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id="toc-Academic_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_scientific_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_scientific_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Major scientific contributions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_scientific_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rashevsky's_most_notable_students" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rashevsky's_most_notable_students"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Rashevsky's most notable students</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rashevsky's_most_notable_students-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_and_political_obstacles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_and_political_obstacles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Administrative and political obstacles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_and_political_obstacles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_of_Mathematical_Biology,_Inc." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_Mathematical_Biology,_Inc."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Formation of Mathematical Biology, Inc.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_Mathematical_Biology,_Inc.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_quest_for_principles_of_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_quest_for_principles_of_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Final quest for principles of biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_quest_for_principles_of_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Biography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Nicolas Rashevsky</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Rashevsky" title="Nicolas Rashevsky – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nicolas Rashevsky" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Rashevsky" title="Nicolas Rashevsky – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nicolas Rashevsky" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Rashevsky" title="Nicolas Rashevsky – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nicolas Rashevsky" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Rashevsky" title="Nicolas Rashevsky – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nicolas Rashevsky" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="نیکلاس راشوسکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیکلاس راشوسکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Rashevsky" title="Nicolas Rashevsky – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nicolas Rashevsky" 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div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Nicolas Rashevsky</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1899-11-09</span>)</span>November 9, 1899<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Chernigov" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernigov">Chernigov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> (now Chernihiv, Ukraine)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">January 16, 1972<span style="display:none">(1972-01-16)</span> (aged 72)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Holland,_Michigan" title="Holland, Michigan">Holland, Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian American">Ukrainian American</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko_National_University_of_Kyiv" title="Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv">St. Vladimir Imperial University of Kiev</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Theoretical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">Mathematical biology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_Karreman" title="George Karreman">George Karreman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosen_(theoretical_biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rosen (theoretical biologist)">Robert Rosen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Coombs" title="Clyde Coombs">Clyde Coombs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nicolas Rashevsky</b> (November 9, 1899 – January 16, 1972) was an American <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical physicist">theoretical physicist</a> who was one of the pioneers of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">mathematical biology</a>, and is also considered the father of <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">mathematical biophysics</a> and theoretical biology.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rosen_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosen-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keller_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_career">Academic career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Academic career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He studied <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko_National_University_of_Kyiv" title="Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv">St. Vladimir Imperial University of Kyiv</a>. He left Ukraine after the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, emigrating first to <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, then to <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and finally to the US in 1924.