poleward. As it does so, the upper-level air mass deviates toward the east. When the air reaches the polar areas, it has cooled by radiation to space and is considerably denser than the underlying air. It descends, creating a cold, dry high-pressure area. At the polar surface level, the mass of air is driven away from the pole toward the 60th parallel, replacing the air that rose there, and the polar circulation cell is complete. As the air at the surface moves toward the equator, it deviates westwards, again as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a>. The air flows at the surface are called the polar easterlies, flowing from northeast to southwest near the north pole and from southeast to northwest near the south pole. </p><p>The outflow of air mass from the cell creates <a href="/wiki/Harmonic" title="Harmonic">harmonic waves</a> in the atmosphere known as <a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby waves</a>. These ultra-long waves determine the path of the polar <a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">jet stream</a>, which travels within the transitional zone between the <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ferrel_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrel cell">Ferrel cell</a>. By acting as a heat sink, the polar cell moves the abundant heat from the equator toward the polar regions. </p><p>The polar cell, terrain, and <a href="/wiki/Katabatic_winds" class="mw-redirect" title="Katabatic winds">katabatic winds</a> in Antarctica can create very cold conditions at the surface, for instance <a href="/wiki/Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth" title="Lowest temperature recorded on Earth">the lowest temperature recorded on Earth</a>: −89.2 °C at <a href="/wiki/Vostok_Station" title="Vostok Station">Vostok Station</a> in Antarctica, measured in 1983.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contrast_between_cells">Contrast between cells</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Contrast between cells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Hadley cell and the polar cell are similar in that they are thermally direct; in other words, they exist as a direct consequence of surface temperatures. Their thermal characteristics drive the weather in their domain. The sheer volume of energy that the Hadley cell transports, and the depth of the heat sink contained within the polar cell, ensures that transient weather phenomena not only have negligible effect on the systems as a whole, but — except under unusual circumstances — they do not form. The endless chain of passing highs and lows which is part of everyday life for mid-latitude dwellers, under the Ferrel cell at latitudes between 30 and 60° latitude, is unknown above the 60th and below the 30th parallels. There are some notable exceptions to this rule; over Europe, unstable weather extends to at least the <a href="/wiki/70th_parallel_north" title="70th parallel north">70th parallel north</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Longitudinal_circulation_features">Longitudinal circulation features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Longitudinal circulation features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diurnal_wind_change_in_coastal_area.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Diurnal_wind_change_in_coastal_area.png/400px-Diurnal_wind_change_in_coastal_area.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Diurnal_wind_change_in_coastal_area.png/600px-Diurnal_wind_change_in_coastal_area.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Diurnal_wind_change_in_coastal_area.png/800px-Diurnal_wind_change_in_coastal_area.png 2x" data-file-width="1374" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption>Diurnal wind change in local coastal area, also applies on the continental scale.</figcaption></figure> <p>While the Hadley, Ferrel, and polar cells (whose axes are oriented along parallels or latitudes) are the major features of global heat transport, they do not act alone. Temperature differences also drive a set of circulation cells, whose axes of circulation are longitudinally oriented. This atmospheric motion is known as <b>zonal overturning circulation</b>. </p><p>Latitudinal circulation is a result of the highest solar radiation per unit area (solar intensity) falling on the tropics. The solar intensity decreases as the latitude increases, reaching essentially zero at the poles. Longitudinal circulation, however, is a result of the heat capacity of water, its absorptivity, and its mixing. Water absorbs more heat than does the land, but its temperature does not rise as greatly as does the land. As a result, temperature variations on land are greater than on water. </p><p>The Hadley, Ferrel, and polar cells operate at the largest scale of thousands of kilometers (<a href="/wiki/Synoptic_scale_meteorology" title="Synoptic scale meteorology">synoptic scale</a>). The latitudinal circulation can also act on this scale of oceans and continents, and this effect is seasonal or even <a href="/wiki/Decade" title="Decade">decadal</a>. Warm air rises over the equatorial, continental, and western Pacific Ocean regions. When it reaches the tropopause, it cools and subsides in a region of relatively cooler water mass. </p><p>The Pacific Ocean cell plays a particularly important role in Earth's weather. This entirely ocean-based cell comes about as the result of a marked difference in the surface temperatures of the western and eastern Pacific. Under ordinary circumstances, the western Pacific waters are warm, and the eastern waters are cool. The process begins when strong convective activity over equatorial <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and subsiding cool air off <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>'s west coast create a wind pattern which pushes Pacific water westward and piles it up in the western Pacific. (Water levels in the western Pacific are about 60 cm higher than in the eastern Pacific.).