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In USA he worked at first for the <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Electric (1886)">Westinghouse</a> Research Labs in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a> where he focused on the theoretical physics modeling of the cell division and the mathematics of cell fission. </p><p>He was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship in 1934 and went to the University of Chicago to take up the appointment of assistant professor in the department of physiology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1938, inspired by reading <a href="/wiki/On_Growth_and_Form" title="On Growth and Form">On Growth and Form</a> (1917) by <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Wentworth_Thompson" title="D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson">D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson</a>, he made his first major contribution by publishing his first book on <i>Mathematical Biophysics</i>, and then in 1939 he also founded the first <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">mathematical biology</a> international journal entitled <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02558813"><i>The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i> (BMB)</a>; these two essential contributions founded the field of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">mathematical biology</a>, with the BMB journal serving as the focus of contributing mathematical biologists over the last 70 years. </p><p>During the late 1930s, Rashevsky's research group was producing papers that had difficulty publishing in other journals at the time, so Rashevsky decided to found a new journal exclusively devoted to mathematical biophysics. In January 1939, heapproached the editor of the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Psychometrika" title="Psychometrika">Psychometrika</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Leon_Thurstone" title="Louis Leon Thurstone">L.L. Thurstone</a>, and formed an agreement that the new journal, the BMB, would be published as a supplement to their quarterly issues.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_scientific_contributions">Major scientific contributions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Major scientific contributions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1938 he published one of the first books on mathematical biology and mathematical biophysics entitled: "<i>Mathematical Biophysics: Physico-Mathematical Foundations of Biology</i>." This fundamental book was eventually published in three revised editions, the last revision appearing in two volumes in 1960. It was followed in 1940 by "<i>Advances and applications of mathematical biology.</i>", and in 1947 by "<i>Mathematical theory of human relations</i>", an approach to a mathematical model of society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the same year he established the World' s first<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> PhD program in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">mathematical biology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. </p><p>In the early 1930s, Rashevsky developed the first model of <a href="/wiki/Neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural networks">neural networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was paraphrased in a Boolean context by his student <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Warren_McCulloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren McCulloch">Warren McCulloch</a>, in an article published in Rashevsky's <i>Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i> in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Pitts-McCulloch article subsequently became extremely influential for research on artificial intelligence and artificial neural networks.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His later efforts focused on the topology of biological systems, the formulation of fundamental principles in biology, relational biology, <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Propositional_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional logic">propositional logic</a> formulation of the hierarchical organization of organisms and human societies. In the second half of the 1960s, he introduced the concept of "organismic sets" that provided a unified framework for physics, biology and sociology. This was subsequently developed by other authors as <a href="/wiki/Higher-dimensional_algebra" title="Higher-dimensional algebra">organismic supercategories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Complex Systems Biology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rashevsky's_most_notable_students"><span id="Rashevsky.27s_most_notable_students"></span>Rashevsky's most notable students</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rashevsky's most notable students"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of Rashevsky's most outstanding PhD students who earned their doctorate under his supervision were: <a href="/wiki/George_Karreman" title="George Karreman">George Karreman</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbert_Daniel_Landahl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herbert Daniel Landahl (page does not exist)">Herbert Daniel Landahl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Coombs" title="Clyde Coombs">Clyde Coombs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosen_(theoretical_biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rosen (theoretical biologist)">Robert Rosen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a>. In 1948, Anatol Rapoport took over Rashevsky's course in mathematical biology, so that Rashevsky could teach <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">mathematical sociology</a> instead.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_and_political_obstacles">Administrative and political obstacles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Administrative and political obstacles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>However, his more advanced ideas and abstract relational biology concepts found little support in the beginning amongst practicing experimental or molecular biologists, although current developments in <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">complex systems biology</a> clearly follow in his footsteps.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1954 the budget for his <a href="/w/index.php?title=Committee_of_Mathematical_Biology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Committee of Mathematical Biology (page does not exist)">Committee of Mathematical Biology</a> was drastically cut; however, this was at least in part politically imposed, rather than scientifically, motivated. Thus, the subsequent <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> administration—notably represented by the genetics <a href="/wiki/Nobel_laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel laureate">Nobel laureate</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Wells_Beadle" class="mw-redirect" title="George Wells Beadle">George Wells Beadle</a>— who reversed in the 1960s the previous position and quadrupled the financial support for Rashevsky's Committee for Mathematical Biology research activities ("<i>Reminiscences of Nicolas Rashevsky</i>." by Robert Rosen, written in late 1972). </p><p>There was later however a fall out between the retiring Nicolas Rashevsky and the University of Chicago president over the successor to the Chair of the Committee of Mathematical Biology; Nicolas Rashevsky strongly supported Dr. Herbert Landahl-his first PhD student to graduate in Mathematical Biophysics, whereas the president wished to appoint a certain US biostatistician. The result was Rashevsky's move to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and his taking ownership of the well-funded "<i>Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i>".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_Mathematical_Biology,_Inc."><span id="Formation_of_Mathematical_Biology.2C_Inc."></span>Formation of Mathematical Biology, Inc.</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formation of Mathematical Biology, Inc."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He also formed in 1969 a non-profit organization, "<i>Mathematical Biology, Incorporated</i>", which was to be the precursor of <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Mathematical_Biology" title="Society for Mathematical Biology"><i>"The Society for Mathematical Biology"</i></a>, with the purpose of "<i>dissemination of information regarding Mathematical Biology</i>".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In his later years, after 1968, he became again very active in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">relational biology</a> and held, as well as Chaired, in 1970 the first international "<i>Symposium of Mathematical Biology</i>" at Toledo, Ohio, in USA with the help of his former PhD student, Dr. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Bartholomay" title="Anthony Bartholomay">Anthony Bartholomay</a>, who has become the chairman of the first Department of Mathematical Medicine at <a href="/wiki/Ohio_University" title="Ohio University">Ohio University</a>. The meeting was sponsored by <i>Mathematical Biology, Inc.</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_quest_for_principles_of_biology">Final quest for principles of biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Final quest for principles of biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rashevsky was greatly influenced and inspired both by Herbert Spencer's book on the <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Principles of Biology (1898)</a>, and also by J. H. Woodger `axiomatic (Mendelian) genetics', to launch his own search and quest for biological principles, and also to formulate mathematically precise principles and axioms of biology. He then developed his own highly original approach to address the fundamental question of <a href="/wiki/What_is_Life%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What is Life?">What is Life?</a> that another theoretical physicist, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, had asked before him from the narrower viewpoint of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a> in biology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>He wished to reach this `holy grail' of (theoretical/ mathematical) biology, but his heavy work load during the late 1960s—despite his related health problems—took its toll, and finally prevented him in 1972 from reaching his ultimate goal. Rashevsky's relational approach represents a radical departure from reductionistic approaches, and it has greatly influenced the work of his student Robert Rosen.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1917, Nicolas Rashevsky joined the White Russian Navy and in 1920 he and his wife, Countess Emily had to flee for their lives to Constantinople where he taught at the American College. In 1921 they moved to Prague where he taught both special and <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From Prague, he moved in the 1930s to Paris, France, and then to New York, Pittsburgh and Chicago, USA. His life has been dedicated to the science that he founded, Mathematical Biology, and his wife Emily was very supportive and appreciative of his scientific efforts, accompanying him at the scientific meetings that he either initiated or attended.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>He cut a tall, impressive figure with a slight Eastern European accent, but a clear voice and thought to the very day when in 1972 he died from a heart attack caused by <a href="/wiki/Coronary_Artery_Disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary Artery Disease">coronary heart disease</a>. His generosity was very well known and is often recognized in print by former associates or visitors. As the Chief Editor of BMB he had a declared policy of helping the authors to optimize their presentation of submitted papers, as well as proving many valuable suggestions to the submitting authors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>His suggested detailed changes, additions and further developments were like a real `gold mine' for the submitting authors. He managed to stay aloof of all science `politics' most of the time, even in very adverse circumstances such as those during the <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">McCarthy</a> era when completely unfounded political accusations were made about one or two members of his close research group. Not unlike another American theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, he then had much to lose for his loyal support of the wrongly accused researcher in his group.