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The daily (diurnal) longitudinal effects are at the <a href="/wiki/Mesoscale_meteorology" title="Mesoscale meteorology">mesoscale</a> (a horizontal range of 5 to several hundred kilometres). During the day, air warmed by the relatively hotter land rises, and as it does so it draws a cool breeze from the sea that replaces the risen air. At night, the relatively warmer water and cooler land reverses the process, and a breeze from the land, of air cooled by the land, is carried offshore by night. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Walker_circulation">Walker circulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Walker circulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Walker_circulation" title="Walker circulation">Walker circulation</a></div> <p>The Pacific cell is of such importance that it has been named the <b>Walker circulation</b> after <a href="/wiki/Sir_Gilbert_Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Gilbert Walker">Sir Gilbert Walker</a>, an early-20th-century director of British observatories in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, who sought a means of predicting when the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> winds of India would fail. While he was never successful in doing so, his work led him to the discovery of a link between the periodic pressure variations in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, and those between the eastern and western Pacific, which he termed the "<a href="/wiki/Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Oscillation">Southern Oscillation</a>". </p><p>The movement of air in the Walker circulation affects the loops on either side. Under normal circumstances, the weather behaves as expected. But every few years, the winters become unusually warm or unusually cold, or the frequency of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricanes</a> increases or decreases, and the pattern sets in for an indeterminate period. </p><p>The Walker Cell plays a key role in this and in the <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> phenomenon. If convective activity slows in the Western Pacific for some reason (this reason is not currently known), the climates of areas adjacent to the Western Pacific are affected. First, the upper-level westerly winds fail. This cuts off the source of returning, cool air that would normally subside at about 30° south latitude, and therefore the air returning as surface easterlies ceases. There are two consequences. Warm water ceases to surge into the eastern Pacific from the west (it was "piled" by past easterly winds) since there is no longer a surface wind to push it into the area of the east Pacific. This and the corresponding effects of the Southern Oscillation result in long-term unseasonable temperatures and precipitation patterns in North and South America, Australia, and Southeast Africa, and the disruption of ocean currents. </p><p>Meanwhile, in the Atlantic, fast-blowing upper level Westerlies of the Hadley cell form, which would ordinarily be blocked by the Walker circulation and unable to reach such intensities. These winds disrupt the tops of nascent hurricanes and greatly diminish the number which are able to reach full strength.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="El_Niño_–_Southern_Oscillation"><span id="El_Ni.C3.B1o_.E2.80.93_Southern_Oscillation"></span>El Niño – Southern Oscillation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: El Niño – Southern Oscillation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a></div> <p><i>El Niño</i> and <i>La Niña</i> are opposite surface temperature anomalies of the Southern Pacific, which heavily influence the weather on a large scale. In the case of El Niño, warm surface water approaches the coasts of South America which results in blocking the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep water. This has serious impacts on the fish populations. </p><p>In the La Niña case, the convective cell over the western Pacific strengthens inordinately, resulting in colder than normal winters in North America and a more robust cyclone season in <a href="/wiki/South-East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="South-East Asia">South-East Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Australia">Eastern Australia</a>. There is also an increased upwelling of deep cold ocean waters and more intense uprising of surface air near South America, resulting in increasing numbers of drought occurrences, although fishermen reap benefits from the more nutrient-filled eastern Pacific waters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brewer%E2%80%93Dobson_circulation" title="Brewer–Dobson circulation">Brewer–Dobson circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevailing_winds" title="Prevailing winds">Prevailing winds</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=THE+AUSTRALIAN+BASELINE+SEA+LEVEL+MONITORING+PROJECT&rft.atitle=ANNUAL+SEA+LEVEL+DATA+SUMMARY+REPORT+JULY+2005+%E2%80%93+JUNE+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Ffwo%2FIDO60202%2FIDO60202.2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtmospheric+circulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/enso/walker-circulation-ensos-atmospheric-buddy">"The Walker Circulation: ENSO's atmospheric buddy | NOAA Climate.gov"</a>. <i>www.climate.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.climate.gov&rft.atitle=The+Walker+Circulation%3A+ENSO%27s+atmospheric+buddy+%7C+NOAA+Climate.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.climate.gov%2Fnews-features%2Fblogs%2Fenso%2Fwalker-circulation-ensos-atmospheric-buddy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtmospheric+circulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_circulation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rainer.gerhards.net/2007/06/a-global-view-on-earths-cloud-circulation.html">Animation 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title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a 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title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a 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Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a 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vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a 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