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Physico-mathematical aspects of Excitation and Conduction in Nerves., <i>Cold Springs Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology.IV: Excitation Phenomena.</i>, 1936, p.90.</li> <li><i>Mathematical Biophysics:Physico-Mathematical Foundations of Biology</i>. Univ. of Chicago Press. : Chicago Press, 1938/1948 (2nd ed.).</li> <li><i>Mathematical Theory of Human Relations: An Approach to Mathematical Biology of Social Phenomena</i>. Bloomington, ID: Principia Press, 1947/1949 (2nd ed.)</li> <li>Topology and life: In search of general mathematical principles in biology and sociology. <i>Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i> <b>16</b> (1954): 317–348.</li> <li><i>Proceedings of the International School of Physics</i> "Enrico Fermi", Course 16, <i>Physico-Mathematical Aspects of Biology</i>. : Academic Press, 1964</li> <li><i>Some Medical Aspects of Mathematical Biology.</i> Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1964</li> <li>The Representation of Organisms in Terms of Predicates, <i>Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i> <b>27</b> (1965): 477–491.</li> <li>Outline of a Unified Approach to Physics, Biology and Sociology., <i>Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i> <b>31</b> (1969): 159–198.</li> <li><i>Looking at History through Mathematics</i>, 1972</li> <li><i>Organismic Sets.</i>, William Clowes & Sons., London, Beccles and Cochester, 1972.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>This article incorporates material from Nicolas Rashevsky on <a href="/wiki/PlanetMath" title="PlanetMath">PlanetMath</a>, which is licensed under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CC-BY-SA" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:CC-BY-SA">Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License</a>.</i> The article also incorporates additional data from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100117072622/http://planetphysics.org/encyclopedia/NicolasRashevsky.html">planetphysics.org</a>; furthermore, both external entries are original, contributed objects in the public domain. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901224506/http://www1.appstate.edu/~marland/math_bio/Sunday_intro.ppt">"A Brief History of Mathematical Biology"</a>. <i>appstate.edu</i>. 2006-09-01. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.appstate.edu/~marland/math_bio/Sunday_intro.ppt">the original</a> on 2006-09-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-02-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=appstate.edu&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Mathematical+Biology&rft.date=2006-09-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.appstate.edu%2F~marland%2Fmath_bio%2FSunday_intro.ppt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicolas+Rashevsky" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.smb.org/">http://www.smb.org/</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Society_for_Mathematical_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="The Society for Mathematical Biology">The Society for Mathematical Biology</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosen-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rosen_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosen_(theoretical_biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rosen (theoretical biologist)">Robert Rosen</a> <i>Essays on Life</i> (2004)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keller-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keller_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Fox_Keller" title="Evelyn Fox Keller">Evelyn Fox Keller</a> <i>Making Sense of Life</i> pp. 82-89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham2004" class="citation journal cs1">Abraham, Tara H. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1023/B:HIST.0000038267.09413.0d">"Nicolas Rashevsky's Mathematical Biophysics"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. <b>37</b> (2): 333–385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AHIST.0000038267.09413.0d">10.1023/B:HIST.0000038267.09413.0d</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5010">0022-5010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Nicolas+Rashevsky%27s+Mathematical+Biophysics&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=333-385&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FB%3AHIST.0000038267.09413.0d&rft.issn=0022-5010&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Tara+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1023%2FB%3AHIST.0000038267.09413.0d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicolas+Rashevsky" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham2002" class="citation journal cs1">Abraham, Tara H. (2002). "(Physio)logical circuits: The intellectual origins of the McCulloch-Pitts neural networks". <i>Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences</i>. <b>38</b> (1): 3–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhbs.1094">10.1002/jhbs.1094</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5061">0022-5061</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11835218">11835218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+the+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.atitle=%28Physio%29logical+circuits%3A+The+intellectual+origins+of+the+McCulloch-Pitts+neural+networks&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-25&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0022-5061&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11835218&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjhbs.1094&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Tara+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicolas+Rashevsky" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRashevsky1936" class="citation journal cs1">Rashevsky, Nicolas (1936). "Mathematical biophysics and psychology". <i>Psychometrika</i>. <b>1</b>: 1–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02287920">10.1007/BF02287920</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143615563">143615563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychometrika&rft.atitle=Mathematical+biophysics+and+psychology&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02287920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143615563%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rashevsky&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicolas+Rashevsky" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRashevsky1938" class="citation book cs1">Rashevsky, Nicolas (1938). <i>Mathematical Biophysics: Physicomathematical Foundations Of Biology</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781258398682" title="Special:BookSources/9781258398682"><bdi>9781258398682</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Biophysics%3A+Physicomathematical+Foundations+Of+Biology&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=9781258398682&rft.aulast=Rashevsky&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicolas+Rashevsky" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCulloch, W.S., and W. Pitts (1943) A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity. Bull. Math. Biophys. <b>5</b>, 115-133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosen, Robert (2000) Essays on Life Itself. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 120-1.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham2004" class="citation journal cs1">Abraham, Tara H. (2004). "Nicolas Rashevsky's Mathematical Biophysics". <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. <b>37</b> (2). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 333–385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2Fb%3Ahist.0000038267.09413.0d">10.1023/b:hist.0000038267.09413.0d</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5010">0022-5010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Nicolas+Rashevsky%27s+Mathematical+Biophysics&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=333-385&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2Fb%3Ahist.0000038267.09413.0d&rft.issn=0022-5010&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Tara+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANicolas+Rashevsky" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bartholomay, A. F., G. Karreman and H. D. Landahl (1972). "Obituary of Nicolas Rashevsky.", <i>Bull. Math. Biophys</i>. <b>34</b>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Rosen, Robert. 1972. <b>Tribute to Nicolas Rashevsky</b> 1899–1972. <i>Progress in Theoretical Biology</i> <b>2</b>.</li> <li>Tara H. Abraham. 2004. <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>, <b>37</b>: 333–385.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://doi.org/10.1023/B:HIST.0000038267.09413.0d">[1]</a></li> <li>Rosen Robert. 1972. "<i>Reminiscences of Nicolas Rashevsky</i>", unpublished paper.</li> <li>Rosen, Robert. 1958. <b>The representation of biological systems from the standpoint of the theory of categories</b>. <i>Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</i> <b>20</b>: 317–341.</li> <li>Natural Transformations of Organismic Structures., <i>Bulletin of Mathematical Biology</i>, <b>42</b>: 431–446, Baianu, I.C.: 1980.</li> <li>Elsasser, M.W.: 1981, A Form of Logic Suited for Biology., In: Robert, Rosen, ed., <i>Progress in Theoretical Biology</i>, Volume 6, Academic Press, New York and London, pp 23–62.</li> <li>Rosen, Robert. 1985. The physics of complexity. <i>Systems Research</i> <b>2</b>: 171–175.</li> <li>Rosen, Robert. 1985. Organisms as causal systems which are not mechanisms. In R. Rosen, <i>Theoretical Biology and Complexity</i>, 165–203.</li> <li>Rosen, Robert. 1979. Biology and system theory: An overview. In Klir, <i>Proceedings of the System Theory Conference — Applied General Systems Research</i>,</li> <li>Rosen, Robert. 1977. Complexity as a system property. International <i>Journal of General Systems</i> 3: 227–232.</li> <li>Rosen, Robert. 1977. Complexity and system description. In Hartnett, <i>Systems</i>, 169–175.</li> <li>Rosen, R. 1973. A unified approach to physics, biology, and sociology. In Rosen, <i>Foundations of Mathematical Biology</i>, 177–190.</li> <li>Rosen, R. 1972.<b>Quantum genetics</b>. In R. Rosen, <i>Foundations of Mathematical Biology</i>, 215–252.</li> <li>Rosen, R. 1972. Morphogenesis. In Rosen, Foundations of Mathematical Biology, 1–77.</li> <li>Rosen, R. 1972. Mechanics of epigenetic control. In R. Rosen, <i>Foundations of Mathematical Biology</i>, 79–140.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Rashevsky&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/a/OL2010564A/Nicolas-Rashevsky">Books by Rashevsky</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02558813">The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02476609">Rashevsky's theory of <b>two-factor systems</b> for neural networks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.RASHEVSKYN">Guide to the Nicolas Rashevsky Papers 1920-1972</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110820035">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/109467441">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/123518/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJtCBj8F78pWCvqTKqvbVC">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/124148271">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n83828782">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Rashevsky, Nicolas <1899-1972>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/SBLV082392">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20030144662&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071591591">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810691309205606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007277239805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=127578">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:rashevsky.nicolas">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/145085">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd124148271.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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